The burning issue of efficacy of drug enforcement laws as a means to reduce crime has received much concern from the media and the public. In his paper, Shepard and Blackley have analyzed data from 62 counties of NY State for the years 1996-2000. Data analyzed included arrest figures for crimes such as assault, burglary, larceny and robbery. By correlating the data with different models, the authors did not find any relation with increase in drug arrests and reduction in crime. The authors have questioned the attitude of law enforcement agencies that claim that by increasing figures of drug arrests, other crimes would be reduced. Obviously, there is some gap in the thinking of law enforcers.
Shepard (p. 324) points out that after President Nixon declared the war on drugs and banned drugs such as cocaine, marijuana, heroin and amphetamines, the US government uses 2/3rd of the federal budget on enforcing drug control policies. By 2002, the government had spent 12 billion USD and arrested 2 million offenders, increasing the penalties. The disproportionate allotment of budget has neither reduced drug trafficking nor drug consumption while budgets for other services such as the National Research Council have been curtailed and the government cannot perform a cost benefit analysis of the spending. To correlate their data and findings, the authors have used different econometric models such as the microeconomic analysis of crime control and drug policies (p. 328).
Main body
These econometric models were applied to a crimes variables such as assault, robbery, burglary, larceny, hard drug sales, hard drug possession, marijuana sales and were measured on a scale of 1000 arrests per variable. For better correlation, the variables were measured along with the unemployment rate percentage and population density to obtain the sample mean and standard deviation. The data reveled crimes that occurred more frequently and after applying the fixed effects models, a pattern emerged. According to Shepard (p. 337), crime rate fell when unemployment percentages were reduced but there were no determinants to show that crimes reduced because of increase in the number of arrests. The authors conclude that there has to be more funding for research into effectiveness of law enforcement policies.
A report by the National Research Council (NAS, 29 March, 2001), laments the same problem about insufficient allotment of budget for research into effectiveness of policy enforcement. According to the report, the country does not have the required data system and the infrastructure to carry out research to find out how effective drug control and enforcement policies have been. The system seems to be blindly allotting budget and there is no o find if money is being used by agencies that need it the most. Moreover, there is no effort to reduce consumption of drugs, find out why people take to drugs, and understand the social forces that make people take up such habits. There is also very little effort to understand how the drugs supply chain operates and how much drugs are actually consumed. Law enforcement agencies only rely on the seized quantities and there is no reliable estimate on how much contraband enters the market undetected.
Conclusion
A reading of the two texts shows that US law enforcement agencies are more interested in punishing the offenders rather than preventing the need for such crimes. With high allocation of budget for law enforcers, there is little research done to find out how effective the crime fighters are. The whole approach seems intent on deterrence rather than prevention and urgent reforms are needed in the way the policies are framed, implemented and reviewed by the senate. This does not mean that law enforcers should stop arresting offenders or that they are not efficient. The two articles just point out the need to urgently shift the perspective to meet the objective of reducing drug consumption and not increasing arrests.
Shepard,Edward, M. Drug Enforcement and Crime: Recent Evidence from New York State: Southwestern Social Science Association. Social Science Quarterly. Volume 86, Number 2, 2005.
It is pathetic to realize that as people evolve, so do crimes. At present, crimes which were unheard of before are now becoming commonplace. The changing morals, coupled with the advances in technology have made some crimes so sophisticated and more difficult to detect. Crimes of fraud, sex crimes against women and children, money laundering as well as those involving high tech equipment, etc. are becoming more intimidating for crime prevention experts.
Being a woman in today’s society can be complicated due to the different standards and values held by society that evolved through the years. Some men continue to see women as the weaker sex and treat women without respect. Society puts double standards that certain roles and expectations confuse women of their equality with men. Women are expected to be great homemakers, since that is where society has stationed them to be, while at the same time, they are expected to perform excellently in the workforce, however, they are not given the same privilege and treatment as men. They have to work doubly hard just to prove that they are worthy of being equal to their male counterparts.
Complex issues about the status and welfare of women have arisen and for some, have proven to be highly controversial. Among these issues are violence against women and their victimization in various harassing situations. Crimes such as Rape leave deep-seated wounds that scar women for a very long time. Such a devastating experience may be the root of a woman’s Post Traumatic Stress Disorder which may cripple her thinking, management of emotions and daily functioning.
Problem to be addressed: Violence Against Women
A prevalent issue in society is domestic violence. It is ironic that for some women, the assumed safety of the home is non-existent, as the home is the setting where she is at her most vulnerable point, and where she is most in danger of being abused. Young People and Domestic Violence Report of the Commonwealth Government define domestic violence as:
“the unacceptable use of physical (including sexual) force to control or coerce. In terms of criminological analysis and crime prevention strategies, this definition focuses on tangible behaviour that is recognizable in the criminal law and familiar to law enforcement agencies. However, this core definition needs to be placed within the context of a broader definition: violence (physical, sexual, psychological, financial) where a ‘domestic’ relationship exists between the victim and the perpetrator” (NCP, 2001, p. 3)
Getting to the Root of the Problem
There are identified factors that are likely to predict a victim’s vulnerability such as educational attainment, labour force status, main source of income and prior adult violence. Also, reporting an incidence of violence committed against them and use of support services for victims were less likely for women with certain characteristics or life experiences.
In order to prevent such violence, crime prevention specialists need to understand its underlying causes and assure acceptance of the victims to support them personally. Preventive strategies may be designed together with the victims themselves. Clancey and Moore (2008) suggest that domestic violence prevention strategies should reflect the following: consideration of socioeconomic marginalization in providing support for violence and educative programs that include positive parenting; engagement of peers in reinforcing beliefs about violence; programs should be research-based and multifaceted to reflect various roles of class, gender, community, culture, family/ individual circumstances affecting the prevention strategy. It should also reflect the influence on behavior of limitations and attitudes.
Analysis
As mentioned, domestic violence is a crime that usually goes unreported. Many reasons behind this include: the victim considering the violence a private and personal matter and would be of no use for others outside the circle to know. The victim may be afraid of retaliation from the offender. This is especially true if the perpetrator is a family member, and the victim usually chooses to just suffer consequences of the abuse instead of compromising the personal relationship with the perpetrator. The victim may also believe that the police would do nothing about. She may question the magnanimity of her case, as it may not be so important to merit a report. Some violence will not leave an injury, and for some victims this does not constitute seriousness that require reporting to the proper authorities. If sexual assault was involved, the victim may be too embarrassed to report such an “intimate” act if perpetrated by someone she is in a relationship with (Coumarelos & Allen, 1999).
A study by Ehlers, et al (1998) studied how women painfully relive their rape episodes with overwhelming negative emotions. They usually realize that during the experience, their disempowerment by their assailant caused them to vacillate between “mental planning” and “mental defeat”. One coping strategy during the rape experience is “mentally planning in one’s mind about what she might be able to do to minimize physical or psychological harm just to make the experience tolerable or to influence the behavior of the assailant” (Ehlers, et al, 1998, p. 461) On the other hand, “mental defeat refers to the victim’s perception that she gave up in her own mind and was completely defeated” (Ehlers, et al. 1998, p. 461). The study provides evidence of mental defeat of some rape victims such as: “her description of feeling completely at the will of the assailant, her description that she lost the sense of being a person with her own will, statements that she did not feel like a human being any longer, her wish/acceptance that she was dying, or a sexual response during the rape which she perceived as defeat.” (p.461). Imagine such agonizing thoughts haunting the victim every single day -thoughts that render the victim unable to fulfill her usual tasks and leave her helpless in pursuing a normal lifestyle. These are blatant symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress syndrome (PTSD). One implication of the study is that the relationship between mental planning and treatment outcomes of women undergoing PTSD reflects the role of perceived uncontrollability which is a crucial variable in determining the aversiveness of a negative event (e.g., Foa et al., 1989; Foa, Zinbarg, & Rothbaum, 1992; Mineka, 1985 as mentioned in the study of Ehlers et al, 1998). “Mental planning can be understood as attempts to exert control over the situation (see also Burgess & Holmstrom, 1976), even if the control was minimal or symbolic, such as a victim not wanting to show the rapist that she was crying. Lack of mental planning may therefore reflect the patients’ perception that the situation is totally uncontrollable. However, mental defeat may go beyond uncontrollability.” (Ehlers et al, 1998, p. 467) Disempowerment is the direct consequence of such a life-changing negative experience.
Proposed Social Program: Crime Prevention & Intervention Strategies for Women Victims
Van Dijk & De Waard (1991) define crime prevention as “the total of all private initiatives and state policies, other than the enforcement of criminal law, aimed at the reduction of damage caused by acts defined as criminal by the state” (p. 483). This definition paints a picture of cooperation between agencies in the pursuit of lower crime rates.
“Every crime requires three ingredients: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardians” (Graycar & Grabosky, 2002, p. 7). Having identified those, bring more focus to the objectives of crime prevention. Obviously, what needs to be done is to reduce, if not extinguish motivation for prospective offenders and making crime more difficult to commit. That is the challenge for crime fighters. Negative forces that aim to inflict harm on our fellowmen whether covertly or discreetly need to be anticipated. Agencies involved must become a step ahead of criminal minds to thwart their evil plans in forming new crimes. Together with the government’s regulatory controls, agencies networked with the proposed social program need to cooperate with each other to efficiently and effectively prevent and deter criminality (Graycar & Grabosky, 2002).
Prevention strategies need to be customized to a special target or client group (ex. adolescents, housewives, etc.) applying to age and gender groups as well as cultural groups. This proposal identifies women as the special target group. Homel (1999) points out two key approaches in domestic violence prevention namely Criminal justice and community based approaches.
“Criminal justice responses include: police initiatives such as mandatory arrest and alarms and pre-programmed mobile phones; court-based violence prevention orders; and the ‘Dulith’ model, which combines legal coercion with support for victims and education and rehabilitation for offenders.
“Community-based approaches include: assertiveness training and empowerment techniques for victims; holistic, ‘healing processes’ in indigenous communities; shelters and follow-up support for victims; children’s access programs that provide facilities for the safe hand over of children; and education programs for violent men.” (Homel, 1999, p.346)
It is evident from the above that a multi-agency approach is best upheld to help support women from violence. The stakeholders of such an approach include women, their children, if any, and the agencies concerned. The criminal justice approach is more publicized, involving the police and the legal department. The community-based approaches draw women to resources found in their community to empower them as women. Assertiveness and self-defence trainings may be held at local centres, and these may be publicized for more and more women to join.
Educational training for women constitutes a great role in crime prevention programs. It was pointed out that victims have apprehensions to even report her abuse. That is why it would be useful to standardize the types of violence and its categorization as private, minor or major enough to be reported. Victims’ needs should likewise be identified and determined if these can be met through the current criminal justice system and existing victim services.
Of course, the victims’ immediate needs take priority. If crimes against women are not prevented, then intervention efforts must be effected to remedy the damage, if possible. Should she sustain injuries, then medical attention is provided. If psychological intervention is necessary, then the agency in charge should provide. Services to recover from an assault must be disseminated among the women in the community not only to prevent future problems but more importantly to be offered for the victims’ personal refuge and healing.
The other standard crime prevention strategies applicable to other crimes that are of more or less in degree should also apply to crimes against women. Streets should be adequately well-lighted, a community watch should be enforced among members of the community, liquor and drugs should be sold discriminately, and dissemination of information about respecting women and the consequences of crimes against them must be campaigned in schools and community events.
Financial Aspect
Every new program necessitates finances. The proposed social program is soliciting support from the local government to allot some funding for it since it would greatly benefit a lot of its constituents. It would heighten awareness on crime prevention and the rights of women.
Apart from the government, a non-government organization involved with the welfare of women and children may also be tapped to allot funding for this project. Fund raisings and benefit projects will likewise be raised by prominent women in society to show their support for the worthy cause of this project. Donations of goods and services shall also be solicited from organizations directly related to the cause.
For the particular program proposed, the following items are included in the monthly budget. The following “skeleton” budget represents basic expenses expected for a start-up program. All items are estimated amounts and my change depending on inflation rates:
Venue Rental
The venue should have facilities for a reception area, an office of the administrator, an open room for training sessions for women (empowerment and self-defense training), a small counselling room, 2 toilets, 1 bathroom, and a minimum of 2 bedrooms for temporary housing of victims, if they should need it)
Salaries
Administrator
(oversees the operations of the program; networks with different agencies involved against crime prevention for women; accepts cases of women victims; schedules training, therapy sessions and court hearings for victims; follows up on policies necessary for the crime prevention for women)
Social Workers
(deals with women victims and their families by providing training and counselling sessions; follows up on various individuals/ organizations concerns regarding the rights of the victims; checks and updates records of victims)
Clerks
(manages files of the program, victims, does bookkeeping of the operations; manages office supplies)
Aides
(assists social workers; maintains the safety, security and cleanliness of the venue; manages cleaning/ kitchen supplies necessary in the operations; prepares meals for the staff/victims)
Utilities
(electricity, water, gas, telephone & other communication bills)
Flow of funds will be documented well and be readily available to stakeholders. Bank accounts will be named after the social project with the project head and the sponsoring organisation representative as signatories. Financial reports will be furnished to stakeholders at the end of every quarter.
Staffing
Highly competent and personable staff with unquestionable integrity and strength of character shall be selected to run the project. Their performance will be appraised constantly by stakeholders to ensure that quality of service is sustained throughout the project.
It takes so much commitment and dedication to be an effective worker in such a social program, not to mention the skills and knowledge one must possess in order to carry out his or her job well. However, such high regard given to their wisdom by clients must not go to his or her head. “It is therefore most important that the social worker should maintain an appropriate distance and indicates to the client the limits on any possibilities of assistance: the social worker cannot do everything, has limited time available, and so on. At the same time, there is a never-say-die attitude necessary, and all possibilities that may offer a perspective on the future are examined together with the client, however limited they may be. This attitude also serves to protect the social workers themselves, who otherwise run the risks of themselves being dragged into the delusion that they are able to solve all the client’s problems.” (Van Nijnatten, 2006, p. 140). Social workers must be wary of this messianic belief as it may overwhelm them into thinking they are all-important, and may develop an attitude of superiority. They must always keep in mind that they belong to the human service profession and not in any way involved in their own ego-boosting.
Evaluation & Conclusion
The success of the proposed Social Program for the Management of Crimes Against Women lies on the outcome of the participants after undergoing it. Their active and relevant participation in all aspects of the program is one measure of the program’s effectiveness. Women will become more confident in protecting themselves. As for the victims of crime, coming out as empowered women after undergoing training and counseling will help them in easing back to their normal lives after the trauma.
As for the rest of the community, the obvious result of lessened, if not eradicated crimes against women will definitely spell success in the project’s attempt to sustain peace and order in society.
References
Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1976). Coping behavior of the rape victim. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 413-418.
Coumarelos, C & Allen, J (1999), ‘Predicting women’s responses to violence: The 1996 Women’s Safety Survey, in Crime and Justice Bulletin. Contemporary Issues in Crime and Justice, No. 47, NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, Sydney, pp. 1-22.
Ehlers, A.,. Clark, D. M., Dunmore, Jaycox, L., Meadows, E. and Foa, E.B (1998) “Predicting Response to Exposure Treatment in PTSD: The Role of Mental Defeat and Alienation.”, Journal of Traumatic Stress, Vol. 11, No. 3.
Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1989). Behavioral/cognitive conceptualizations of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 155-176.
Foa, E. B., Zinbarg, R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 218-238.
Graycar, A & Grabosky, P. (2002) ‘Trends in Australian crime and criminal justice’, in The Cambridge handbook of Australian criminology, eds A.
Graycar & P Grabosky, Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, pp. 7-26.
Homel, R (1999), ‘Domestic violence’, in Preventing violence: A review of the literature on violence and violence prevention, A report prepared for the Crime Prevention Division of the NSW Attorney General’s Department, Sydney, pp. 346‑381.
Mineka, S. (1985). Animal models of anxiety-based disorders. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 199-244). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Van Dijk, J & De Waard, J. (1991), ‘A two-dimensional typology of crime prevention projects’, Criminal Justice Abstracts, 483.
Van Nijnatten, C. (2006) “Finding the words: social work from a developmental perspective” Journal of Social Work Practice Vol. 20, No. 2006, pp. 133–144.
Mental conditions that tend to warp a person’s psychological processes (for example, cognitive and emotional ones) can result in deviant behavior and crimes. Nowadays, psychologists recognize a number of such conditions ranging from disorders that can cause youth delinquency to severe psychoses that make people lose the connection to reality, which can result in most violent crimes. A person who suffers from such a condition can be considered not guilty because of insanity (NGRI) if at the moment of the offense their psychological state prevented them from understanding that they were committing a wrongdoing (Siegel, 2015). This verdict is not very common: according to 2010 Annual Recidivism Report, 9% of the inmates that had been released five years prior suffered from severe mental issues including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (Byron, 2014, para. 9). These people did not receive the NGRI verdict (or any professional aid for that matter), but the usage of insanity pleas is understandable: it is a chance for a wrongdoer to receive help instead of punishment.
An example of a failed insanity defense strategy is the case of Lisa Montgomery, which is rather controversial. In 2007, Lisa killed Bobbie Jo Stinnett by strangling her with a rope and then cutting her eight-month baby out of her womb. She kidnapped the girl and pretended that it was her child: she had been faking a pregnancy for the past months. She got acquainted with Bobbie Jo in an Internet community and befriended her by sharing the information about this faked pregnancy. Before that, Lisa had had a miscarriage, which probably explains her motives. Montgomery’s defense claimed that the woman had pseudocyesis, a severe psychosis that distorted her perception of reality and made her believe that she had been pregnant with the baby. The defense also argued that the woman had been sexually abused as a child, which lead to her illness. The pseudocyesis diagnosis was not confirmed during the cross-examination, and the woman was sentenced to death. Her certiorari petition was denied (US v. Montgomery, 2011).
Death sentences are a controversial topic, and it is especially rare for female offenders to be sentenced to death. Given the careful planning of Lisa’s crime that required several months of lying, searching for the victim, and befriending her, it is more likely that she could understand what she was doing. She arranged the meeting with Bobbie Jo while being fully aware of her pregnancy and with the intent of kidnapping the child. Her blurry and fluctuating stories were not convincing and indicated that she was lying; apart from that, her actions were outrageous. It is most probable that Lisa Montgomery did have mental issues of a kind and did need help, but there is only a particular extent, to which insanity can serve as a mitigating factor. According to the results of the cross-examination, Lisa did not have problems with perceiving reality: at the moment of the crime, she knew that she was killing a woman to cut the child out of her body. Therefore, she couldn’t receive NGRI. Possibly, if her crime were less grave, her mental issues could have served as a mitigating factor, but in this case, it could not help her.
Naturally, people with mental disorders need to receive treatment and professional help: it is not only just and proper, but it is also in the best interests of the society as it serves to reduce crime. Indeed, according to the research carried out by Jeremy Coid, a psychiatrist from St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in London, repeated offenses were almost 60% less common among forensic patients than among released inmates with mental disorders (Byron, 2014). Still, while it is difficult to deny that mental disorders are a mitigating factor, they have never been an excuse for a crime. They do not provide any moral right to commit a crime, which is why mentioning mental issues at court needs to be justified, and it cannot automatically grant the sentence of acquittal.
Biological science, specifically forensic pathology, has become an important tool in civil and criminal investigations due to its ability to determine the cause of death of an individual (Naples et al. 2010, 162). It helps to determine how a person died, what were the exact causes and to determine whether foul play was involved in the death (Naples et al. 2010, 162).
It is a branch of science that has actually gained popularity within recent years as a result of the hit television series “CSI: Crime Scene Investigations” which has glamorized the job of a forensic pathologist and has created the general notion that most crimes can be resolved by forensic pathologists should the proper evidence be obtained.
Modern technology along with constantly innovating techniques in forensic investigation have resulted in a plethora of concepts, methods and frameworks from which a forensic pathologist can draw on in order to solve a case. The role of forensic investigators goes beyond merely analyzing and solving a case but rather acts as a method of crime reduction through which the guilty are put behind bars to safeguard the rest of society.
DNA Analysis
Perpetrators of violent crimes have a tendency for leaving DNA evidence behind resulting in their subsequent capture once the trace amounts of DNA are examined. Murders, rapists and other violent criminals always seem to believe that there would be no possible method for investigators to trace them if they do not leave anything behind at the crime scene.
What they fail to take into account is the fact that there is no such thing as the perfect crime and that one way or another some form of evidence is left behind. This can come in the form of skin scrappings located under the victims fingernails, bite marks on the suspects body, pieces of hair, dried semen or even eyelashes can be used as possible samples for DNA analysis in order to catch criminals.
The U.S. alone has one of the most extensive criminal DNA databases in the world where all it would take is the click of a button to compare a DNA sample today with one taken years ago when a person was arrested (Gabriel et al. 2010, 396). This has resulted in drastic drop in the amount of violent criminals that have been allowed to go free due to lack of evidence which as a result keeps the society safe.
Fingerprint Analysis
The human fingerprint is a unique identifying mark that can connect an individual to a scene of a crime resulting in their subsequent arrest should it be proven that they were the perpetrators of the act itself. Most criminals seem to be unaware of is the fact that virtually any surface can hold an imprint of a human fingerprint for a certain length of time. This is due to the fact that the hands of all individuals secret a combination of oil and sweat that when combined form a thin layer covering the hand.
When pressed upon a surface this thin layer is subsequently transferred on the surface itself resulting in fingerprint. Not only have new fingerprint detection methods been invented but the subsequent automation of fingerprint detection systems means that it is now far easier and faster to compare fingerprint records from a crime scene with those from an individual that has been arrested for a violent crime (Dias and Dingeman 2004, 22).
Cause of Death Analysis
Autopsy techniques have advanced to such a degree that they can determine the time and cause of death and in the case of foul play what particular type of weapon or poison was used to kill a person (Chapter 4 2004, 56).
Catching criminals is not always a case of finding DNA evidence or fingerprints, premeditated crimes often involve careful planning and subterfuge in order to fool forensic investigators and police detectives alike into believing a crime was committed by someone else other than the perpetrator in their midst. It is up to forensic investigators to examine the cause of death of the victim and compare it to the story given by various suspects at the scene in order to determine who the perpetrator of the crime really is.
Reference List
Chapter Four. 2005. Examining the Body. Pathology 56. EBSCOhost .
Gabriel, Matthew and others. 2010. Beyond the Cold Hit Measuring the Impact of the National DNA Data Bank on Public Safety at the City and County Level. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 38, no. 2: 396-411.
Naples, Virginia and others. 2010. A Skeleton Tells Its Own Story Forensic
Analyses of Skeletal Elements for the Science Classroom Laboratory. American Biology Teacher 72, no. 3: 162-171.
In every given country in the world, there are set rules and regulations that have been set to control and regulate the activities of individuals. This is done to protect the rights and properties of individuals and the state. Crime is an act that results from the breach of these laws (Cote, 2002). For an action to amount to crime, there has to be a breach of law followed by the administration of punishment by the state to the accused. There are a number of factors behind any criminal activity. It is due to this fact that several theories have been advanced to determine the nature, extent, cause and impacts of crime to an individual and the society at large. In this respect therefore, this paper shall focus on murder, analyze several theories that can be used to describe this crime and finally conclude on the importance of theories in criminology.
The Crime
On the night of October 28th 1993, Willie Earl Pondexter, His cousin, James Lee Henderson and two other men broke into the house of Martha Lennox in Clarksville, Texas. Once inside the house, the men climb up the stairs to Marthas room. Having ransacked the house, taken money from her purse and the car keys, they commence on a game of who has the guts to shoot her dead. Henderson took the gun first and shot Martha on her head. She died instantly. Henderson gave Willie the gun who shot Martha through the jaw.
The United States of America has one of the highest homicide rates in the world. However, this rate is declining. In 1991, the homicide rate in USA was 9.8 per 100,000 but this has declined to 4.2 per 100,000 by 2010. In about one third of these crimes, the relationship between the victim and the offender was not determined, 14% were acquaintances and 15% were spouses. This crime has had severe impact in the United States and other countries in the world.
Rational Choice Theory
Rational choice theory is one of the theories that fall under the bracket of individual theories of crime. In rational choice theory, it is believed that when an individual commits a crime, he/she weighs the costs and risks that he/she may go through versus the benefits that he/she will get after committing a crime (Cote, 2002). In this case, Willie and his friends broke into Marthas house, stole money from her purse and ran away with her car. Therefore, from a rational point of view, they benefited from the car and money they got from her purse.
Trait Theory
In trait theory, it is believed that the harsh treatment, punishment and brutality that individuals get at a young age may lead them into committing violent crimes in future (Cote, 2002). As a child, Willie would be punished by his mother for wrongdoing by being scalded with hot coffee. Such a punishment may instil affect his psychology and mental stability hence leading him to commit violent crimes, this being one of them.
Social Structure Theory
In this theory, an individual may turn into crime as a result of the impact that he/she has received from the community (Cote, 2002). Social strain is one of the theories under this bracket. According to this theory, individuals within a society tend to live according to the mainstream culture that in most times is associated with wealth and prosperity (Cote, 2002). However, there are those who will not achieve this dream thus to survive they may join gangs, do drugs and be involved in other social ills. Willie, coming from a poor home was brought up in a gang related neighbourhood. This may have led him into becoming a member of these groups and hence committing the crime.
Conclusion
The theory that best describes this crime is the social strain theory. The fact that Willie, come from a broken home, a dangerous neighbourhood and dropped out of school created a conducive environment for him to join gangs and ultimately committing the crime. This case study thus proves that the application of theories is essential in criminology as it gives one an idea of what may have led someone to commit a crime. Thus, it is essential for the for the justice system to check the background of an individual involved in such crimes.
Reference
Cote, S. (2002). Criminology Theories: Bridging the Past and the Future. London: Sage
The Volstead Act (Merriman, 2007, p. 280) was created to enforce the 18th Constitutional Amendment, which created the situation commonly known under the umbrella term of prohibition. The main idea of the Act was to ban the production, distribution, and consumption of alcohol. Although the initial idea of this initiative had been positive, aiming at improving the nation’s health and culture, the reality turned out to be less adequate. Different criminal structures took advantage of the situation and started to make big money from selling alcohol and organizing places for its consumption. The Act shaped the culture of the 1920s and changed the relationships between politicians and criminal leaders. For instance, the famous bootlegger Al Capone built a network of speakeasies and alcohol trade channels. He controlled the majority of production sites in the USA. However, he managed to do his business due to bribes that he offered to governmental representatives. This scheme illustrates how the politicians were receiving profit from organized crime structures.
The Cupola
American mafia implemented the organizational structure first introduced in Sicilia and known as the Cupola. It consisted of so-called bosses, who were representing their families. A total of 5 bosses made up the institution (Lupo, 2009, p. 19). The reason for such an initiative is evident since every organized criminal structure needs leaders to govern, protect, and share the zones of influence. However, the organization did not achieve its primary goals due to regular conflicts of power between the members of the institution. It is not surprising that their aim to control the financial flows in the whole country was not satisfied. Although the influence of the mafia in both Italy and the USA was great, it could not shape the local economy to suit their interests.
Drug Trafficking
Organized criminal structures are responsible for the huge development of drug trafficking. Production and distribution of narcotics is a very complicated process. It takes a lot of secrecy to obtain and prepare the required materials, yet publicity is needed to find customers. Organized crime supports this process by making it easier. There are stable supply chains that resemble a real business. Unlike single dealers who first synthesize and then try to sell their product, these structures have a huge market and are sometimes covered by officials like the police. Drug trafficking also affects organized crime. Since it is a business with huge profits, it is a matter of interest of all organized criminal groups. Moreover, conflicts over controlling the drug market sometimes turn into wars that shape the national security situation.
The Future
In my opinion, organized crime is something that will always have a place in the world. Considering actions as illegal is only dictated by the current laws. For instance, slavery today is illegal globally, yet it was an acceptable practice in the past. Many people wish to receive huge profits without being subject to laws they do not agree with. Money matters the most in organized crime, and it can influence even those people who are meant to control it. As long as corruption is a common thing in the world, this type of activity will dominate the shadow economics. With the trend of globalization and the spread of the Internet, it is quite likely that the next business area added to the sphere of interests of organized crime could be the informational technologies and data safety.
Works Cited
Lupo, S. (2009). History of the Mafia. (A. Shugaar, Trans.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Merriman, S. A. (2007). Religion and the law in America: An encyclopedia of personal belief and public policy (Vol. 1). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
James Q. Wilson and George Kelling in 1982 established that efforts targeted at controlling minor disorders could help reduce more serious crime. White James Emery (2001) established in their research over the past decades three key areas in the US which are Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles have embraced at least some tenet of the suppositions and theoretical positions of the research that established that the tolerance of minor disorders leads to the proliferation of more serious crimes and disorders.
The broken windows theory addresses the first puzzle of the neighborhood-effects literature in a straightforward and provocative way: it is the variation in disorder in neighborhoods that explains the variation in crime, holding structural disadvantage constant. The real trigger is disorderliness itself. The theory was familiar to psychologists and sociologists because of its proximity to theories of urban decay and social contagion. Urban sociologists interpreted the broken windows hypothesis through the lens of urban decline: disorderliness, dilapidation, abandonment, and social disorder, such as prostitution, public intoxication, and drug use, reflected and reinforced, in a cyclical manner, declining property values, residential instability, and the gradual decay of the urban neighborhood.
A closely related interpretation is suggested by Philip Cook and Kristin Goss’s review of the standard model of ‘social contagion’. Bratton started initiated a program of zero-tolerance in which the NYPD From this contagion perspective, the broken windows phenomenon reflects an information cascade: people with imperfect information about the risks and rewards of criminal activity may infer the net returns to crime from the social environment. Information limitations are at the heart of the information cascade model. Here, the potential criminals do not know the probability of being detected in a neighborhood, but the lack of enforcement of minor crime and disorder fills this void and signals low enforcement. The characteristics of the local physical environment, which are themselves the product of the accumulated series of behaviors of local residents, thus communicate the statistical likelihood of being apprehended. They are a signaling mechanism that feeds into the calculus of whether to commit a crime. “This “contagion” interpretation offers a straightforward explanation of broken windows familiar to most sociologists and economists” (Hier, 2007).
As to the second puzzle concerning the public policy prescriptions. Wilson and Kelling’s original Broken Windows essay itself did not compel a particular policy outcome. From a policy perspective, the broken windows hypothesis is, in principle, consistent with a variety of potential policy levers, ranging from changes in policing to community organizing. Nevertheless, most policymakers seem to have understood the theory as implying what has come to be known as “broken windows policing” also known as “order-maintenance,” “zero-tolerance,” or “quality-of-life” policing. So for instance, in their 2001 study, George Kelling and William Sousa suggest that the most effective way to address disorder and reduce crime is to increase the number of misdemeanor arrests (Feldman, 2006).
“When Wilson and Kelling proposed the theory of broken windows in the early 1980s many academic researchers were skeptical about the ability of police activities to reduce crime” (White, 2005). Since that time, a new body of empirical literature has, in my view convincingly, demonstrated that increased police spending does indeed reduce crime and that targeting police resources against the highest-crime “hot spots” can also help prevent criminal activity. The key scientific and policy question behind the Kelling analysis is thus whether asking police to focus on minor disorder crimes, as in broken windows policing, yields more pronounced reductions in violent crime than does having police focus on violent crimes directly. The analysis provides no empirical evidence to support the view that shifting police towards minor disorder offenses would improve the efficiency of police spending and reduce violent crime.
Theory Statement of relationship or cause and effect
The underlying theory is that the small bad habit tolerated can lead to the proliferation of more serious crime. The theory focuses on human psychology particularly the way individuals are likely to behave in particular settings characterized by the presence of some disorderliness. By extension, the theoretical assumptions are therefore that an elimination of small disorders like littering, leaving dirty cutlery on in sinks, etc can help in eth elimination of more serious disorders or crimes.
Hypothesis
The hypothesis in the Kelling research is that eradicating minor disorders can help to get rid of or reduce serious disorders or serious crimes. Disorders in the premise of Kelling’s research denote any anti-social conduct or behavior such as the throwing of litter, urinating in public and any other forms of conduct which are normality neither unacceptable nor expected.
Procedure or Methodology Describe the steps taken to sample behavior
The classical application of the broken windows theory was done in New York City, and the outcomes were evaluated against the goals and objectives of the application, the implementation was a resounding success in preventing crime, an irrelevant policy, or an invasion of individuals rights. In 1993, Rudy Giuliani was elected and installed as mayor of New York City-based on his “get tough on crime” platform. The mayor hired William Bratton as the police chief. Bratton, who was heavily influenced by George Kelling, applied the principles of broken windows theory” (Murray, 2002). The application of the principles entailed cracking down on minor crimes and disorderliness in a bid to create a feasible template for the eradication of bigger crimes.
“A friend of mine who lived in New York City at that time even saw police telling people they could not sit on milk crates on the sidewalk apparently that was against the law as well” (Short, 2006).
Results
After the implementation of the principles almost immediately rates of both petty and grave crimes dived significantly. In the first year alone, “murders were down 19% and car thefts fell by 15%, and crime continued to drop every year for the following ten years” (Short, 2006). Can it then be advanced the implementation of the broken windows theory an unqualified success? Over the same course, o time crime stats showed a significant decrease in major cities which had not embraced the broken window theory. Crime levels went down the country over and much of the progress in the fight against crime has been attributed to window policy.
The crack eon of the early 1980s was diminishing as there were also fewer people in the youth’s age range which accounted for much crime. Similarly, the outcomes experienced in New York City did not come from novel policing approaches. “Other critics argue that regardless of the effectiveness of broken windows, it was too costly in terms of individual rights” (Levine, 2005).
Discussion
The implementation of broken windows theoretical thrust; with its enthusiasm for fighting crime generated unacceptable police conduct. Nevertheless, the outcomes in New York City were satisfactorily interesting as various police divisions around the country have embraced the principles of broken windows theory. Researcher Kelling’s theory has its name derived from the observation that a few broken windows in an empty building quickly may influence human behavior to lead to more broken window panes, more vandalism, and in the long run; break-ins. The propensity for persons to act in certain ways can be reinforced or waned based on what they observe others be doing. This is not an implication that the persons will ape bad behavior exactly; for instance, reaching for a spray can when they see graffiti. “Rather, says Dr. Keizer, it can foster the “violation” of other norms of behavior.
Behavior Change
State the Problem
The statement of the problem entails that humans find it easy to litter or exude uncleanliness habits when the environment they are in is not clean itself. The core of the problem focus is on that person are will most likely litter a shelter if they find it littered.
Research hypotheses
The core hypothesis of the behavioral change thrust is to test the application of the implications of the outcomes of the testing of the broken windows theory as seen in the foregoing study. From the conceptual corpus of the foregoing components that have outlined the merits and demerits as well as other attributes and dynamics of the Broken Window Theory, the Broken Window Theory will be used to observe human behavior. The aim is to establish how humans behave within a set of certain variables. The Sub-hypothesis leveraged on the core supposition is that the appropriated application theory in societal crime-fighting stratagems will contribute significantly to the creation of more peaceful societies. These variables will be tested in an experimentation simulation which will entail the test methodologies, outcomes, and the discussion of outcomes and their implications.
Methodology
The testing design is tailored to establish how many times a bus stop shelter will be littered out of the presence of 100 subjects. What is being tested here is the supposition that the number of people who will litter the shelter will be more when the subjects find the shelter already littered than when subjects find the shelter without any litter. The testing for the shelter condition variable will entail the cleaning up of the shelter every time gets littered so that the conduct of subjects can be differentiated and evaluated.
The quantitative research thrust will make use of randomly selected subjects (males and females) to carry the research aimed at establishing whether the curtailing and curbing of curtailing of small crimes do have an impact on the eradication of more serious crimes forms. It is also important to mention that subjects were of different age ranges from teenage to adult. The manipulated variable was the condition of the shelter which was subject to subjects as either lean or littered to establish if the condition of the shelter had any direct and established impact on the conduct of the subjects.
Results
Results indicated that the frequency of littering is remarkably high in cases where subjects found the shelter littered while also showing the frequency of littering is significantly low when subjects find the shelter clear. The rationale of the testing design was to attest to the notion that minute negative forms of conduct have a ramifying impact. This has substantiated the core tenet of the broken window theory which holds that if uncontrolled; small crimes are likely to lead to more serious forms of crime.
The results have shown that when the bus stop shelter was littered 76% of the subjects dropped some litter around the shelter. The figure is against the comparatively low mark of 37% littering instances when the subjects found the shelter clean.
It is notable that when the shelter was littered 24 subjects did drop any litter, also when the shelter was clean 63% of the subject did not drop any litter.
Discussion
It is apparent from the results of the experimentations that the broken window theory holds water. James Q Wilson and George Kelling probably did not expect to trigger a massive policy shift of colossal socio-political consequences when they wrote an article for Atlantic Monthly in 1982 entitled ‘Broken windows: the police and neighborhood safety’. When asked in January 2004 whether the broken windows theory had ever been empirically verified, James Q. Wilson reportedly told the New York Times: “People have not understood that this was a speculation” (Greenberg, 2007). The theory was not based on empirical data, Wilson emphasized. “We made an assumption that a deteriorating quality of life caused the crime rate to go up” (Gladwell, 2002). As to whether that assumption is right, Wilson stated: “I still to this day do not know if improving order will or will not reduce crime” (Greenberg, 2007). As Wilson noted in a different interview, “God knows what the truth is. ” Yet understanding the ability of a broken windows policy to affect disorder and crime is important for both legal and scientific purposes. The notion that broken windows policing might reduce crime is plausible because many of the behavioral mechanisms underlying this policing strategy are at least in principle consistent with existing models of social contagion.
The results of the study are in tandem with a long tradition within socio-legal research of studying visual cues of neighborhood disorder and exploring the relationship between those neighborhood characteristics and deviance. Prompted by a recurring observation of dramatic variations in crime rates across neighborhoods, the tradition grew over decades of research taking seriously the idea that there may be “neighborhood effects” on the production of crime. That is, arrangements in social space may significantly affect human behavior. This research tradition traced importantly to the early Chicago School of sociology – the monographs on neighborhoods and spatial settings, the Jewish ghetto, the Italian “slum,” the Near Northside of Chicago, taxi-dance halls, and brothels and to the later social inter-actionist research of Erving Goff man, especially his study Behavior in Public Places, and others such as Albert Cohen and Jane Jacobs.
One of the most striking findings from the neighborhood effects research comes from the dramatic differences across neighborhoods in rates of crime and delinquency even across neighborhoods with similar concentrations of social disadvantage as measured by average rates of poverty, unemployment, familial and residential instability, and dependence on government benefit programs. Robert Sampson and Stephen R trace the rich intellectual history and the variations over time in neighborhood-effects research in their thorough paper, Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces” (Greenberg, 2007).
References
Leonard C. “Citizens Without Shelter: Homelessness, Democracy, And Political Exclusion”, Cornell University Press (2006), ISBN: 100801472903.
Gladwell, Malcolm “The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference”, Back Bay Books (2002). ISBN: 100316346624
Hier, Sean and Greenberg, Joshua “The Surveillance Studies Reader”, Open University Press (2007), ISBN: 100335220266
Legates, R. “The City Reader”, Routledge (2003), ISBN: 139780415271721
Levine, Michael “Broken Windows, Broken Business: How the Smallest Remedies Reap the Biggest Rewards”, Business Plus (2005), ISBN: 100446576786
Murray, James T. and Marla “Broken Windows: Graffiti NYC”, Gingko Press (2002), ISBN: 101584230789
Short, John Rennie “Urban Theory: A Critical Assessment”, Palgrave Macmillan (2006), ISBN: 101403906599
White, James Emery “Serious Times: Making Your Life Matter in an Urgent Day”, InterVarsity Press (2005), ISBN: 100830833803
Mass killings have riddled the American society for decades. Reasons for the mass murders have been different, but one thing many of such crimes have in common is the impact of social structures on the involved perpetrators. Gun control laws have been in the spotlight each time such crimes have been committed. With the public growing anxious every day waiting for the next incident of mass murders, the government has been under pressure to identify potential perpetrators before they commit the act. One such incident was the Isle Vista, California mass murders, homicide, and suicide enacted by Elliot Rodger, a university student. The story broke headlines all over the world with Rodger being described as a mentally unstable young individual with difficulties socializing with his peers. There is hardly any scientific evidence that supports a link between mental health and crime. However, intentions to kill and hurt his peers were premeditated making them hate crime.
Introduction
The case dubbed Isla Vista mass killings was of a suicidal male individual who killed six people, excluding himself, and injured fourteen others. This essay analyzes the events, and the murders, and debates on whether the killings should be considered hate crime or not.
Overview of the case
Isla Vista in California will forever remember the 23rd day of May 2014. It was the day when Elliot Rodger committed suicide after killing six other people and injuring fourteen others (Brown, 2015). It is interesting to note that the rampage by Rodgers did not occur in one particular location, but it was a series of events. According to police records, Rodgers started on the murdering spree from his apartment, where he stabbed and killed three individuals. He went on to kill to other people at a sorority house and killed the last person at a local deli. It was revealed that Rodger had uploaded a video on popular site YouTube before he started killing his victims. The said video dubbed “Elliot Rodger’s Retribution” gives details on how he planned to make his other attacks and the reasons why he would kill his victims. Rodger clearly stated that his main reason was the rejection he had often received from women and the enjoyable life his male colleagues enjoyed that he did not enjoy, arguably due to the rejection. The police released detailed information on the chronological occurrence of the events. The order of events showed that Rodger had prepared adequately for the attacks, meaning that they were premeditated.
The police explained that they had to investigate a total of seventeen different crime scenes to come up with the said chronological order of events (Pickert, 2014). Rodger had started by killing his friends and roommates, and it was the relationship he had with the first three victims that allowed them to trust him enough for him to get close and stab them multiple times. Evidence showed that the three had been killed at different times, and then dragged to Rodgers apartment, where they were later found by the police. It was after this that he uploaded a video, and sent out a letter detailing his intentions before he made his way to the sorority house, where he shot two ladies dead and injured a third one (Overland, 2015). He then went on a rampage shooting and firing at people and even hitting them with his car before he finally killed himself.
After the incident, the case received a lot of attention from the community, media, government and the judicial system. The act was termed ‘senseless murder’ even though some professionals argue that Rodger was mentally sick at the time he committed the crime (Jonsson, 2014). Hughes (2014) observes that Congress went ahead and passed House Resolution 608, referred to as Condemning the senseless rampage and mass shooting that took place in Isla Vista, California, on Friday, May 23, 2014.
It is prudent to point out that the events that led to the killings, and also the act of killing other people due to personal issues, had an impact on the debate over gun control in America. Nagourney et al. (2014) explain that the debate on gun control has been taking shape for several decades. Historically, Rodgers is not the first person to attack other people due to personal grievances, thereby leading some people to argue that restrictions to gun owning by regular citizens would have saved the lives of many of the people who have been killed in such incidences.
Background of the perpetrator
The perpetrator was born in England, but his parents had to move, due to undisclosed reasons, when he was still young. They then relocated to the Los Angeles. His parents are well off, career-wise, and they probably had more than enough wealth. Rodger came from a line of famous men, with a successful father working as a filmmaker and an even more prosperous grandfather who worked as a photojournalist.
It is important to state that Rodger changed schools a lot. The reasons for the constant change in schools were not disclosed. By the time of the killings and suicide, Rodger had been in Isla Vista for three years as a student. The parents of the perpetrator were shoved into the limelight after the horrid activities of their son. They were divorced, and some analysts used this fact to explain the mental imbalance of Rodger. It was revealed that his parents tried to intervene and stop the rampage, but Rodger could not hear any of it. Even though many blamed parenting on the behavior of the young man, the country was in agreement that they had done all they possibly could to stop their son from committing the crimes he committed.
As mentioned, many people believed that Rodger acted the way he did due to a mental condition. Some people argued that Rodger had thought through his actions for a long time. Therefore, he did not act the way he did due to the influence of a mental illness. Regardless, it was revealed that even though there was no medical cause for concern over mental illness, Rodgers parents had taken him to several treatment processes to deal with mental problems. Overland (2015) explains that his parents explained that their son had refused to continue with the treatments once he became an adult under the law.
Rodger was described as a significantly bright young man, with a bright future. His main problem was his poor socializing skills. He had male friends, but they were few. Two of the males found dead in Rodger’s apartment were his roommates, who shared one room, as Rodger resided in the other room. It is, therefore, precise to assume that the three become friends only because they were living together, and that the two who Rodger killed had a much closer friendship compared to that which they enjoyed with Rodger. The one other friend that Rodger killed was probably more famous than Rodger and received more attention from the opposite sex compared to Rodger.
Despite the constant analysis of Rodger, a mentally ill individual, this essay will argue that his actions were not caused by a typical mental condition, but rather a developed and deep hatred for social structures that the perpetrator had developed over the years. Indeed, his parent’s separation could be one of the reasons as it might have shaped how the young man viewed the world, himself and others, but most of the blame should be laid on Rodger himself, and not to other people that were around him at that time.
Main body
Etiology
Elliot Rodger murdered six people, injured fourteen others and then killed himself due to hate. Several theories can be used to prove this premise right. Two of such theories are strain theory and social control theory.
Strain theory
Patchin and Hinduja (2011) explain that the strain theory suggests that social structures can at times pressure individuals to commit crimes. The theory can be used to explain the predicaments that fell on Rodger and his family. The first issue of concern when analyzing Rodger’s behavior is his upbringing. According to Thompson (2014), even though Rodger must have been suffering from mental instability, his actions were not out of a common mental illness like paranoia. The psychologist explains that Rodgers problem began long before he was an adult by having parents that tried to shield him from every single thing that would hurt him. In turn, he grew up incapable of handling pain and feelings of pain, and it is this inability to handle emotional pain that led him to murder the seven individuals, including himself.
In this sense, his parents instilled in him a weak characteristic, for lack of a better term. He could not handle being rejected, and this was the primary cause of his outburst. Ideally, his main query was with the female species, as they are the ones that rejected him. He only attacked and killed male colleagues because he felt they were too much competition, and that they had something he did not have. Even though it was not well stated, it can be rightfully assumed that Rodger had been rejected several times by women he had an interest in. It, however, does not mean that other women did not show any interest in him. Realistically, this is normal for any man and woman looking for a relation. However, due to the weakened ideas that Rodger had, that he cannot be hurt, and also has to get what he wants, he became bitter and angry towards the women.
Initially, the attack on the women targeted ladies from a sorority house he termed in his video “the hottest sorority house”. One can assume that he had an interest in a lady, or ladies from that specific house, who had rejected him, thus, his anger towards them (Nagourney et al. 2014). Similarly, one can also assume that he targeted that particular sorority as it represented, or was a symbol of the type of ladies he could not have. Regardless of this, one clear thing is that he did it out of anger.
Baron (2007) explains that the anomie theory, which is a branch of the strain theory, states that people who are not satisfied with the options and conditions in their lives choose deviance, and other similar techniques, as a deficient coping mechanism. Using the anomie theory, one can, thus, argue that Rodger’s actions were a gender-based hate crime. McDevitt, Levin & Bennett (2002) Walters (2011) both agree that such kinds of crimes are driven by retaliation. The idea passed through Rodgers video and manifesto is that he had been a good guy, and was now tired of that and wanted revenge for all the bad things that had happened to him.
Rodgers appears to blame the victims for his actions. He explains that it was because of the rejection, and other male colleagues were enjoying better sexual lives than he did that led him to do what he did. He feels entitled, and that he had no choice but to kill and injure the people he hurt, including himself. It can be argued that Rodger realized what he had done, and felt guilty, and that is why he had killed himself. However, analyzing his suicide in this light would mean that he was not aware of his actions before, and this is not the case.
Social control theory
The second theory that can be used to analyze Rodger’s behavior is the social control theory. Hirschi (1969) explains that the social control theory states that a criminal gets involved in crime due to the idea that the society is controlling him or her, and social bonds are broken. Just like the strain theory, the social control theory also heavily beats down on the parenting skills used.
The first thing that comes to mind in this analysis is the attachment Rodger had to his parents and himself. Growing up, it appears he was only attached to his parents, he had very few friends and was almost always isolated. As a young man, from a considerable well off family, he spent much of his tie studying and with his close family members. The idea that he was mainly isolated can be used to argue that he was mentally unstable. Similarly, it can be used to explain his anti-social behaviors and tough time making friends. It can also be argued that as he grew up, the poor interaction skills also affected his relationship with his parents. It was revealed that Rodger had been planning the attacks for approximately one year. During this time, the people he interacted with and did not try to kill were his family members. At the time of the killings, his parents tried to stop his activities, but he refused to listen to them showing how deviant he had become.
The social control theory is also enhanced by the idea that the perpetrator was not committed to anything before the attack. Clarke (2014) explains that he had dropped out from his university a year or so back before the killings. There has been a lack of evidence showing that he was involved in any other activities. Apart from spending too much time on his laptop and uploading videos on YouTube, he appears to be always on his own. It is crucial to point out that his family had notified the police of his worrying behavior long before the killings. The police had even questioned him based on his uploaded videos online. The police concluded that he was a shy and timid young man, but did not suspect him to be mentally sick. The analysis from the police can be criticized in two ways. The first, is the inadequacy in the grilling, which let go of a young man full of hate, and is potentially dangerous. The second way is the skill that Rodger had harnessed to pretend that everything was okay, to the level of convincing other people that he was ‘normal’ when in fact he was not.
Jonsson (2014) also explains that Rodger appeared to dislike and disagree with social norms. The deviance towards the society shows that to him, social bonds no longer existed. From his uploaded videos, Rodger claimed that he preferred racial discrimination over racial equality. This is interesting to note, because his mother would have been considered a minority if racial bias was put into perspective. Rodger explicitly declares in his videos his loathe for racial minorities. Perhaps he had a problem with his mother reacting the way that he did? It can be argued that Rodger also saw his mother being rejected by his father, who went ahead a d remarried after their divorce. Circumstances for his parents’ divorce were not revealed but from an outsider’s point of view it would appear that his father moved on with his life, and started a new family while his mother did not. Rodger, therefore, felt more inclined to his mother since he had been rejected by the opposite gender as well. His father represented the male species that was enjoying social life more than him. By looking at his parents in this manner, Rodger proves that he had no social bonds by the time of the killings.
Rejected theories and explanations
Two theories can be used to analyze the relationship between Rodger’s mental health and his behaviors. The two theories are the biosocial criminology theory and the labeling theory.
Biosocial criminology
Walsh and Beaver (2008) argue that no evidence links mental health to criminal activity even though many people, and the judicial system, use mental instability as reasons for crime. Skeem et al. (2014) agree with this premise stating that some people are mentally unstable, but cannot commit a crime and no scientific evidence has been presented so far to support the link between the two mentioned variables.
In discussing Rodger’s case using this ideology, one can argue that his rampage had nothing to do with his mental health. In his manifesto, Rodger reveals that he was angered by couples that appeared to be having fun, especially those that would be affectionate in public. He states that he attacked a couple in a local coffee shop, pouring hot coffee on them when he saw them kissing. He adds that he ran off feeling excited about the whole ordeal.
The fact that Rodger had planned the ordeal for almost one year also makes it impossible to tie them to a mental instability issue, or rather, a common mental instability issue. The premeditation of the activities that led to the writing of a 137-page manifesto, and the smaller attacks he had propagated early rule out the possibility of temporary insanity in the case.
Zimmer (2014) agrees that Rodger was not temporarily insane, but that he had been insane for a long time before he committed the heinous crime. Biosocial criminology also rejects this premise by stating that if the mental illness manifested itself at an earlier age, a criminal would have had a pattern of crimes of the same magnitude. For Rodger, even though he had offenses, they were not of the same magnitude as the killing of the seven individuals, including himself.
Labelling theory
Pittaro (2007) explains that the labelling theory states that identity is defined and shaped by terms that are used in description. Rodger highlights several such descriptions. For example, in his manifesto, he claims that his former roommate was a “nerd” therefore, they were easy to deal with. By defining his previous roommates as nerds, Rodger ideally meant that they were quiet and did not like to party, thereby, could not be seen as better than him. The roommates he killed, and their friend, were different as they would have parties without him. In addition, the three young men were all Asian, making them ‘minorities’. As mentioned, Rodger had clearly stated that he did not like minorities.
Lilly et al. (2014) argue that labelling theory has been used to show hatred towards women (misogyny). In this sense, the word ‘woman’ is used as a label. Rodger was, therefore, a misogynist. After reading his manifesto, one will note that initially, he had an intense obsession with blonde women. In fact, of the three women he had shot, two had blonde hair. To him, the label ‘blonde woman’ was the ideal woman and since they rejected him. He believed that all women were against him. He felt that he was better than other men that the ladies he was attracted to preferred, calling them egoistic brats.
It is in line with the two theories that the premise that the Isle Vista killings were hate crimes stands. In his last video uploaded on YouTube, Rodger says “I hate all of you; humanity is a deprived disgusting species.” He was aware of the hatred he felt towards other people. He even explains that his anger was due to not fitting in socially.
Prediction and prevention
After the events that took place on the gloomy day of 24th May 2014 in Isle Vista, California, one question that was on everyone’s mind was the prediction and prevention of the events. Two main angles can be analyzed when discussing prediction and prevention. The first is the parents and friends. When asked if they had foreseen anything that would have suggested Rodger’s actions, his parents said they had not. They knew that he was disturbed, but not to the extent of killing other people and himself (Decker, 2014). In the same breath, his former roommate stated that he knew something was wrong with Rodger, and it was due to this that he decided to move out of their shared apartment. Also, his former roommate explained that when he heard what Rodger had done, he was not surprised (Kim, 2014). By stating this, it denotes the likeability of worrying activities that eventually led to the attack.
The second angle of looking at the prediction and prevention possibility is by analyzing Rodger’s interaction with the police. Rodger had interacted on numerous occasions with the police. On one occasion, which he describes in his manifesto, he explains that he lied to the police, and since they did not have any evidence, they let him go. He appears pleased with the fact that the police could not pin him down to any particular crime, and in his words, make him the alpha male.
Regardless of whether this particular killing spree would have been prevented or not, one thing is clear. Society had to come up with policies that help in quick identification of mass murderers. Pittaro (2007) explains that the social control theory can be used as a guideline for implementing social policies of crime identification. The identification would be made possible by first identifying individuals who do not fit into any social circle. Rodger would have been easily identified through the social control theory. He was an ‘outsider’ in almost all social contexts. He did not go out to have fun, and when he did, he did not mingle. According to Rodger, other people despised him. However, Lovett et al. (2014) who analyzed Rodger’s manifesto explain that Rodger himself did not appear eager to join in. He kept to himself for the parties and also kept to himself whenever his roommates went out. The scholar explains that in campus life, socialization is crucial. By keeping to himself, and using labels to pick the kind of girls he has to date, Rodger made his campus life that much difficult.
The strain theory can also be used in analyzing the prediction and prevention of Rodger’s killings. Patchin and Hinduja, (2011) explain that removal of tensions in socialization can affect the behavior of an individual. In the case of Rodger, the strain that would have been removed would involve secondary socialization. He would have been taught how to interact with other people, who are not his family. If socialization were done properly, Rodger would not have felt as alone as he did, in turn, he would have felt like the world, and women, in particular, had something against him.
Recommended Criminal Justice Responses
Practically, the theories that have been suggested cannot be employed in the criminal and judicial system. The main reason for this is their descriptive nature. However, the theories can be used for prevention and rehabilitation purposes. Despite this, the social control theory offers the best guidelines of possible punishments for the crime committed. The social control theory encourages the use of punishment as negative reinforcement of social norms. In the same way, the fact that good acts are rewarded, harmful or wrong acts should be punished. Up to this point, the ideal punishment for the crimes committed by Rodger cannot be defined. The confusion comes in the fact that his mental stability is still under question.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Elliot Rodger’s misconducts against humanity were a form of hate crime. The young college student was affected by his poor socialization skills that ensured he had no friends, let alone girlfriends. His anger had been spewing over a period, as he planned his revenge plot. Rodger murdered seven people, including himself, and injured fourteen others, in his revenge plot. After killing three young male adults in his apartment, he uploaded a disturbing video on YouTube and sent a 137-page manifesto of his life to his family, friends, and doctors. He then went ahead to kill and injure other students before turning the gun on himself. The extent of Rodger’s anger was so great that he explains in his video that humanity is disgusting, and he hates everyone. In his manifesto, he claimed that he hated minorities. This is interesting because the three male students he killed in his apartment were all Asians, making them minorities in a racial preview. It is, therefore, arguable that he killed the men due to their racial characteristics. It is prudent to mention that Rodger’s mother can be considered a minority as well, and so is Rodger in some aspect. By hating minorities, he hated a part of himself that he could not change.
The hate crime is also manifested in his killing of women. Some analysts have described Rodger as misogynist. Regardless of this, Rodger explains that he hates women because they rejected him. Analysts have explained that Rodger had an obsession with women with blonde hair. The labeling of such women as the most beautiful, and the idea that he (Rodger) deserved the most beautiful women made him angry when they did not pay attention to him. Two of the three women he attacked had blonde hair. Rodger’s anger towards men was due to jealousy, as he saw other men get something he deeply desired.
Several theories can be used to analyze the Isle Vista killings. Two theories that can be used are the strain theory and the social control theory. Using the strain theory, it can be argued that Rodger felt pressured by social structures to act and react the way he did. He was pressured to make friends, pressured to have a girlfriend and also pressured to act in some way to be socially acceptable. Since he did not know how to do these things, he reacted in the worst way possible. The second theory mentioned is the social control theory which emphasizes on broken social bonds. Rodger was not committed to any social bond. Indeed, the bond of family was broken when his parents separated. Even though Rodger does not explicitly state that his parents’ separation affected him. It is arguable that he did, due to his feelings of inadequacy. The case of Elliot Rodger is tragic and has been blamed on gun control laws in the country. However, it goes past gun control and into the foundation of the socialization process that is culture bound. His hatred spewed from ideas that he was different and could not fit in due to his difference.
References
Baron, S.W. (2007). Street youth, gender, financial strain, and crime: Exploring Broidy and Agnew’s extension to general strain theory. Deviant Behavior, 28(3), 273-302.
Brown, B. (2015). Isla Vista mass murder, May 23, 2014: Investigative summary. Web.
Clarke, K. (2014). Outrage Again. America, 210(20), 31.
Decker, D. (2014). In the aftermath of Isla Vista. Ms, 24(3), 26-29.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkley, CA: University of California Press.
Hughes, S. (2014). Isla Vista rampage reanimates debate over Mental-Health Bill. Wall Street Journal (Online). p. 1.
Jonsson, P. (2014). Isla Vista drive-by mass murder premeditated in troubling YouTube video. Christian Science Monitor. p. N.PAG.
Lovett, I., Nagourney, A., Kimiya, S., Kettmann, M., Feuer, A., Nassivera, J., &… Beachy, S. C. (2014). Deadly rampage in College Town after video rant. (Cover story). New York Times. pp. 1-16.
Kim, R. (2014). New mass murder, old lesson. Nation, 298(26), 10-11.
McDevitt, J., Levin, J., & Bennett, S. (2002). Hate crime offenders: An expanded typology. Journal of Social Issues, 58(2), 303–317.
Nagourney, A., Goode, E., Nagourney, A., Goode, E., Lovett, I., Stout, H., & Preston, J. (2014). Limits to law and information sharing, despite gunman’s danger signs. New York Times. p. A14.
Patchin, J.W., & Hinduja, S. (2011). Traditional and nontraditional bullying among youth: A test of general strain theory. Youth and Society, 43(2), 727–751.
Statement of Vindication. (2015). Overland, (220), 11-18.
Skeem, J., Peterson, J.K., Kennealy, P., Bray, B., & Zvonkovic, A. (2014). How often and how consistently do symptoms directly precede criminal behavior among offenders with mental illness? Law and Human Behavior, 38(5), 439–449.
Pickert, K. (2014). A Murderous Spree. Time, 183(22), 14.
Pittaro, M.L. (2007). School violence and social control theory: An evaluation of the Columbine massacre. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 2(1), 1–12.
Walsh, A., & Beaver, K.M. (2008). Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. New York, NY: Routledge.
Walters, M.A. (2011). A general theories of hate crime? Strain, doing difference and self-control. Critical Criminology, 19(4), 313–330.
Zimmer, B. (2014, May 31). Misogyny: Does It Mean Hate or Bias? Wall Street Journal – Eastern Edition. p. C4.
White-collar crimes generally are of a commercial nature and occur in a business setup. The perpetrators of this crime are primarily motivated by financial gains, which define this form of crime. White-collar crimes are innumerable; however, the common ones include fraud, insider trading, embezzlement, computer crimes, copyright infringement, forgery, bribery, corruption, tax evasion, money laundering, and many other dishonest business schemes. Sutherland (1949) observes that “white-collar crimes are crimes committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation” (p.8). Since the offenders are professionals and people of high standing in society, they are intelligent, confident, affluent, and can conceal their criminal activities for relatively long from the law enforcers.
A Secret Crime
White-collar crimes do not get police attention and are less obvious because the perpetrators occupy executive offices; they, therefore, incorporate legitimate behavior with criminal pursuits. White-collar crimes are very complex because they involve sophisticated players and complex transactions (Shover & Wright, 2000, p.65). Perhaps, this crime finds a shield in the commerce culture of confidentiality. Confidential information is only in the hands of a few persons who may, in turn, use this privacy to fraud. White-collar crimes are distinct from blue-collar street crimes such as arson, burglary, theft assault, vandalism, and rape among others. Somehow, white-collar crimes receive little attention from the law enforcers as opposed to the high alertness for other crimes. The drive to engage in blue-collar crimes is attributed to psychological, associational, and structural factors. On the other hand, white-collar criminals are opportunists who take advantage of their position in society to fraud.
France’s Société Générale Bank scandal
Jerome Kerviel, a 31-year-old low-level securities trader is the mastermind behind the infamous Societe Generale Bank scandal in France. He planned and executed his plans with so much expertise that he managed to rake in billions of dollars in the process without anyone raising alarm over the issues. Jerome engaged in unauthorized security trades worth billions of dollars, which were far more than the bank’s market capitalization. He carried his transactions through his veil fake emails for customers’ missing trades and his colleagues’ accounts whose log-in details he secretly obtained. The scandal surfaced when the company could not trace the customers’ emails purporting missing trades in their archives. The case got management’s attention leading to the prompt closure of his trading account. As a result, there was a three-day beginning January 21, 2008, drop-in equity indices, which left the bank with over $ 7 billion losses.
In the scandal, Kerviel was found guilty of three charges: forgery, trust violation, and computer misuse. The scandal of this scale would have not happened through simple techniques used by Kerviel had the company not taken its eyes off the ball. The weaknesses that existed were pure management, poor risk management, and weak internal accounting controls. In rebuilding its corporate image, the bank invested around €130 million in controls (Clark & Jolly 2008). Following the scandal, Kerviel was banned from trading in securities.
The société générale scandal was a wake-up call to investment banks on the gravity of insider threat. First, it revealed the need to establish controls around individuals for easy monitoring. In Kerviel’s case, he circumvented the bank’s security management system with a skill he had acquired while in the bank. He also made use of accounts whose owners had long ceased being employees of the bank; the so-called orphaned accounts. Further weaknesses stand out conspicuously in the inability of the bank to control access by employees.
Conclusion
As aforementioned, White-collar crimes are numerous and pose complex challenges because they are committed with high skill and legitimacy by the office. White-collar crimes can have far-reaching consequences to the organization and the financial markets at large. Thus, the need to create laws and mechanisms to litigate its effects cannot be over-emphasized.
The criminal justice system continues to be besieged as the society is questioning the ultimate solution to the increased crime rates in the world today. Despite the fact that, prisons have been overcrowded with criminal of all categories, the crime rates have seemed to be also on the increase (Navarro, 2007).
For this reason, the widespread question is, can the current trends in technology bring necessary changes in fighting crime? The fact is that, emergence of information technology has contributed to increase in crime rates but however, it has also enabled the criminal justice to fight against crime in a big way.
In this era of globalization, investigation of the criminal activities and elaborative discovery of the happenings to this topic of crime is very hard without integration of the scientific and technological phenomenon and the general application of information technology.
There are three major issues in the assessment of the crime and technology which will form the basis of our argument in this research paper; the level of information technology that is used by the law enforcement officers in reducing crime, the technology that is being used by the criminals gangs, and the level of control or monitoring administered to the use of technology such as computer by the criminals (Martin, 2005).
It is no doubt that information technology is a influencing factor or tool leading to more rampant criminal activities although on the other hand it has also created a good avenue that is being used as a tool of fighting all criminal activities across the globe. For a broader understanding, we shall discuss how information technology has contributed to increase in crime while on the other hand, we shall also review how information technology has spear headed the fight against crime.
Information technology as a tool that facilitates in the fight against crime
Since the emergence of information technology, the advanced technology has served as a tool of enforcing the law by enhancing security measures through producing of electronic cards, developing of databases, generation of automated data cards used for banks transactions, an elaborative search engine for internal and external affairs and hence ensuring that criminals do not get an easy access to such system especially to institutions such as the bank which needs high level of security( Maguire, Morgan, and Reiner, 2007).
Through the high level of technological and changes, there has been a lot of progress that enables flexible ways to trace or monitor different activities executed by different people across the globe. Such case can be explained by observing the well developed FBI system that enables investigative officers to monitor activities of different criminals communities by having a first hand experience of how information between various sources are being exchanged and hence giving the FBI department an opportunity to detect any suspicious activities.
Government security officers with advanced information technology usually use technology to track down criminal by use of special soft wares that can be able to interpret information acquired from the various sources of mass media such as the cable TV and radio; information acquired voice information is then translated into text message which enables detecting voice and speech sounds of the different people.
Through such technology, the officers are able to detect notorious criminal gangs such as terrorist groups among others (Department of defense, 2010).
Additionally, the federal officers are also able to use information technology to read codified information from different systems by using special software and hence they are in a position to be ahead of the criminals since through such ways, they are able to get informed of planned crimes.
A good example of such software’s is the “magic Lantern” (Department of defense, 2010) which sends viruses to the suspected criminals through emails and when the targeted user opens the particular email, the software becomes active and then it does create a communication network between the FBI server computer and the suspect’s computer (Department of defense, 2010).
Although, this technology has been criticized as infringement of personal privacy, the officers argue that the constitution grants such federal officer the right to carry investigation in such ways.
Another technological change that fights criminal activities is the use of cell phones gadgets as an alert system. Today, the are thousands cases of motor car theft, burglary cases among other mischief’s in the society, but with the use of information technology a car owner or residence owner can be able to get live alerts from their cell phones about any suspicious activity. Such instance can be demonstrated by the use of phone to track a stolen car.
Apart from the use of a phone as technology to curb car theft cases, many information technology companies have emerged resulting to a drastic reduction of the car theft cases. Mostly, the birth of tracker alarms has proved to be very efficient in fighting crime such as car vehicle theft.
Today, cars are installed with security alarms which become sensitive once the car has been ignited using another key apart from the original key. When this happens, the alarm will alert the owner company who are able to stop the car’s engine by use of codes and once the car engine has been stopped, the company is also able to locate the position of the car by use of satellite using advanced technology (Department of defense, 2010).
With the introduction of social network such as face book, my space, twitter among others, the war against crime has had a big boost. In the turn of 21st century, the information technology has greatly improved and revolutionized to an extent that it has become very basic in diverse ways, one such instance is the way people are using the information technology to communicate.
Among the many social networks is the face-book community that has become very popular having millions of followers across the planet. When you accept a friend request in your face-book account, it is more likely you just accept an FBI officer as your new face-book friend. Today, the investigative officers are using the numerous social networks to carry out inquiries on criminal activities, track suspects around the globe.
With the emergence of social network such as face-book, the fight against crime has become easier since it is easy to note suspects by checking status updates, comments and other relevant information on their walls (Nasaw, 2010). Apart from this, identification has also become easier especially that people usually upload their photos in their accounts and hence making such photos to be accessible by the public (Nasaw, 2010).
In US the FBI agents have relied very much on the social networks in trucking criminal by accessing a newly edited section known as “utility in criminal cases” (Nasaw, 2010). In this particular section, the officers can be to scan suspect’s profiles in a progress to ascertain ones intention, position the suspect’s location, or even indentify his partners (Nasaw, 2010).
Although, the policy of face book account does not allow users to create fake accounts, the government investigative department has been given the exclusive right to develop such accounts which facilitates them to work as undercover agents.
Unlike in the past when police used to patrol the streets, today’s era of advanced information technology has enabled police patrolling to be easier and hence the fight against crime has moved to a whole new level. With the use of information technology, police officer do not have to patrol streets any more, instead the use of information technology such as use of video camera is the best alternative (Newburn, 2007).
Police department have utilized the information technology and they are using high quality video cameras which are usually planted at the high poles in those areas that are prone to high crime. With such cameras, the investigative officers can be able to have a first hand experience of what is happening on the ground since there is a communication network from the camera to a computer which has been installed in a surveillance vehicle or in the office.
On the other hand, video camera installed at the high poles would at all times enable the correspondents to observe happenings at a particular area before sending the police and other officers for action. For instance, if an accident happens, the surveillance police are able to take a prior-action.
Most importantly, the video camera can also be used as a source of evidence in the court in indentifying criminals. A good example where a surveillance camera can be used in court as an identification tool is when a video camera is installed on the streets, offices and out side a bank where it is used to indentify bank robbers or snatchers and it is usually presented to the court as a source of evidence which has helped many times (Martin, 2005).
According to police department, the use of surveillance camera as an investigative tool has helped in solving many issues and most importantly it has enhanced efficiency in the police department (Osborn, 2008).The officer do not really need to be at the place of crime , instead a single officer can be able to monitor more than two locations from an office where he is just next to a surveillance computer.
Additionally, the video camera have also enabled the fight against crime to move to another level since the patrol officer can also be able to view criminal activities happening in real time such as car theft scenarios and bank robbery cases which are very common (Osborn, 2008). This technology of surveillance camera is very efficient and it helps in reducing cost, saving time, and very importantly, it acts as an instrument to fight crime.
Information technology has also provided a big boost in fighting crime especially with the emergency of fingerprint technology. The new technology has been very effective in the fight against crime and a good example is the revolutionary technique of taking fingerprints which makes it practically not possible for any offender to lay the blame on others as the evidence is quite clear.
The recent technology also known as “wipe-proof fingerprinting system” (Koenig, 2011) is more efficient because it gives a much vivid image of the curls on the finger and therefore becoming more reliable than ever before.
The new technology is widely used by detectives and it is said to more steadfast than the presiding techniques; the new technology is based on special dust constituent parts known as nanoparticles (Koenig, 2011). Nanoparticle is sticky and this particular characteristic enables it to be used efficiently by detectives who have also clarified that it has made their work much easier compared to the past because with the use of nanoparticles, it is easier to obtain result faster and hence saving time and cost as well (Koenig, 2011).
Information technology as a tool of crime
Hacking, cybercrime, theft, blackmailing, cyber bully, cyber stalking among others are among the most common types of crime that have been more pronounced with the emergence of the information technology especially at the dawn of the 21st century. Although the concept of globalization and technological changes has been attributed to positive development in many ways, it is also quite clear that, the same advancement information technology has also contributed to growth of criminal network and hence resulting to rise in the rate of crime.
Modernization and use of the information technology has enabled development in communication system and therefore criminal allies are also able to have an established communication network that in deed allows coordination of criminal activities between criminals across the planet.
For instance, in regard to the communication system, the masterminds criminal do not have to sit in a conference room with other criminals in order to execute a plan or plot for a crime, what happens today is that, the masterminds criminals can always make a perfect plan on how to carry out a certain criminal activity such as a robbery activity and then call, send short messages or even send emails contains instructions to all other partners on the ground who after receiving the information will execute the “job” as directed.
One such case includes that of the modern banking system. The modern banking business uses diverse ways of computing methods and information technology, allows the breaching of various bank transactions and through this electronic technique, the criminals can be able to access other people’s account where they can also be able to embezzle large amounts of money avoid taxations and even make legal transaction by using money acquired in the most illegal ways since most criminal posses the modern technology and they also have expert computer hackers (Lilley, 2006).
The other problem which is also a major challenge to the current security system is the issue of “computer criminality” that is growing at a rapid rate facilitating growth of criminal communities (Koenig, 2011). According to various research carried across US, the newly released report clearly indicates that many firms in US are facing the crisis of being attacked with the growing number of computer hackers increasing every day.
The report shows that in the 2002 there were more than eighty thousand cases of attackers hacking into companies system and stealing most vital information. In fact, after the release of this report, the FBI experts made a list of top hackers and gangsters which clearly proved beyond doubt that the hackers had increased across the world over time (Rist, 2002).
Computer hackers have increased because the hacker’s main objective is to make profit which is why they target banks, firms and commercial companies.
Besides, hackers are also part of the world-wide terrorist group who are believed to be using the information technology to hack their indentified targets such as department of military defense and so forth. Moreover, hackers have done more damage to the general public where people have been robbed money from their accounts especially those people who use the master and visa cards systems are among the most vulnerable groups.
Apart from this, many other crimes are committed by use of information technology, for instance, certain level of technology allows production and easy distribution of pornography films. A good example in this case is that, the criminals will use some special kind of computer software that are able to alter images and then make such images to appear as if in a sexual context.
On the other hand, if the children are not actually there, the modern software are also able to convert adult images to appear like children images through a process known as “de-aging” (Martin, 2005). In fact, with the emergence of the animations and carton technology, child pornography may be easy to distribute and criminals have been renowned to use steganography as a cover up in order to distribute child pornographic films in a less suspicious manner (Rist, 2002).
The emergence of Information technology also facilitates effective and rapid distribution of communication by criminals. Through information technology, criminal are able to enjoy safe and anonymous speedy communication especially by use of modern customized software, wireless gadgets, mobile phones and anonymous email senders whose function is to distribute emails and short text messages without revealing the sender origin (Galeotti, 2005).
Through such technology, the criminals are able to execute various criminal activities such as drug trafficking with minimal chances of detection which also ensures that there are slim chances of tracing the criminals.
Information technology can also slow down the fight against crime where organized criminal groups may utilize the technology to instill fear or impose threats to community members and other opposing groups against reporting incidence of crime at any given level.
For instance, such threats are usually passed to the target party through emails, cell phones, internet among other Medias of communication.
In most cases, threats are passed through messages and chats that are directed to an individual or group indicating particular information. The organized crime instills fear in a very effective way because at most times the sender will use safe and anonymous message system that does not indicate origin of the message making it hard to trace the sender at all time (Jewkes and Yar, 2010).
The modern information technologies can be the basis of organized crime in our school today. With the increase of cyber bully, pupils are having situations to deal with stress every day which can be noticed every time a pupil uses his computer. Most times when they use their computers, they get irritating emails, bad images, vulgar short messages from their friends which might be a cause of stress and frustration leading to withdrawal behavior such as depression and loneliness (Martin, 2005).
On the other hand, theft cases have also increased in our school because of stylish life style where some student comes to school with flashy gadgets such as iPods, cell phones and laptops. But since some student can not afford to buy such stylish gadgets, they only opt to still from their friends resulting to crime that has been reported to be on the increase at our schools today.
Additionally, the emergence of information technology has also led to appearance of negative behavior resulting to increased crime rates such as cyber stalking (Martin, 2005). Cyber stalking is the use of internet applications such as email to become a nuisance, to threaten individual or group of people which mainly includes harassing, sending irritating messages, monitoring other peoples activities, causing severe damage to information and so on (Roddel, 2010). Such behavior is illegal and is not accepted by the constitution.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is reasonably clear that the emergence of information technology has had both negative and positive impact to issues of crime in the society today. Most importantly, we have seen that the information technology has been very effective in the fight against crime and there offering the humanity a hope for a better future (Reuter, 1983).
The opinion is that, all involved stakeholders should work together in fighting this group of intellectual criminals to help build our society in a positive way. On the other hand, more research should be conducted in order to discover how such criminal are making the use of information technology to torment the society. Once more discover is made, then the security department could easily use such information against the criminals and therefore tighten the war against crime for social change.