Category: Crime

Crime prevention strategies are common to societies with diverse communities. According to Bratina (211), crime and victimization can happen anywhere irrespective of community or measures in place. Crime prevention movements currently form part of communities described (Bratina 210). A crime prevention program consists of safety procedures, prevention issues, and statistics about crime and victimization in the community. This essay carries out an analysis of the crime prevention strategies at Walden University as an example of a community.

Walden University is a diverse community of students with specific security threats and needs. Some of the threats that this community faces include the threat of terrorism which is a contemporary issue. Additionally, the community complies with the Jeanne Clery Disclosure where institutions are required to disclose their Campus Security policies. It also complies with the Campus Crime Statistics Act (Dodington et al. 1). Women are among the most susceptible populations in this institution as in any other community (Pinals 244). Consequently, the institution complies with the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act 2013 (Walker and Smith 319).

The other components of the crime prevention program at the institution include the existence of a campus security authority and a memorandum of understanding with the law enforcement authorities. The partnership ensures that the organization is prioritized in the event of security threats (Pinals 243). Also, the institution has an existing emergency response and evaluation procedure where community members participate. In times of disasters or security threats, the relevant bodies in the institution issue timely warnings as dictated by the procedures.

Walden University community members face the constant threat of sexual assault, sexual misconduct, and other sex offenses. These are common in any society with the women being affected more than their male counterparts (Morgan and Homel 1). Consequently, the institution has measures in place to prevent these offenses such as the sexual violence policy in place. A drug and alcohol policy is also a significant part of the crime prevention strategies at the institution. According to Pinals (243), most of the crimes in societies are related to drug abuse and especially the abuse of alcohol.

The population that the crime prevention program at Walden University impacts on includes the student population, the staff members, and the other members of the community. The diversity of this community is one of the reasons why the program exists. However, this diversity also enables the effective application of the program through the utilization of diverse talents (Fowler and M Braciszewski 257). The Walden University crime prevention program has been effective in crime prevention in this community and addressed the security problems. Some of the changes I would make to this program include the introduction of services that are friendly to students and utilize the education program better to prevent crime.

Although the current crime prevention strategy at Walden University is effective, the program needs to be adapted to the changing security threats. Currently, the security threats are amorphous and take the shape of ordinary citizens (Bratina 210). The institution, therefore, needs to make changes to the program to accommodate the modern threats. Additionally, the program needs to accommodate the student leadership body to introduce a sense of ownership among the students. In the current era, security begins at the individual level (Bratina 210). Consequently, the crime prevention program at Walden University needs to utilize more students.

References

Bratina, Michele P. “Sex Offender Residency Requirements: An Effective Crime Prevention Strategy or a False Sense of Security?” International Journal of Police Science & Management 15.3 (2013): 200-218.

Dodington, James, et al. “Youth and Adult Perspectives on Violence Prevention Strategies: A Community-Based Participatory Study.” Journal of Community Psychology 40.8 (2012): 1022-1031.

Fowler, Patrick J, and Jordan M Braciszewski. “Community Violence Prevention and Intervention Strategies for Children and Adolescents: The Need for Multilevel Approaches.” Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community 37.4 (2009): 255-259.

Morgan, Anthony, and Peter Homel. “Evaluating Crime Prevention: Lessons from Large-Scale Community Crime Prevention Programs.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 458 (2013): 1.

Pinals, Debra A. “Crime, Violence, and Behavioral Health: Collaborative Community Strategies for Risk Mitigation.” CNS Spectrums 20.3 (2015): 241-249.

Walker, Sharon L, and Donald J, Jr Smith. “Children at Risk”: Development, Implementation, and Effectiveness of a School-Based Violence Intervention and Prevention Program.” Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community 37.4 (2009): 316-325.

Introduction

This report focuses on two white-collar crimes (Tyco Scandal and Iran-Contra Affair). It describes these two crimes and provides analysis of consequences of crimes as well as theories and policies used to combat them.

A description of the history of the case, parties involved and socioeconomic status of the offenders

Iran-Contra Affair

This was a scandal of President Reagan administration. It started in 1985 and came to limelight in 1986. In this scandal, some of the key figures were Ronald Reagan, Oliver North, Robert McFarlane, John Poindexter, Contras, and Caspar Weinberger among other influential persons in Reagan administration.

This case started as an effort to “free seven American hostages in Iran under the custody of the Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution” (Shenon and Engelberg, 1987). The US supplied weapons to Israel, and then Israel sent the same weapons to Iran. The Iranian receivers then facilitated the release of hostages. People referred to this scandal as arms-for-hostages scheme. In 1985, Oliver North devised various ways to ensure that parts of the proceeds went to Contras in Nicaragua (Shenon and Engelberg, 1987).

Tyco Scandal

In 2005, the Court charged Kozlowski and Marc Swart on various counts of fraud and larceny. Charges involved misappropriation of Tyco’s funds amounting to $170 million and unauthorized bonuses. The two also secretly forgave loans to themselves. They also faced charges of making more than $430 million through lying and conspiring about the financial condition of the company and increasing the value of their stock. The CEO also faced charges of looting $150 million from Tyco (Siegel, 2011).

A description and definition of the crime(s) committed and the monies or resources that were defrauded

Tyco Scandal

The Court convicted these two figures with various counts such as unauthorized bonuses ($81 million), art purchase ($14.725 million), and payment of investment bank fees to Frank Welsh ($20 million). Shareholders lost over $90 billion in this scandal.

The company engaged in questionable accounting practices in order to favor Kozlowski. The CEO used Tyco’s resources to fund his lavish lifestyle.

Iran-Contra Affair

Though details of this scandal remained scanty because Oliver North and his associates destroyed some records, some reports revealed that Iran received $30 million to transfer to Contras.

Reagan supported Contras. However, there were disputes whether Reagan allowed diversion of monies from arms sales to fund Contras. Human Rights Watch indicated that Contras engaged in a systematic abuse of human rights. The Boland Amendment made funding to Contra illegal. Consequently, Reagan administration engaged in secret deals with Iran and secretly trained and armed Contras.

Definitions of the law(s) violated

Tyco Scandal

This scandal involved embezzlement of resources and monies from a public company. The company also engaged in questionable accounting practices. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filed a lawsuit based on the failure the company to disclose forgiven loans of the CEO. The Court charged the CEO and CFO with 22 counts of fraud.

The Court also charged Kozlowski with a tax evasion of over $1 million arising from art purchases.

Iran-Contra Affair

This scandal violated the Boland Amendment, which had made support to Contras illegal.

Some of the charges included obstructing justice, conspiracy, deceiving the Congress, destroying, and changing evidence relevant to the investigation.

Penalties imposed upon the guilty parties in these crimes

Iran-Contra Affair

There were several investigations by the US Congress and the Tower Commission. None of these investigations found any evidence to link Reagan with the Iran-Contra Affair.

There were 14 indictments of administration officials. There were also 11 convictions. However, the Court dismissed some of these convictions on appeals. Finally, George Bush pardoned all indicted or convicted officials before leaving office. Bush was the Vice President during the Affair. Therefore, there was no imprisonment because of the scandal. This is not a typical way of handling frauds. In other words, there was no justice served in this case.

Tyco Scandal

The CEO and CFO faced 22 counts of fraud and received sentences of up to 25 years as well as fines and compensation orders that totaled to $240 million. Their charges also included securities fraud, falsifying business records, larceny, and conspiracy. However, punishments of such cases depend on their severity and intent of the offender.

Policies in place to combat this type of crime

Tyco Scandal

Key policies to combat corporate scandals are in corporate governance principles of the company. However, it was clear that the CEO, who also served as the chairperson of the board, had power over directors of the board.

Based increasing cases of financial scandals in large organizations, it is imperative for organizations to bring into line their corporate governance principles with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 and Dodd-Frank Act of 2010.

These Acts protect shareholders against uncontrolled excesses and embezzlement of funds by CEOs and other senior executives. The Acts strive to create independent boards, which are not prone to external interference. There are also SEC requirements and NASDAQ provisions as policies to combat corporate fraud.

Iran-Contra Affair

The US has a policy of no concession and negotiation with terrorists. By agreeing to trade arms in order to secure freedom of the hostages, the US went against this principle.

The Boland Amendment made such assistance to Contras illegal. However, senior people in the administration of Reagan violated this amendment through secret deals.

The financial impact resulting from the crime

Tyco Scandal

According to Neumann, Tyco had “$28 billion in debt, and its shareholders had lost over $90 billion, more than 80 percent of Tyco’s peak market value by 2002” (Neumann, 2011).

Iran Contra Affair

The details of this scandal remained scanty even during the inquiry. However, Howard Zinn referred to some $30 million as the amount of money Iran received to send to Contras (Zinn, 2003).

An analysis on the punishment of white-collar criminals

Iran-Contra Affair

In this case, indictments and convictions did not serve their purposes. This is because the Court dropped most cases on subsequent appeals. Still, George Bush pardoned all convicts during his last term in office.

Tyco Scandal

This is a benchmark punishment for senior executives involved in embezzlement of companies’ resources and funds. The two convicts got up to 25 years with fines and compensation orders amounting to $240 million.

The difference between white-collar crime and other traditional types of crimes

Unlike traditional crimes, white-collar crimes are complex and involve the use of legitimate enterprises in order to gain illegal profits or provide criminal activities. Some of these activities are so complex that they take several years to solve even after their discoveries.

Siegel notes that white-collar crimes result from rationalization of offenders. They can engage in criminal activities without compromising their values and meet their personal financial problems. Another theory is the corporate culture view, which argues that enterprises exert excessive demands on employees and tolerate deviance of employees as new employees learn techniques of committing crimes. Finally, self-control view posits that such criminals have low self-control and do not consider long-term consequences of their activities (Siegel, 2011).

Impacts of the research on the importance of ethical and professional behavior in the workplace

This research demonstrates that white-collar crimes do not pay. On the other hand, maintaining professional behavior grows the business for its stakeholders and sets high standards in the organization. It also shows that people engaging in white-collar crimes destroy their careers and organizations.

References

Neumann, C. (2011). Tyco International scandal: History of Business in the U.S. Web.

Shenon, P. and Engelberg, S. (1987). Eight Important Days in November: Unraveling the Iran-Contra Affair. Web.

Siegel, L. J. (2011). Criminology: The Core (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.

Zinn, H. (2003). A People’s History of the United States. New York: Perennial.

Introduction

The process of investigating crimes committed against children is complex and requires a lot of sensitivity to a number of issues. To begin with, children as minors may be unable to avail the information required for the successful prosecution of the offenders and may need protection from the criminals (Ferraro Casey & McGrath, 2004). Secondly, some of the crimes committed against children are too serious and cause injuries to them, thereby causing them to need special treatment before being able to express themselves about the crimes. Thirdly, children are vulnerable to multiple crimes but may not be able to express themselves to reveal the perpetrators of the crimes against them especially if the suspected criminals are their relatives or guardians (Turvey, 2008).

Another concern about crimes against children is the role of investigators in handling the crimes against children. It is obvious that for an investigation to be effective, the investigator or group of investigators have to be impartial in their duties. This requires a commitment to the terms of service as stipulated in the legal procedures of operation. However, as human beings with feelings, there is a tendency that investigators will lean towards the child victims of crime particularly if the public opinion about a particular crime is that the perpetrator of the crime should be subjected to harsh punishment. The issue becomes more convoluted if the investigators involved are parents with children of the same age as those involved in the crimes being investigated (Turvey, 2008).

This paper will evaluate the above issue with particular concern that investigators are supposed to be dispassionate or neutral while collecting information about crimes involving children. But where the investigators are parents, this becomes complicated as it becomes difficult to separate the roles of the investigators in their job and as parents.

Overview of the role of investigators in crimes involving children

According to Morgan and Zedner (1992), investigators of crimes involving children have to ensure that their operations enhance the coordination and cooperation between various police departments and social service providers in order to promote good collection and compilation of information regarding the crime. The investigators, therefore, have to ensure that the information they collect is very reliable and not subjected to any form of bias to facilitate correct handling of the matter by the relevant authorities (Morgan and Zedner, 1992).

The second responsibility of investigators is to increase awareness about the various types of crime committed against children such as sexual abuse, other forms of child exploitation, and pornography (Ferraro Casey & McGrath, 2004). Along this line, the investigators have to ensure that they analyze all forms of crime committed against children in order to come with sufficient evidence against the perpetrators of the crimes. This information is important in creating awareness about the occurrence of similar crimes or providing important ideas about the identification of different types of crimes against children.

The third role of investigators in crimes involving children is to ensure that they reduce repeat interviews of children and or repetitions of medical examination for the children whose rights are violated (Morgan and Zedner, 1992). This requires that the investigator be very keen in their first contact with child victims of crime. The reason for this is that the first contact is very crucial as it may provide the bulk of information required in a particular investigation. Subsequent contacts may be affected as the child victims of crime may be influenced by some authorities to provide fallacious information.

The fourth task of crime investigators in crimes against children is that their work should be able to facilitate effective decision-making and disclosures (Morgan and Zedner, 1992). Of particular importance in this context is the fact that the investigation findings are usually relied upon in a number of legal issues concerning particular crimes against children.

The fifth role of crime investigators involved in cases affecting children is to ensure that their findings can be used reliably to provide protection for the victims and other support facilities to the victims’ families (Turvey, 2008). Thus the information availed by the crime investigators must be unprejudiced and offering a detailed explanation of the events in the crime or crimes against children.

Nature of crime investigators

According to Turvey (2008), the complexity of crimes is not confined to the layman- even crime investigators have difficulties in understanding some vastly complex crimes. In addition, many people including laymen, professionals, and the police are usually seldom in a position to study crimes such as those involving murders, they can only solve common varieties of crimes (Turvey, 2008). It is therefore imperative that while handling such crimes, investigators should be impassionate and neutral; which is particularly difficult since investors, like all human beings, can be overcome by feelings when investigating some crimes against children.

Turvey (2008) notes a number of qualities that crime investigators should possess in order to facilitate good delivery of service. Some the qualities are common and can be attained through regular training and experience and include an abundant possession of energy at all times, a good business head, good education, total accuracy and correctness in the search for facts involved in crimes and their causes as well as in the exposition of a problem. The investigators should also possess clever reckoning skills and be fine in speculating skills (Turvey, 2008).

Perhaps one of the most important aspects of crime investigators is the possession of a high grade of selfless power and an unostentatious character with a slight interest in public success (Turvey, 2008). This implies being impassionate and neutral. However, it is one of the most challenging attributes in that crime investigators will certainly not always be neutral depending on the nature of crimes committed against children. As parents, the investigators are likely to be touched so much by the crimes committed against children since they may regard the children as their own. Consequently, they may disregard the aspect of being selfless and reason with biased interest in the children’s rights against those of the criminals. This may affect the nature of findings collected by the investigators, as they will be done in favor of the children, even if the crimes purported to have been committed are mere allegations.

Another important attribute of crime investigators is that they should have profound knowledge of human beings including criminals, victims, witnesses, and experts (Ferraro Casey & McGrath, 2004). Nevertheless, this attribute is also difficult to attain since a good understanding of the human being is affected by a person’s own opinion about humanity. This aspect makes it difficult for investigators to be critical of child victims of crime if they are parents. There is a high likelihood of the investigators taking the position of a “mother” or “father” of the child. Such a standpoint affects the quality of investigation done by the investigators.

Criminal investigators should also be honest personalities and be able to reason in an agreeable manner (Turvey 2008). However, the quality of being honest is relative and depends on different personalities. It may occur that the investigator may not, in reality, be dishonest in their procedures, but if they are parents, they may be traumatized by the magnitude of crimes committed against children such as rape, molestation, child labor, and so forth. The magnitude of the crime may be so grave that if the investigators put themselves in the position of the children’s parents, they may not be neutral in their investigation but will favor children so that the perpetrators of the crimes may get harsher punishments.

All criminal investigations require methodical approaches in addition to the scientific approaches used in which knowledge and precision are indispensable factors in tracking criminals (Turvey 2008). In this context, investigators are supposed to ensure that they follow all steps required in obtaining substantial information about crimes committed against children. However, common knowledge has it that children may not be able to narrate certain events like adults. They will require some form of prodding in order to volunteer information, whose description may not be sequential. This may require the investigator to be involved in ensuring that the information relayed by the victims makes sense when presented before an audience. However, this involvement may require a bit of professional reasoning that calls for attention to the principles of criminal investigation so that the information relayed does not portray any preconceived notions. Nevertheless, as parents, investigators are likely to prod children who are victims of crime by asking them questions in a similar manner that they would use to ask their children. This parental feeling translates into the development of personal feelings for the children and sympathizing with their condition, such that the information obtained may be oriented in favor of the victims while being biased against the criminals.

According to Ferraro, Casey, and McGrath (2004), the criminal investigation is concerned with people and things, and only people commit crimes. An effective criminal investigation must therefore dual, i.e. encompassing both people and things. Along this line, criminal investigation officers must read widely so that they can be able to provide appropriate information in various circumstances. The information obtained through reading may help the investigators to be more critical in their duties and avoid being passionate or biased. However, this is also depended on the investigators’ personality since reading per se may not impart a major change in their personal feelings.

Conclusion

A criminal investigation is a complex process, particularly where the investigators in crimes involving children are themselves, parents. It has been noted in this paper that as parents, criminal investigators may develop personal feelings for child victims of crime and carry out investigations in their favor- to the detriment of the criminals.

References

Ferraro, M. M., Casey, E. & McGrath, M. (2004). Investigating child exploitation and pornography: the Internet, the law and forensic science. New York: Academic Press.

Morgan, J. & Zedner, L. (1992). Child victims: crime, impact, and criminal justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Turvey, B. E. (2008). Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Outline

There exist various aspects of justice policy regarding crime, among them, being crime theories in regard to how they influence justice system as far as criminal issues are concerned. Lombroso’s theory talked about the impact of biological setup in human beings on crime where he was influenced to a great extent by the study of evolution by Darwin. The theory suggested that criminals had characteristics that were similar to those of animals and which led them into criminal behavior. The theory was criticized because control factors from the environment that was likely to affect the study were not adequate. Another challenge to this theory is that, correlation may not necessarily lead to causation because research has shown that, criminal behavior cannot be inborn.

Introduction

The issue of criminology has for a long time being described and analyzed through biological theories that largely depend on nature as well as nurture. These theories revolve around the question of whether the character that leads an individual to commit crime is inborn or is learned. Although there are several theories on crime, they all have a similar objective in finding out whether the way an individual looks may communicate anything regarding his/her potential in being a criminal. In 1876, Lombroso came up with the first theory on crime that has today been analyzed regarding its strengths and weaknesses. (Rafter, 2006).

Lombroso’s proposals on the theory

Lombroso’s theory essentially argued that, criminal behavior is inherited and can easily be identified through physical defects that had the capacity to confirm an individual engaging in criminal acts as savage if not atavistic. He said that, as opposed to evolution that occurs to most individuals, individuals who commit criminal acts undergo devolution and this makes their behavior societal. This theory suggested that, all individuals have inborn potential towards committing crime which means the predisposition is innate. It also proposed that, the way a person looks also known as physiognomy, determines the kind of behavior he/she is likely to have regarding crime. According to this argument, if the behavior that leads to crime can be inherited, then the individual who engages in criminal acts can easily be identified through physical characteristics. The theory also suggested that, people who are not criminals are normal and are referred to as Homo sapiens while on the other hand criminals have an element of retardation and are therefore referred to as Homo delinquent. According to Lombroso, individuals who are criminals share common physical characteristics such as a brow that is narrow and slopping which signifies low level of intellect. They also have high cheekbones as well as enlarged ears. It is also common for them to have more nipples than usual as well as extra fingers and toes. Their jaws tend to be renowned and this is characteristic of the individual who has a strong passion. (Blanc, 2006).

Research also indicated that, the behavior of such criminals is usually different depending on the person they are interacting with and therefore has a capacity to change with time and situation. Such individuals will always have a difficulty regarding adjustment to issues related to social; as well as moral standards because their mind is already programmed towards committing crime. Even after being exposed to the right environment, such individuals will have a hard time differentiating right actions from the wrong ones. Criminals are less likely to express guilt or even remorsefulness even after they have committed a crime or anything wrong. Studies have also shown that, such individuals will also exhibit lack of feelings for others even when they are not engaging in crime and are therefore always in poor relationships with others. (Rock, 2005).

Weaknesses of Lombroso theory

A close evaluation of Lombroso’s theory reveals that it lacks psychological evidence to prove that, the alleged behaviors only manifest in criminals and not in ordinary people who are not criminals. This is supported by the fact that a psychologist, Goring (1913) conducted an experiment on differences between criminals and individuals who had not engaged in crime before and found that, there were no significant differences as far as their behaviors were concerned. Lombroso later made a revision on the theory and argued that, there are many similarities between the behavior of men and those of women with the only significant difference being that, women express more jealousy and are more likely to be vengeful than men. Women also have a higher capacity in exercising atrocious cruelty in comparison to men. In his theories, Lombroso used the term ‘criminal universities ‘to refer to prisons by arguing that, when criminals were taken to prisons, they were more likely to be worse than before in addition to having not improved their attitude. He gave reasons to explain this argument and among them was that, the behavior of criminals largely depended on the influence from immediate environment. Such environments include poor family backgrounds that could have deprived them of one of their parent or extreme poverty that was prolonged creating trouble in payment of bills as well as affording daily bread. Criminals may also have had an experience of being subjected to acts of crime early in their life due to a family background that had a history of using drugs and when the finances were low to sustain the drug use, the criminal at his/her young age would be forced to steal so as to raise the money. (Rafter, 2006).

Criticism of Lombroso’s theory

Research has shown that, stereotyping was encouraged by Lombroso’s theory and this would consequently lead to prejudice as well as discrimination among individuals in the society. An example is when a child is exposed to a picture of an individual with tattoos symbolizing a criminal character. The child is likely to develop a negative attitude regarding that picture as opposed to a picture of an individual without tattoos. Stereotyping would be a problem in that, it lacks evidence for it to be proved and even the methods that are used in this kind of research are defective. Regarding methodology, Lombroso’s theory is criticized because it lacked an effective control group during the experiments and most of the samples of the criminal’s involved people who were mentally disturbed. However, his theory was important in that, it gave a challenge to the idea of criminals being wicked or as having chosen to be engaging in criminal acts. Lombroso was also in agreement that, environmental factors contributed to a great extent to the development of behavior related to crime. (Rock, 2005).

Conclusion

Lombroso’s theory supports the idea that, human beings have a capacity to evolve negatively and transform into criminals. According to his theory, the human skull as well as his/her facial features are symbolic in representing genetic criminality and are measurable. Regarding criminality among men and women, Lombroso argued that females were less likely to become criminals because they have not yet evolved as much as their male counterparts as a result of them being generally less active in life. They evolve slowly, and exhibit childlike characteristics as well as being less intelligent. Their passive nature holds them back from committing criminal acts due to a lack of intelligence and initiative character in committing the crime.

References

Rafter N. (2006): Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Criminology: Westview Press.

Blanc M. (2006): Self-control and social control of deviant behavior in context: Cambridge University Press.

Rock P. (2005): Chronocentrism and British criminology: Blackwell synergy.

The crime data explorer on the UCR website revealed that in 2020 there were 398.5 violent crimes committed per 100,000 people. This depicts a substantial increase from a much lower 380.8 average in 2019. Georgia exceeds the national average in 2020 with 400.1 violent crimes per 100,000 people. Additionally, this is a more drastic increase, as 2019 showed that the average rate of crime was 326.2 in the state. Minnesota showed a significantly lower rate with 277.5 crimes per 100,000 people in 2020. It is still an increase from the average of 237.5 the year prior. With these examples in mind, it can be said that the average crime rates have increased in multiple locations, if not nationwide.

1,203,808 violent crimes known to law enforcement occurred in the year 2019 within the United States. The number of overall violent crimes in 2018 was higher, and as such, 2019 depicted a 0.5 decrease in crime rates nationally (UCR Publications, 2019). Other tables have shown that southern regions and states accounted for the most violent crimes, with 41% of all total violent crimes that occurred within the United States in 2019. The Midwest places second with 20.8% of all violent crimes. Both Northeastern and Western areas have shown the least violent crimes with states in the region accounting for 11.2% and 19.3% of violent crimes respectively.

The UCR database was able to provide a concise look at the larger picture of crime in the United States. However, it was less effective in depicting the trends and changes to crime. On the other hand, the Crime in the United States database was able to provide detailed information regarding the specifics of crimes in the past few years. The database was less effective in providing connections and comparisons between populations and states. This data is essential in grasping the implication of crime on victimology in the United States. Victimization can be measured through a number of concepts such as hospitalization, reports of crime, rate of incidences, and other factors. Statistics in relation to crime rates are essential in ascertaining the causes of victimization and the ways in which crime rates affect victims. I partially disagree with the post, as current numbers indicate an increase in crime rates, however, this may be the result of improved reporting and not a rise in actually committed crimes.

Reference

UCR Publications. 2019 crime in the United States [Data set]. Web.

When processing a physical crime scene, investigators must first secure the area to ensure that everyone is safe by arresting suspects and isolating the location. Thereafter, witnesses should be separated, to prevent collaboration on a common story. The third step involves scanning the scene to identify the primary part and the secondary one. Investigators should capture photographs of the overall area, close-ups, and items identified during the scan (Girard, 2017). During this stage, evidence markers and rulers are used for reference. Thereafter, a sketch of the scene is made to ensure it can be recreated elsewhere. The search for evidence that may have been overlooked during the initial scan is conducted to ensure the investigation is thorough. Lastly, the physical evidence is secured and collected through techniques that prevent damage. The evidence is logged onto an evidence log and marked with an evidence label. The label has a chain of custody where any person who accesses the evidence indicated to ensure it is admissible in a court of law.

The processing of an electronic crime scene should involve the identification of the information about the devices at the scene. This includes the people involved, sequence of events, timing, and location. It should occur before the electronic devices found are even touched. The investigators must maintain the power status of the device, whether a mobile phone or computer (Girard, 2017). The collection of the physical media where the digital evidence is located should be done, with minimal alteration to the condition of the device. Professionals can thereafter acquire the data inside the electronic devices and preserve the device and data in a secure storage. The analysis of the data acquired from the electronic devices follows to generate evidence for legal proceedings. The data enables the reconstruction of the incident under investigation.

Reference

Girard, J. E. (2017). Criminalistics: Forensic science, crime, and terrorism (4^th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Introduction: The major areas concerning the foundations and definitions of organized crime

According to FBI, organized crime is defined as any group that has a formal structure and whose main objective is to get money by engaging in illegal activities. Groups of this kind protect their position by using violence, bribing public officials, extortion or graft and generally these groups have an impact to other people around them, be it within the locality, region or the whole country (FBI. 2009).The activities they engage in include such crimes as gun running, illegal gambling, prostitution, narcotics trade, pornography, kidnapping to obtain ransom, smuggling, vehicle theft, and credit card fraud among other crimes. These groups may also engage in international terrorism.

With the introduction of internet, these particular groups are now in a position to cover every segment of society and every nation using highly sophisticated techniques. These establishments do not put up with rivalry and continuously strive to maintain monopoly in their area of specialization in terms of either the actual business they are dealing in or the geographical area within which they are operating. These groups are different from those of common crimes otherwise known as unorganized crimes in several ways. For instance, these groups do not engage in random nature of criminal activities. They do deal in big money going up to even billions of dollars, they diversify their activities and these activities are coordinated among hundreds or even thousands of people, they seek to make more money as well as to attain much power and also there is leadership that can be identified within the groups (Business Dictionary 2009).

According to Russ (2009a), a clear definition of organized crime emanates from various characteristics derived from its lack of political goals, its structure that is in form of a hierarchy, and limited membership. Specialized division of labor is demonstrated under organized crime since it is characterized by monopoly and is controlled by well defined rules and regulations.

To illustrate organized crime best, we consider a group known as Mafia.

A Mafia is a secrete organization whose origin is traced in Sicily and later spread all over Italy. In time, this organization spread to other countries among them being the United States of America. It is involved in international crimes such as prostitution, racketeering, gambling, and dealing in drugs. There are two different models in the structure of the Mafia: The corporate model and patron client model. Their effort to spread to a wider geographical region results in feudalism and social exchange association which if often not balanced causes them to be potential outlaws. The patrons play a role of supporting the organization economically and offers protection but do not intervene whenever the outlaws are arrested. These patrons get back their payment through financial tributes.

In organized crime, respect is highly valued and it flows along a chain of authority. On the top we have bosses, and then under bosses we have counselors, captains, and members or soldiers. People become members of a Mafia after undergoing a ritual during which the new members are presented with the norms of the organization.

How organized crime gained a foothold in the United States

The Mafia came during the middle ages in Sicily with a purpose of overthrowing the foreign conquerors who were ruling them. It sourced the members from the private armies who had been employed by the landlords to take care of their estates. The mafia then spread to the United States of America. By the start of the twentieth century these groups were in control of the local economies. In the year 1920, most of the Mafia members were put in prison but they were later set free by the Allies at the time when the World War II was over.

From there, these members fled to other nations and went back to their criminal activities of organized crime. They intensified their operations in activities such as gambling, prostitution, and labor union racketeering among other crimes. At this time the Mafia, this was also referred to as La Cosa Nostra, turned out to be the biggest U.S syndicated crime organization.

In the year 1930, the Mafia had divided itself in to two major groups. These groups were the Maranzano Mafia that led in midtown New York and the Masseria Mafia who led in East Harlem in New York. These two groups began the Castwllammarese War and struggling against each other. This war was later lost by Masseria and it ended in the year 1931. Maranzano, the winner of the war, came up with a new structure of the mafia that is still there to the present, which had bosses and those below bosses for all the cities in New York. Shortly thereafter, the leader of Maranzano was shot by Lucky Luciano and Genovese (Russ, 2009b).

How organized crime groups sought to influence government

Several things existed that played a part in organized crime and its engagement on influencing the government. The Chicago Mafia gives a good example. In Chicago, organized crime started in the year 1873 by Mike McDonald who was a boss of gamblers. This man indicated to people in Chicago that liquor interests, gamblers, and even bar keepers can achieve political power under leadership that was effective. McDonald put under his control; congressmen, mayors, city police, among other officials by giving them bribes and also through gambling.

Every election that came by, until the year 1907, was under the control of his power. Any person that wanted to run a business beyond the “red light” region of the city had to look for McDonald’s assistance. More so, Henry “Big Bill” who had been elected as mayor of Chicago in the year 1915 and in turn violated his campaign promises had been reelected in the year 1919 and also in 1927 because of his promise to allow flowing of liquor once more (Russ, 2009c).

The organization of organized crime groups in the post-Prohibition era

The 21^st Amendment was enacted in the year 1933 and this marked the end of prohibition. This new era brought back alcohol in the legal market together with the tax charged on it. The mafia illegal business in liquor began going down drastically. Therefore, the illegal businesses by the mafia dealing with liquor had to be transferred to elsewhere that could be somehow favorable. Most of the mafia families started to rely on gambling to fulfill their financial needs but among these, several resorted to illegal drugs.

Consequently, organized crime started growing once again. During the 1970s, fierce competition arose among the mafia families each fighting to control the then booming heroin trade. In 1980s the government attempted to come up with new efforts to jail the mafia leaders. Police bribery and money-laundering are the crimes that have been associated with the mafia in the 1990s. In the 1990s and 1980s, the mafia had cut down the operations in racketeering and extortion. The current mafia has advanced the operations and deal in crimes such as selling of prepaid telephone cards, engaging themselves in illegal deals in the stock market (Russ, 2009d).

Towards the end of the 20^th century, the role played by the mafia in organized crime of the U.S was fading away. This was due to the arrest and imprisonment of their top leaders, members defecting from the group and volunteering to be the government witnesses, and disputes within the group itself (Mafia. 2009). Although the power of the mafia has gone down through the arrest and imprisoning of its members, the mafia still exists.

References

Business Dictionary. (2009). Organized Crime. Web.

FBI (2009). Organized Crime. Web.

Mafia. (2009). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.

Russ, J. (2009a). The major areas concerning the foundations and definitions of organized crime. Web.

Russ, J. (2009b). How organized crime gained a foothold in the United States. Web.

Russ, J. (2009c). How organized crime groups sought to influence government. Web.

Russ, J. (2009d). The organization of organized crime groups in the post-Prohibition era. Web.

In an effort to understand the causes of crime, researchers have discovered certain crime patterns, linked to age, race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Out of these four categories, gender is the strongest indicator of future criminal behavior – for all societies and even for most categories of crime (Steffensmeier & Allan, 2012, par. 1). The present paper aims to examine the links between gender and crime through an analysis of a sexual assault case.

Several differences set the male and female offending patterns apart. Typically, women are arrested less frequently for almost every crime category, with the exception of prostitution, and they usually represent less than 20 percent of arrests (Steffensmeier & Allan, 2012, par. 9). They are generally guilty of petty property and financial crimes such as larceny, fraud, embezzlement, and theft (Steffensmeier & Allan, 2012, par. 11). At the same time, women are far less likely to be involved in serious physical crimes such as homicide (Steffensmeier & Allan, 2012, par. 10). Even if they do engage in acts of violence, they cause fewer and less severe injuries (Steffensmeier & Allan, 2012, par. 14). Lower crime rates among females sparked considerable interest among researchers who developed a gendered approach to criminology. They have come to believe that five notable differences between the lifestyles of men and women may explain this crime gender gap: moral development, social control, gender norms, physical strength, and sexuality (Steffensmeier & Allan, 2012).

The case that was selected for this paper refers to an infamous gang rape and murder of two teenage girls that took place in Houston in 1993 (Cantu v. State, n.d.). The girls took a shortcut to return home from a party when they encountered a local gang. The men captured the girls and repeatedly raped them. Upon the realization that the girls could identify their perpetrators, the gang leader Peter Cantu ordered them to be killed, and the men also stole the girls’ belongings to divide them later. Peter Cantu received charges of robbery, kidnapping, and aggravated sexual assault, for which he was sentenced to death. Even though Cantu attempted to appeal his punishment, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals upheld the judgment (Cantu v. State, n.d.).

The gendered approach to criminology reveals several insights into this case. Obviously, the present crime can, to a large extent, be explained by the perpetrators’ gang membership and thus, a greater propensity toward crime. Apart from that, differences in human sexuality help explain the motives as men are much more likely to be the perpetrators in sexual assault crimes. They also typically exhibit greater physical strength that makes it easier for them to cause harm to their victims, and one’s ability to successfully commit a crime (in this case, overpower the victim) provides stronger motivation to commit it. Apart from the physical traits, sociocultural factors also come into play as risk-taking behavior is typically encouraged in boys. Men are thus willing to take certain risks, especially if it enhances their status within the group (Steffensmeier & Allan, 2012). To sum up, a combination of biological and sociocultural characteristics of men can explain their greater propensity toward rape, including the present case.

Identification of crime patterns is a valuable tool to guide criminologists as it helps them understand and analyze the underlying causes of violent behavior. Consequently, they can develop and implement measures to address these specific issues and reduce the rates of crime and violence in the society.

References

Cantu v. State. (n.d.). Web.

Steffensmeier, D., & Allan, E. (2012). Gender and crime. Web.

The criminal justice system that is currently deployed in the United States is a rather intricate phenomenon. On the one hand, a lot of light has been shed on it in different types of media, thus, allowing people to get a general impression of it. On the other hand, a range of its aspects remain concealed and are known only to the people that study it in depth. Therefore, the first chapter “Crime and Justice in the United States” of the book “Introduction to Criminal Justice” by Bohm & Haley provides mixed impressions.

The operation of the current system of justice, i.e., the framework according to which the American justice system responds to crime, seems to be the easiest part of the book “. The description of the process of analyzing the justice system elements and the way in which they work in the U. S, society, while being very brief, was also very informative. Furthermore, it was inspiring to learn about the complex process of introducing new ideas based on the principles of democracy into the framework of the justice system. The identified part of the chapter also triggered an array of questions related to the current situation. Particularly, the ways in which the representatives of the justice system manage the impediments to the implementation of the relevant practices are of significant interest.

However, the authors of the book also introduced several rather difficult concepts in the chapter. For instance, by describing the effects that social trends have on the subject matter, the authors of the book made the justice system seem flawed and lacking efficacy. By mentioning of various myths and how they hamper the process of solving crimes, the authors of the book raise a range of essential questions that need answers. For instance, seeing that myths about the justice system are persistent in the modern society, it would be reasonable to ask how these myths are spread among the U.S. population, who reinforces them, and how to eradicate them successfully. One might argue that the active use of social networks contributes to the dissemination of myths greatly. Indeed, verifying or, at the very least, controlling the information shared by the users of social media is impossible at present. As a result, myths about criminal justice remain persistent among the U.S. population.

Even though the reading raised an array of questions, it has also provided a platform for building knowledge and training skills related to the area of criminal law. Furthermore, seeing that some of the justice system aspects were linked to the current communication models and tools used by the American citizens, it was quite peculiar to learn about the impact of social media on the subject matter. For instance, in my community, the awareness about the negligence of some of the law enforcement members was raised after several incidents, which helped address the situation appropriately. However, after reading the chapter, I realized that social media might also pose a threat to the justice system due to the persistent nature of myths surrounding it. For instance, a lot of my friends used to keep posting erroneous information about crime prevention in young people. Therefore, the chapter has also provided a deep insight into the problems that the members of the criminal justice system have in the contemporary society. Nevertheless, it is possible to address the identified threats once awareness is raised among the community members.

Research Design

In undertaking this research work, a descriptive research design will be implemented to provide explanation to the criminal trend observed among the young people. In this case, the research will aspire to provide answers to the questions arising from the observed trend in which young people are getting involved in criminal activities. In this regard, the research will try to give reasons to why young people engage in criminal activities.

To realize the intended objectives, the research design will employ various data collection methods which will enable the collection of reliable information for analysis. The descriptive research design will rely on interviews, questionnaire administration and surveys in getting information that is useful for the study (De Vaus, 2001).

Interviews will be conducted in the crime prone areas which will be identified after an analysis of data from criminal agencies in the United States. This will ensure that relevant information is easily gathered from the people who are most affected by the incidences of crime from the young members of the society.

Apart from the interviews, questionnaires will be distributed to a sample population to enable the gathering of more information related to crime committed by the young people. In addition, surveys will be conducted to shed more light on the aspect of crime among the young people. Therefore, this research will have to employ various tools of data collection including interviews, questionnaire and survey (De Vaus, 2001).

Data Analysis Procedures

This study will rely on qualitative data analysis in synthesizing the findings of the study. It is worth noting that qualitative data analysis is critical when aspiring to answer the how and why questions (Nolan, 1994). This analysis does not involve statistics which is the case in quantitative analysis.

It has been established that qualitative research is used to study individuals’ attitudes, behaviors, value systems and aspirations among other social aspects (Lewis-Beck, 1995; Nolan, 1994). Since the focus of this study is to elaborate on the aspect of juvenile criminality, qualitative analysis can be identified as the most appropriate method to analyze the collected data in this study.

After data has been collected from the interviews, questionnaires and surveys, analysis of the data will begin. First of all, the data that will have been collected will be sorted out before being made available for analysis. The sorting will ensure that irrelevant data that may have been collected is eliminated in the course of analysis. This also enables the research to achieve its intended objectives (Hardy and Bryman, 2009).

Results

Descriptive Results

After a critical analysis of the data that was collected, it was found out that criminal behavior among the young people was affected by various aspects. First of all, it was revealed that high school dropout rate was closely related to criminal behavior among young people. In this case, most of the young people who did not complete high school education often engage in criminal activities to fend for themselves.

These individuals are not capable of securing decent employment as they do not have the necessary skills required for them to secure good employment. Given that these young people are locked out of the lucrative job market, they easily join the criminal gangs to make their ends meet. Such young people easily fall victims to peer pressure whereby they are attracted to the short-term benefits that accrue from criminal behavior (Rouček, 1970).

Peer pressure has been identified as one of the elements that lures the youths into committing crime. It has been established that delinquent behavior is prone to happen in a social setting. In such social settings social norms that enhance responsible behavior are usually broken.

In this case, most of the rules and regulations preventing individuals from engaging in criminal behavior lose significance. Members of the gangs often engage in criminal activities as a response to the traumatizing and destructive changes that are taking place in the society (Burfeind and Bartusch, 2011).

Poverty has also emerged as one of the main causes of criminal behavior among the youths. The gap between the haves and have-nots has continued to widen leading to what has been referred to as ‘the unwanted others.’

There has been the emergence of welfare systems to cater for the poor in the society, but this has not addressed the problem related to humble socio-economic status in the society and the ever-rising dependence of the low income earners on social security arrangements. This has led to the emergence of a ‘new poor’ class (Rouček, 1970).

It has reported that in neighborhoods which are home to moderate and low income earners, they are highly associated with criminal behavior. Here, the young people engage in criminal activity due to poor conditions in which they live.

It can be argued that the main reason for taking part in criminal activities is to enable the young criminals to have something to eat since their economic condition is regarded to be pathetic. Engaging in criminal activities is seen as the easy way out for these young offenders in making ends meet (Burfeind and Bartusch, 2011). As much as this can be despicable, it is the explanation that can be given to the findings of this undertaking.

Another aspect that was revealed is that child neglect and abuse can have an impact on the criminality of young people. From the statistics that were gathered from the criminal justice departments, it was revealed that most of the youths who engaged in criminal activities had a troubled past.

They were subjected to neglect and abuse by their families and care givers, and this pushed them into criminal activities. It is true that when children are growing, they need to be taken care of and nurtured to embrace the established societal norms (Burfeind and Bartusch, 2011).

Conclusion

From the data and analysis provided, it can be established that juvenile delinquency and engagement in criminal activities is determined by various factors. The factors identified as key to the engagement of young people in criminal activities include high school dropout rate; poverty; and child abuse and neglect.

These aspects contribute to increased incidences of violent crimes among young people. Therefore, it can be asserted that addressing elements which have been associated with criminal activities among young people will play a vital role in curbing juvenile delinquency.

It is important to curb the rate of high school dropout to enable the young people gain necessary skills needed in the job market. Also, it is important to ensure that the issue of poverty should be addressed so as to accord the young people at least an average lifestyle. Lastly, the families and caregivers need to be taught about the importance of providing the young people with an appropriate environment for their growth. Child neglect and abuse should be avoided to enable the young people grow in a righteous manner.

References

Burfeind, J. W. and Bartusch, D. J, 2011, Juvenile delinquency: an integrated approach, Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

De Vaus, D A, 2001, Research design in social research, London [u.a.]: SAGE.

Hardy, M A and Bryman, A, 2009, Handbook of data analysis, London: SAGE.

Lewis-Beck, M S, 1995, Data analysis: an introduction. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Nolan, B, 1994, Data analysis: an introduction, Cambridge; Oxford; Cambridge (MA): Polity Press.

Rouček, J. S, 1970, Juvenile delinquency, Freeport, N.Y., Books for Libraries Press.