AMOUNT OF INFLUENCE (You can use a scale of 1-5; Minimum-Medium-Maximum; or any other type scale that makes sense to you.)
NATURE OF INFLUENCE (How are they related to crime?)
Poverty
There is a lack of a direct relationship between poverty and crime since there are people who live in extreme poverty and yet do not commit a crime. The influence of poverty on crime is indirect though critical.
Unemployment leads to crime and a significant proportion of criminals come from poor and a disadvantaged background. Property crime results from reduced financial stability, as a factor of extended unemployment and social, economic disadvantage among families leads to parental negligence to children that lead to juvenile offences.
Mental Illness
Mental illness is one of the most causes of crime in a community.
In a society, people with a mental disorder are more likely to commit violent crime than the usual. Individuals with mental disorders are violent and responsible for possible homicides as a result of untreated mental illness with conditions like paranoid schizophrenia that lead to offences like murders and domestic violence.
Low Education Level
It is evident that most criminals are of inferior education and this to a big extent is responsible for increased crime.
Education adds human capital and value to an individual and, as a result, such individuals will avoid evil. However, unemployment is related to low education results to poverty that drives people in committing an offence in their society. Low wages that will not sustain the life and needs of individuals due to unemployment results in robbery and other crime.
Drug /Alcohol Abuse
Drug and Alcohol abuse contribute to crime. It tops the causes of crime both in colleges and the community.
Offences related to alcohol and drug abuse range from petty to capital crimes. Accidents on roads and sexual assault claim a good number of both the innocent and those on drugs.
Family Problems (fighting, divorce, criminal history)
There is less direct relationship between families problems, to a small crime are caused by family problems.
Divorce in most cases affect the children and may lead to crime. Observations show that most divorced families give less care to the children. Negligence leads them to commit juvenile offences for survival.
Greed
Greed causes crime. However, it is associated in with other factors. A subtle percentage of crime is as a result of greed.
Circumstances such as poverty and low education make individuals not to afford morals hence involving in crime. People think of getting what they may desire easily without due process that drives them to robbery and assault.
Unemployment and
Underemployment
Unemployment could be the major cause of crime in the present world. Unemployment has a major effect on crime.
A good paying job creates personal and social linkage between a person and their community. Unemployment influences the possibility of evil. Individuals are less likely to commit an offence if they are tied and respected by their communities. When the community sets goals for the members but creates a barrier through unemployment and or underemployment leads to crime.
Peer Pressure
Peer pressure is the primary cause of crime in young individuals. Individuals tend to do what the rest of the group decides to do whether right or wrong to match the group.
Children especially from disadvantaged families that cannot afford education requirements may abandon schools to join criminal gangs since their presence in the group earns respect, income and street fame. Peer groups in most cases are interested in material and extortion through robbery and many street crimes.
Bad Neighborhoods
Focus on the community is an important factor in finding out the causes of crime. It is a major factor that causes crime frequently in a society.
Many people avoid evil not because they fear being arrested but because they respect and want to retain a good relationship with their neighbors. Dangerous neighborhoods bear less responsibility to their neighbors and offend them with less concern. Also neighboring thieves, mentally ill and drug addicts will lead to high frequency of crime through assault robbery and rape.
Anger or Revenge
Very few people will commit a crime as a result of revenge and anger.
Anger and revenge are common to people of distorted background. People who grow up abused are likely to abuse others in a form of revenge.
Poor Parenting
It is an important cause of crime among children who later turn into real criminals.
Negligence by parents and lack of proper parenting is a significant cause crime among children. They get involved in drugs and alcohol abuse due to less or no guidance by their parents that leads to crime.
Low Self-Control
Self-control is an important factor if one is to avoid or get involved in crime.
Low self-control directly leads to crime such as assault, robbery, rape. It is the primary factor that will lure an individual into crime. Low self-control one is not able to decide on what to avoid even if desired.
Low Self-Esteem
It is a relatively important factor in evaluating crime.
Low self-esteem is very critical in crime as evidenced in rehabilitation facilities where violence and abusive behaviors are very high.
Organized criminals and terrorists are where a crime is planned, coordinated and carried out by criminals working together on a frequent and continuing basis. Organized criminals operate through a chain of command enabled by an organization structure made of different key individuals. Organized criminals work together for an organized and successful criminal activity.
Criminals come together due to the same motive of political instability, financial gain and protection. However some group themselves due to family ties and experience to achieve their goal.
One of the main functions of any government is to provide security to its citizens. In most US states, security dockets are among the most well financed departments. However, the large security budgetary allocations have not translated into safety. Most theories suggested by security experts have failed to work in practical situations. In this regard, this paper discusses the theory of broken windows in New Jersey in comparison to the Giuliani’s crime approach in Mexico City.
Summary
The broken windows theory was developed in 1970s to bring sanity in New Jersey cities (Kelling & Wilson 1). The theory required police officers to use foot patrol to provide security instead of patrol cars. It was believed that foot patrol was more efficient in reducing crimes than car patrol.
On the other hand, Giulian plan was designed to eliminate criminal activities in Mexico City (Tayler 1). The plan’s philosophy was “zero tolerance to crime”.
Broken Windows Theory
Safety
Foot patrol program was introduced to curb the increasing crime rates in 28 New Jersey cities. Security chiefs believed that car patrol reduces contact between police officers and the people they served. In the foot patrol plan, police officers were to be distributed in towns and assigned smaller areas that could be covered on foot. Police presence was expected to dissuade potential criminals from engaging in criminal activities. However, assessment of the foot patrol program five years after implementation indicated that it did not reduce criminal activities. In fact, some areas recorded higher crime rates than before the implementation of the program. Therefore, the foot patrol program did not enhance safety as anticipated. However, because disorderly people disappeared after the implementation, most residents felt safer and, consequently, became careless. Some people exposed themselves to hiding criminals who took advantage of their ignorance (Kelling & Wilson 3).
Order
Even in the absence of criminal activities, presence of disorderly individuals intimidates some people (Kelling & Wilson 5). For instance, people fear drunkards because of their association with violence. Old people feel threatened whenever they encounter large groups of youths. In this regard, police foot patrol program was effective in reducing the number of disorderly people in the neighbourhood. After the disappearance of crime suspects, residents did not have any reason to continue living in fear. It later emerged that although order prevailed, the initial objective of enhancing safety was not realized.
These findings suggest that people associate certain behaviours with criminal activities. The residents’ assumption could have been right because idle youths are likely to engage in crime. However, they were wrong to imagine that criminal activities would stop because idle youths were no longer in sight. Police presence only intimidated the youths into hiding but did not dissuade them from engaging in criminal activities.
Psychology
The foot patrol program relied on human psychology (Kelling & Wilson 6). According to Kelling and Wilson (7), the window breaking theory states that if a house has one broken window, the remaining windows are likely to get broken within a very short time. In criminology, this theory is translated to mean that people are likely to engage in criminal activities if they are convinced that no one minds it. In this case, the presence of foot patrol police officers is an indication that criminals cannot be entertained. People are likely to stay away from delinquent behaviours when they see order everywhere. According to this theory, individuals can be induced to engage in criminal activities without knowing. For instance, if youths are allowed to idle in town, they can eventually graduate into hard-core criminals without knowing. Although this assertion could be right, it could also be wrong. The fact that youths are not idling in public does not mean they are not idling. They could be meeting somewhere behind the scenes (Kelling & Wilson 7-9).
Transition Paragraph
The window breaking approach was friendly to both the residents and the disorderly people. There are other approaches that are very unfriendly in dealing with potential criminals. Giulian plan is one of the rough approaches.
Giuliani’s Anti-Crime Plan
Safety
Giulian plan was introduced at the time when Mexico City was experiencing all sorts of criminal activities ranging from prostitution to homicide (Tayler 3). Unlike the window breaking theory in which police presence was used to maintain order, Giulian plan embraced actual incarceration and punishment of crime suspects. In addition to facilitating arrest of minor offenders, the plan also increased fines and jail terms for anyone found guilty. Most of the arrested young people ended up in jail because they could not afford to pay fines. Giulian plan – like the window breaking theory in New Jersey – did not reduce crime rates. In fact, major crimes such as kidnapping and homicide increased. The city became less safe than ever before (Tayler 5).
Order
Like the window breaking approach in New Jersey, Giulian plan brought some order in Mexico City. The plan eliminated street vendors, child beggars and squeegee men from streets through arrests and imprisonment. Giulian believed that hard-core criminals start with minor offenses. In this regard, his plan was designed to intercept delinquent behaviours before they escalate into hard-core criminal behaviours. Unfortunately, minor offenders went back to their delinquent behaviours after release from prison. Some scholars have claimed that forcing street vendors out of town may have contributed to increase in major crimes (Tayler 6). Most young people easily turn to crime when they run out of options.
Psychology
The Giulian plan – like the window breaking approach – employed some aspect of psychology. In this case, Giulian believed that criminals are less likely to move to a clean town. According to Giulian, cleanliness is used to indicate that some activities are not acceptable. This assertion was wrong just like in the window breaking theory. Criminals can be willing to camouflage and fit in a decent society because such societies are less likely to suspect them.
Way Forward
The strategies of increasing police presence and zero crime tolerance have been employed in several other cities. In 2011, police and FBI agencies were flooded in New York and Newburgh cities to fight crime (Keefe 1). Several youths were arrested and charged. The problem was not solved because criminal activities doubled in the outskirts after reducing in the city centre (Keefe 3). These findings suggest that use of force and intimidation cannot end crime. Governments should address issues such as unemployment and poverty that force young people to engage in criminal activities.
Conclusion
The most conspicuous similarity between the window breaking approach in New Jersey and the Giulian plan in Mexico City is that both relied on unjustified assumptions and ended up failing. Both approaches embraced reactive rather than proactive interventions. In this regard, forcing youths out of town without giving them alternative means to earn a living only converts them into hard-core criminals.
Works Cited
Keefe, Patrick. “Welcome to Newburgh, Murder Capital of New York”. New York Magazine. NYMag.com. 2011. Web.
Kelling, George & James Wilson. “Broken Windows: The Police and Neighbourhood Safety”. The Atlantic. TheAtlantic.com. 1982. Web.
Tayler, Letta. “Giuliani’s Crime Plan for Mexico City a Work in Progress”. The Seattle times. Seattletimes.com. 2004. Web.
Unlawful identity theft happens when a pretender steals another individual’s name and private data. The data may include the date of birth, social security number or name. The thief may show to the police force a fake license comprising another individual’s information (Barnard-Wills, 2011). Often, but not at all times, the pretender falsely attained a driver’s license or ID in the object’s name and offered that documentation to the police. Or the thief, without presenting any photograph credentials, misuses the name of a colleague or acquaintance. Therefore, an identity theft is a crime, and the criminals should be punished even in the case when they do not cause any monetary damage. In numerous examples, the thief is penalized for a traffic violation or an offense and is out from the confinement. The thief signs the documents and pledges to show up in court. If the pretender fails to appear in the law court, the judge may issue a warrant, but it will be under the theft object’s credentials and legal name.
Even though the law agencies recognize the commonness of identity theft, these crimes are evidencing bizarrely problematic to avert, and they are happening with growing occurrence (Whiting, 2013). The total size of the data traded on the internet daily produces breaches for hackers and other technologically knowledgeable offenders to steal information without being exposed. Correspondingly, once these online crimes are revealed, the police are repeatedly incapable of finding and arresting the persons in charge. This may be due, to some extent, to the circumstance that a great part of the identity stealers is supposed to be living out of the country.
The identity theft target may not realize there is a chance of being arrested because of the imposter. The victim may be stopped, detained, and taken to the penitentiary without preceding announcement due to the unresolved warrant (Identity Theft, n.d.). It may as well happen that the thief will show up in court for the road traffic or malfeasance and negotiate without the theft victim being conscious of this incident. Some identity stealing targets, unconscious of the prior illegal activity by the pretender, may find out that there was a case of the impersonation when the individual is deprived of service or fired. In these examples, the company conducted a circumstantial examination and had counted on the felonious past found under the person’s data. It is also important that the company is officially obliged to notify the victim of the motive for the denunciation of employment. Regrettably, all the responsibility lies on the victim’s name, so the target of theft has to act rapidly and forcefully to diminish the harm. Nonetheless, the accountability to edit the inaccurate information in the numerous law enforcement databases and structures is to the officers occupied within the system. There are no conventional measures for editing an individual’s incorrect criminal record.
Regarding the state identity theft statutes, any of the subsequent evidence is well thought-out to be particularly classifying data in Illinois: an individual’s name, living address, cell phone number, workplace information, savings account or credit card number, individual or electronic ID number, various credentials, and any other records or data which can be used to log into or exploit an individual’s monetary possessions, or to detect a certain person, or his or her activities, incoming and outgoing messages and calls, or other actions or communications (Identity Theft State’s Statutory Information, n.d.). A personal ID comprises any documentation created or distributed by a legislative unit that is projected for the determination of proving the identity of a person, or any such file that misleadingly signifies to have been made in the best interests of or delivered to another individual.
In Illinois, an individual is an identity thief when he or she perceptively uses any private identifying data or personal proof of identity of another individual to dishonestly acquire recognition, money, private property, or services (Identity Theft State’s Statutory Information, n.d.). An individual is also considered a thief in case if he or she exploits any private material or the ID of another person with the intention of committing any offense not mentioned above. The person is guilty of identity theft if he or she operates, transmits, or owns paper-production gear to create false IDs or false papers realizing that they will be exploited by the individual or another person to commit any crime. Identity theft regularly goes before other kinds of scam and monetary criminalities (Identity Theft State’s Statutory Information, n.d.).
Along with the elementary identity theft, Illinois similarly proscribes the intensified type of the crime, which arises when an individual steals identity from a person aged 60 or older, an individual with ill health, or in the maintenance of the actions of an organized mob. Regarding to the elementary and intensified types of identity theft, the law states that the defending individual’s knowledge will be evaluated in a form of an assessment of all conditions of his or her use of the other individual’s private materials or evidence. Identity theft arrests in Illinois include almost the full range of lawbreaking offenses.
The notion of identity theft is closely related to the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution. The 14th amendment was central in returning the Confederacy into the US subsequent to the Civil War. The US took charge of the retirement funds for the armed forces that took part in the conflict and rejected to take on the unpaid sums of the Confederate, while as well averting past Confederate frontrunners from holding voted agency or public positions (14th Amendment, n.d.). The 14th Amendment correspondingly guaranteed that debts were not permitted owing to the liberation of slaves. The Due Process section defends the 1st Amendment civil rights of the individuals and prevents those privileges from being annulled by any administration without “due process.” Due process is a probation by judges for all the individuals accused of a crime.
The 14th Amendment particularly imposes the Bill of Rights on the government, to verify that it can never bound the constitutional rights of Americans without justice (What Is the Fourteenth Amendment and What Does It Mean, n.d.). The 14th Amendment should be looked upon in the case of an identity theft as every accused individual has the same rights as any other individual until proved guilty. The Equal Protection part of the 14th Amendment pledges that the accused will not face any discernment by the law. The national administration imposes this fortification on the States, certifying that they do not. The Equal Protection section protracted this defense to the state administrations.
Identity theft crimes are an important area of the US legal system and should be taken very seriously. Despite the fact that these wrongdoings are punishable, and there have been numerous cases of identity theft, all the US citizens have their civil rights, and both the victim and identity thief can rely on the 14th Amendment. It should be noted that the number of identity theft crimes grows due to the inability to arrest or at least locate the criminals, but the victims can count of the fair judgment and impartiality in the court.
Importance of the raising consciousness of White Collar Crime. Strategies that might be useful in achieving greater awareness of this type of crime
Raising the knowledge of white-collar crime is very vital for a number of reasons. As such, white-collar crimes have been identified as serious problems to governments, institutions and businesses (Friedrichs, 2006). It is essential that all establishments should be more watchful of the crime. When individuals are informed about white-collar crimes, they will be able to detect, evaluate, and avert natural and artificial threats to the welfare of persons and the setups of administrations. Moreover, adequate knowledge about the crime will enable organisations to recover from the damages caused by the crimes and their associated risks. In this regard, organisation should raise the awareness of this type of fraud to ensure that the crime is prevented before it occurs.
Several strategies may be utilized in enhancing the knowledge of white-collar crimes (Friedrichs, 2006). For instance, organisations can come up with fraud policies. The policies should be clear and should be communicated to employees. The policies should stipulate the conditions under which a white-collar crime is committed. Similarly, the policies should highlight the expected penalties for committing the crime. With the above strategy, individuals or organisations that are likely to commit the offense will be informed. Equally, organisations should undertake fraud prevention check-ups occasionally. Through the check-ups, white-collar crimes will be identified and prevented before they occur. Through training and workshops, employees can be educated on how to detect and prevent crimes. By doing so, their awareness of white-collar crimes will be enhanced.
The benefits and the limitations of both the positive and the negative sanctions in response to White Collar Crime convictions
Sanctions against white-collar crimes are classified as either positive or negative. Sanctions are the most appropriate ways of upholding compliance and preventing impending offenses. Positive consequences comprise endowments, rewards, credit, guarantees, trophies, and awards (Friedrichs, 2006). As such, positive sanctions have a number of benefits. They enhance freedom of choice. Through this, they are usually viewed as authentic and less likely to be estranging. Similarly, they enhance learning of preferred conduct and prompt the required collaboration and aid from the third parties. In addition, they nurture collaborative pride in a company. Despite their usefulness, it should be noted that positive sanctions have limitations (Friedrichs, 2006). For instance, praise and rewards can be very effective in safeguarding compliance from companies. However, they can be unscrupulous and paternalistic. Such incidences can be experienced when sanctions appear to enhance bribe in exchange for moral behaviour. Similarly, positive sanctions can enhance an environment of distrusts in a company.
Compared with positive sanctions, negative sanctions are more preferred when addressing white-collar crimes. Negative sanctions can be imprisonment, restitution, and confiscation, loss of charter, fines, adverse publicity, compensation, or occupational disqualification (Friedrichs, 2006). Negative sanction methods are usually punitive and should be used as deterrent mechanisms. It is a fact that a number of white-collar offenders fear being incarcerated or fined. Therefore, the methods can act as a powerful deterrent whenever they are implemented. A major disadvantage of negative sanctions is that the penalties are not always appropriate to the crime committed. For instance, some sanction methods are perceived as more severe. Similarly, some negative sanctions do not discourage offenders due to reoffending charges.
The coercive response and deterrence as they relate to White Collar Crime, the main advantages and disadvantages of both
Coercive response asserts that the criminal justice structure ought to be humane and fair in its processes. On the other hand, deterrence asserts that the rights and sovereignty of individuals should not be upheld (Friedrichs, 2006). Through this, it treats them as a means of accomplishing greater social objectives or discouraging other persons from committing white-collar crimes.
The main advantage of coercive response is that it decreases the targeted cause’s liberty and responsibility. Through this, the targeted agents are discouraged from omitting white-collar crimes. Even though coercive response is perceived to be the best approach to addressing white-collar crimes, it should be noted that it is impractical in some circumstances. For instance, even the most powerful and reliable threats may not prevent individuals from engaging in white-collar crimes. Therefore, the authority sustained by coercive response is ultimately unsustainable.
On the other hand, the main benefit associated with deterrence is the notion of a short sharp shock. It is believed that the use of a disparate penalty prevents future offending. According to Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, a grief of an offender can stop the sorrow of a number of individuals. Opponents of deterrence argue that its disadvantages outweigh its advantages. According to them, the penalty should be appropriate to the crime committed. However, deterrence has a tendency to be more severe. Similarly, the sanction does not discourage offenders due to reoffending charges. Similarly, some proofs have indicated that individuals are more likely to reoffend when slapped with a deterrence verdict.
The specific role of these responses to White Collar Crime cases: Just Deserts, General Deterrence, Probation, Self-regulation, Fines, Restitution, Community Service, Occupational Disqualification, Incarceration, and Corporate Dissolution
There are a number of responses aimed at preventing white-collar crimes. The just deserts response states that white-collar criminals should be proportionate with the moral magnitude of their wrongdoings. General deterrence model asserts that raising the threat of apprehension and retribution in organisations prevents employees from engaging in white-collar crimes (Joyce, 2013). Specific deterrence targets the individual. Thus, punishment is intended to deter members of society from committing crime. Probation is another form of sanction that can be used in preventing white-collar crimes. As such, probation is authorized by the judicial system. An individual is placed under probation whenever he is found liable of committing a white-collar offense. Probation enables an individual to stay in his locality under the watchful eyes of a probation officer.
In organisations, white-collar crimes can be prevented by self-regulation rather than through legislation. Self-regulations have a number of benefits compared to legislations (Joyce, 2013). It has been confirmed that insiders have a higher chance of detecting and preventing white-collar crimes. They are in a better position to carry out more recurrent and comprehensive examinations compared to external regulators. Fine is another form of deterring white-collar crimes in the organisation. Individuals found liable of committing white-collar crimes are fined certain amount of fees with respect to the crime committed. Organisations that commit white-collar crimes at times come up with restitutions to the victims of crimes. By doing so, the offender pays for the damages caused by the illegal act. Equally, an organisation or an offender of white-collar crime may be required to undertake a community service. Through this, the community stands to benefit the most. To be effective, community services should be monitored closely to ensure that the offender serves the community as stipulated.
Occupational disqualification is another sanction that can be used in preventing white-collar crimes (Joyce, 2013). The method is punitive and should be used as a deterrent mechanism. Another sanction that can be applied in ending these crimes is incarceration. It has been established that a number of white-collar offenders fear being incarcerated. Therefore, the method can act as a powerful deterrent if implemented effectively. When white-collar crime is committed by an organisation, corporate dissolution may be implemented as a punishment. Through this, other organisations are deterred from committing the same crime.
References
Friedrichs, D. (2006). Trusted criminals: White collar crime in contemporary society. Belmont: Wadsworth Pub.
Joyce, P. (2013). Criminal Justice an Introduction. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
Crime has been increasing over the years within the American society and the world over. People are forced to live in fear of falling victims to various crimes whereby they can be robbed, injured or killed. There are numerous ways which have been adopted in dealing with crime. This paper explores the various aspects that have been embraced in dealing with crime problems.
Crime has been blamed on various aspects, but it is believed that the family background plays a great role is determining the deviant behavior of individuals. In this respect, it can be asserted that individuals who have been raised in dysfunctional families or from environments that do not foster good behavior are likely to develop criminal behavior. Therefore, it can be argued that crime problems in the society can be addressed by focusing on the root cause of the problem.
The crimes being witnessed in the United States cannot comprehensively be solved through the implementation of stricter gun control or by incarcerating criminal offenders. The criminal problem can be resolved through socialization process, in which the young members of the American society can be taught on the righteous ways. Since socialization occurs at home and in school among other institutions, the parents and teachers have a big role to play in curbing the problems associated with crime.
The family is the primary social institution which should play a vital role in shaping the characters of individuals. In most instances, parents do not have enough time for children. The children are exposed to dangerous programs in the media including the television and computer games.
Other children are left to play with their peers from where they learn criminal behavior. The children who are left uncared for find solace in criminal gangs which act like their second homes. Therefore, the problem can be well addressed by emphasizing on good family and institutional socialization.
Criminals and other deviants who break the established laws have to be dealt with in an appropriate manner so as not to repeat their offense, and serve as a deterrent to other members of the society. In this respect, law breakers have to be taken away from society and punished for their actions.
Though these people need to be punished, there is need to give them a second opportunity in the society. Therefore, it is important to rehabilitate them to become productive members of the society. However, before they are released back to society, they should be thoroughly vetted to determine if they have truly reformed.
The prison system as it is in the United States has to be improved, and emphasis should be put on corrective as opposed to retributive measures. In this regard, the prisons should be used in reforming criminals and make them productive to the society. The prisons should focus on imparting useful skills and changing the mindset of the criminals.
This will enable them become readily accepted in the society after serving their terms. Most of the criminals have had a difficult background that led them to become what they are. In such cases, the prison has to help the criminals and integrate them back in the society.
There is no doubt that crime is a growing problem across the world. Since the United States is a world leader in many aspects, it has to set a trend in addressing crime which will be emulated by other countries.
In the overwhelming majority of cases, the term “crime” is defined as the violation of the rules, established in the society or as the breach of existing legislation. At first, glance, such a definition seems to be quite appropriate. However, it disregards a very important aspect, the cause of crime. It is worth mentioning, that there exists a slightly different view on this issue, we can even say an unorthodox one. Some sociologists and criminologist believe that in 80 percent of all crimes is the normal reaction of the human being to the abnormal conditions of life.
This idea seems to be a dominant one if we are speaking about crime prevention. One should eradicate the cause of the problem; however, very often the government focuses on the consequences, which is certainly fruitless, especially regarding the long-term effects of such policy. The main purpose is not to punish the criminal or violator but to prevent him from committing a crime. According to this premise, the country should build its policy. However, the conflict or interrelation between punishment and prevention remains unresolved.
Regarding crime in the United States, it is quite possible for us to say that it is relatively higher than in other developed countries, especially Western European countries. There are three kinds of crime rates, violent rate, homicide rate, and property rate. According to the data, published by the Federal Bureau of Justice Statistics, the total crime rate in the country has considerably decreased over the last five years, although the situation still leaves much to be desired.
The current crime prevention program, launched by the government of the United States (namely by the National Crime Prevention Measures) is aimed at encompassing a considerable scope of activities. To some extent, It is a set of programs, which covers a great number of aspects, such as economical, cultural, educational, and domestic causes of crime. It is possible to single out two types of prevention measures, secondary and primary prevention efforts. We should give this issue extra attention. Primary prevention efforts mostly focus on the factors, which may stimulate a person to commit a crime; Secondary prevention usually implies intervention with the risk groups. It would be better to show, how it is supposed to work in everyday life. In addition to that, we should analyze the factors, which necessitate such measures.
This crime prevention program, launched by NCPC is based on the so-called crime triangular. In the majority of cases, each crime contains three elements opportunity, ability, and desire (perhaps the word “necessity” would be more appropriate in this case). A person who has a chance to commit an offense with impunity is very likely to do it. If this opportunity is supported by desire and ability, the offense is practically inevitable (Champion, 33).
Judging from this crime triangular, the government should take the following steps, first, it is necessary to eradicate the very necessity for committing a crime (no one will voluntarily violate existing rules if it is not beneficial). Secondly, the risk of arrest should be increased. The final step is to make committing a crime more difficult. This aim can be achieved in several ways; for example, the government should extirpate the economic causes of crime such as low income and unemployment. It will not be an exaggeration to say that the root reason for crime is money. Regarding the ability to commit a crime, we should mention the following aspect, moral ability, or even permissibility of violating the rules. As a rule, this issue is addressed by the family and school. The final step is to increase the risk of apprehension. This is the domain of law machinery, especially the police force. The program, launched by the National Crime Prevention Council is supposed to deal with all the sides of the crime triangular. Our task is a task to show how all these issues are reflected in the new program and ascertain, whether these measures are successful.
Crime is always a multi-faceted notion because it has many origins. We can single out several important crime factors such as economic, cultural, domestic, and educational. As far as economic factors are concerned, one should mention poor conditions of leaving, low income, and unemployment. It is obvious that people with low income are more inclined to commit a crime. At first, such a statement may seem like a truism. However, the numbers seem almost catastrophic. For instance, according to the Federal Bureau of Justice Statistics, 75 % of the crimes, committed in the urban areas of the United States are caused by financial reasons. Usually, these are property crimes, such as robbery, burglary, car theft. Although very, often they are accompanied by violence (Sherman, p. 79).
Another important factor is educational problems, especially regarding youth delinquency. The main problem is that such phenomenon as gangs has practically become an inseparable part of school culture. Despite the fact, that every attempt is made to eradicate it, its presence is still very palpable. For teenagers, deviation from the rules seems fashionable; it gives them that very strong delusion of power and independence. Educators have always tried to prove that it is a very common misconception.
If we speak about crime as a cultural phenomenon, we should mention that street gangs are usually perceived as something quite normal, something that has always been a constituent part of Americas culture. It has become some means of self-expression. Teenagers, in particular, want to prove that they are different from other people. This desire to look different has many manifestations, for example, deviant behavior or even delinquency (Kelly, 91).
Additionally, one should never forget the domestic factor: family relationships can sometimes be the most important stimulus for the teenager to break the rules. Domestic violence can only trigger another form of violence. A teenager, who is abused at home, is more prone to joining a gang, for him (or her), it is a way of protecting oneself or herself. Judging from the statistical data, seventy-five percent of young offenders are regularly mistreated by their parents.
In conclusion, it should be mentioned that one should not separate these factors from each other, because they are often intertwined, and create a single entity.
Now that we have discussed the major crime factors, we should analyze how the crime prevention program addresses these issues. For instance, we may start with school-based crime prevention. First, the Department of Health and Human Services intends to increase graduation rates, which will make students pay more attention to their studies. Secondly, strict measures are to be taken to reduce weapon carrying and fighting. Additionally, many schools of the United States launched cultural sensitivity programs, because the underlying reason for school delinquency and violence is racial conflict. We should also mention after-school programs, which serve two purposes: first, they increase academic performance and secondly prevent students from juvenile delinquency. Moreover, teachers engage students in various in-school programs that require their interactions. Such programs make students more tolerant of each other. As regards the effectiveness of such measures, one can see the results vary.
Among such programs, we may mention Drug Abuse Resistance Education also known as D.A.R.E. The members of this non-profit organization give lectures about the harmfulness of drug abuse, tobacco smoking, and alcohol consumption. This organization draws students attention to the danger of conformity because this is one of the reasons for joining a gang. It is estimated that the rate of delinquency, especially in schools, has dropped over the last four years (for example the level of violent crimes was reduced by 32 percent). However, one should bear in mind that school, as an institution cannot be wholly responsible for the development of the teenager.
Regarding, family-based crime prevention measures, we should mention family therapy, which helps parents and their offsprings to establish healthy relationships, however, the effectiveness of such measures can be easily questioned, because, the parents, who do have problems with their children are often reluctant to admit this fact. It is believed that Strayhorn and Weidmans parent training is rather beneficial, this is a home visitation program. It is stated, this program is supposed to attract parents attention to the needs of their children. Moreover, it was supposed to discover the instances of domestic violence, because it is the main cause of youth delinquency.
Such home visitations programs also imply intervention with high-risk groups. For example, parents, who are suspected of child abuse (high-risk parents), can be temporarily arrested. It is very difficult to measure the effectiveness of such programs because they can only contribute to the overall effect. Nevertheless, such an organization as PACES states that such phenomenon as domestic violence is still very acute nowadays. According to the statistical data, provided by this organization, almost thirty-five percent of juvenile offenders were abused at home. Therefore, we can arrive at the conclusion that some amendments should be made.
As it has already been mentioned, the most important factor is the economic one, especially unemployment. Among the measure, taken by the government to reduce the crime rate, we can single out supply-side programs, in other words, providing legitimate jobs to the so-called “at-risk individual”. Some sociologists say that job training programs could have been more beneficial if they had provided wider prospects for at-risk groups. The main problem is that they give only underpaid jobs.
However, special emphasis is given to police, because it is viewed as the most expedient means of crime prevention. The widely held opinion, that the increased number of police officers results in the reduction of crime rate, has been questioned. Special emphasis is now placed on the efficiency of police workers, especially reacting to the emergency calls, relationships with the community. According to the new program, policy should pay more attention to the patrolling of the streets and specific deterrence. The Federal Bureau of Justice Statistics states that the percentage of criminal cases solved has increased by 5, 5 percent in 2007. Yet, it is not clear whether we can attribute it only to the effectiveness of the police force(Robinson, p. 66).
It stands to reason that this crime prevention program has its advantages and disadvantages. First, this set of measures attracts primary importance to juvenile delinquency, which is great, because the true cause of deviant behavior lies in the family. Special emphasis is given to educational and cultural programs; however, some aspects are not quite clear. For example, how can we define “at-risk parents”? What are the major criteria for assessment? It is often stated that family therapy can be rather helpful, but can it really be imposed on “at-risk” families or it should be voluntarily.
The new program emphasizes the role of educators in the crime prevention struggle. It is necessary to take into account that such a task requires additional training for teachers because dealing with “high-risk” is a separate field of pedagogy. Probably, a collaboration between judicial and educational institutions is needed, because such separate efforts are often fruitless.
Another drawback that we can mention is the insufficient financing of supply-side programs, as it has already been mentioned the jobs provided to an at-risk individual are often underpaid. In fact, they sometimes turn into sweatshops and employees have to work long hours under poor conditions. Consequently, people often resort to crime, just because they see no other choice.
The special attention, given to the effectiveness of the police force seems to be quite a prudent step. However, it is not clear how this policy can be implemented, because it lacks consistency. Naturally, police offices should undergo additional training. In addition to that, according to this program, the bonds between the community and police should be strengthened. The question arises, in what way it can be done. Probably, the government should establish some institution, which would serve as a mediator between police and the local community. Moreover, one may ask what exactly the local community is, and what this notion comprises.
Another aspect, which undoubtedly should be explored, is the attitude of society to crime prevention. People often focus their attention on the punishment of the criminal, but not the prevention of the crime itself. Although everyone believes that crime prevention is necessary, an average American citizen does not know how exactly he or she can assist in addressing this issue.
Undoubtedly, in the near future, some amendments will be made to improve this program. First, it seems prudent to increase funding for the supply side and training programs, because the problem of unemployment is a very acute one in the United States. Secondly, it is necessary to bridge the gap between law machinery, in particular policy and community organizations. They often act separately, which makes their attempts inefficient. Extra should be given to parent education; probably such training programs should be compulsory for “at-risk” parents. Additionally, it is necessary to define who can be called a “high-risk” individual. How can we define such a notion?
Thus, we arrive at the conclusion that crime prevention programs have to encompass a wide range of aspects, such as economic, cultural, and educational. Furthermore, such a program requires close collaboration of various governmental institutions. Finally, the attention of the public should be drawn to this problem. American society must see the importance of crime prevention especially in comparison with punishment. It is necessary to make a clear distinction between these two notions.
Bibliography
Dean John Champion. (2006). Crime Prevention in America. Prentice Hall, 2006.
Deborah Mitchell Robinson. (2001). Policing and Crime Prevention. Prentice Hall.
Lawrence W. Sherman (2007). Evidence-Based Crime Prevention. Routledge.
Robert J. Kelly.(2007) Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States. Greenwood Press.
In 2008, the total number of the juvenile arrests was 2.11 million. This represented a 3 % reduction of arrests recorded in 2007 (Puzzanchera, 2009). This positive trend came at the time when the nation was on the brink of juvenile crime threats. The country had recorded an increase in juvenile arrests from 2004 to 2006. Overall, 16% of juvenile arrests in 2008 were criminal offenses. This was 26% of the total criminal offense arrests recorded in the country. The number of juvenile arrests due to aggravated assault decreased among young males than among females. Male arrests were 22% against 17% for females (Puzzanchera, 2009).
In addition, the number of murder arrests among juvenile was 17% of the total juvenile arrests in 2008. This was an increase from the number recorded in 2004. However, it was 74% less than the number of similar arrests in 1993 (Puzzanchera, 2009). The rate of drug abuse offense arrests increased from 1990 to 1997. The arrest rate was 145 %. From 1997 to 2008, the arrest rate decreased by 28%. On the other hand, simple arrest rates increased in 2008. The author observes that the arrest rate for simple assault increased by 156% from 1980 to 1997. It slightly declined in 2002 before increasing again in 2006. The arrest rate for simple assault was 10% in the year 2008. This rate was below the rate recorded in the peak period in 1997. However, this rate was greater than the 1980 arrest rate.
The law enforcement agencies made a total of 629,800 arrests of the female juveniles in 2008. The statistics reveal that female juveniles accounted for 30% of the total juvenile arrests in 2008. According to Puzzanchera (2009), since 1999, the decrease in female juvenile arrests was less than the decrease in male arrests in some categories of crime. However, the number of female juveniles arrested from 1999 to 2008 with offenses related to simple assault such as larceny-theft and DIU increased as the male juvenile arrests decreased.
The bulletin also highlights disproportional involvement of racial groups in criminal offenses that occurred in 2008. Puzzanchera (2009) notes that the composition of the juvenile population aged between 10-17 years in the United States was 78%, 16%, 5%, and I % of white, black, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and American Indians respectively. Many black juveniles were involved in violent crimes in 2008. Puzzanchera (2009) explains that 47% of the violent crimes were committed by white juveniles. On the other hand, the Asian youth and American Indians accounted for 2% of the juvenile arrests for violent crimes in 2008. Furthermore, the white juveniles accounted for 65% of juvenile arrests associated with property crimes (burglary, motor vehicle theft, and larceny-theft). The black, Asian youth, and American Indian accounted for 33%, 3%, and 1% of the total property crimes in 2008. Finally, Puzzanchera narrates that in 2008, the black juveniles were overrepresented in the juvenile arrests.
One of the observations drawn from these statistics is the increase in the number of female juveniles involved in some categories of crime. This implies that the number female juvenile arrests will increase if proper interventions are not taken to prevent crimes committed by the young females. In addition, the statistics show that crime prevention interventions target the male juveniles more than the female juveniles. The statistics make another important observation that there exists a disproportional balance in the juvenile arrests of the United States. Although blacks account for only 16% of the juvenile population, they are heavily involved in criminal offenses more than any other racial group. This implies that a concerted effort should be instituted to reduce juvenile crime along racial lines through addressing the socioeconomic factors behind the problem.
The tracking of arrests among juveniles, which is presented in the bulletin, offers important methods in the measuring of criminal activities and trends in the United States. The assessment utilized data from law enforcing agencies to report the juvenile arrests in 2008. The trends reported in this bulletin are crucial in addressing disparities in the prevention of juvenile crime. At the same time, it provides a guide that can be used to combat juvenile delinquency and protect an American child.
Reference
Puzzanchera, C. (2009). Juvenile Arrests 2008. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Web.
The state of Florida has many juvenile options for minor offenders. Various divisions and programs are created with a purpose of working for the interests of children. They also aim at reducing juvenile offenses. The Civil Citation and Teen Court Programs are the two main juvenile options that deal with juvenile prevention. The juvenile justice systems seek to divert youth from deeper involvement in delinquent acts. At the same time, they reduce stigmatization and exposure to negative role models (Clear, Cole, and Reisig, 2012). This paper attempts to compare the Civil Citation Court and Teen Court Programs in Florida. It seeks to understand how each of these courts handles juvenile offenses (the stakeholders involved in each of the programs, and the services offered in each program). The paper concludes by identifying the most effective program between the two, in reducing juvenile crimes.
Civil Citation
The Civil Citation Programs in the state of Florida get their primary funding through the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice. Additionally, the County Juvenile justice dollars, the country’s Sheriff Department, and other community-based social agencies are important sources of funding for these programs. The Blueprint Commission of Florida (2008) says that the funding for each Civil Citation Program ranges from $113,000 to $137,000. Most of the Civil Citation Programs normally have a one-full-time employee. However, the program can have up to six employees, working in various units. The One-Civil Citation Program normally handles between 40 and 1600 youths, with an average number being 500. The Florida statute indicates that all Civil Citations handle cases involving second misdemeanants.
However, the practical reality is that the admission of the second misdemeanants varies from one program to the other. It is upon the program to determine which cases need to be handled. The major considerations in determining whether a certain act falls within the jurisdiction of the civil courts include the location and the law enforcement priorities in specific cases. With regard to middle schools and high schools, the majority of the reported cases include assaults, school fights, and shoplifting. In a nutshell, the crimes handled by the Civil Citation Programs of Florida include theft, property related theft, substance abuse, disruptive misdemeanors, violent offenses, traffic offenses, and any other miscellaneous offense. The most common offense handled by the Civil Citation Courts is petty theft, whereas the most serious offenses are those that involve violence.
The most commonly applied sanction in the Civil Citation Courts is the community service, which may range in time, based on the circumstance of the case. Community service is administered through various ways. These include youth advice from program officers, placements where the offender is required to follow up, group activities in parks and other locations, as well as the home-based community service.
The choice of the service referred to a juvenile is normally guided by the specific needs of a child. For example, when courts establish that the juvenile is susceptible to peer pressure that may lead him/her to other crimes, the court may opt to administer sessions such as mentoring sessions and attending sessions aimed at increasing resistance skills. The nature of the administrative services makes it difficult to determine the impact of the Civil Citation Programs. The only measure that can be used to assess this impact is the compliance of the juvenile, on the program services.
The Civil Citation Courts have faced a number of barriers, which hinder their effectiveness. Policy barriers are common hindrances to the effectiveness of the Civil Citation Programs. The Florida Citation Courts have a zero tolerance policy for a juvenile offense, which in some instances lead to the courts dealing with all types of offenses, including the minor ones. The implementation barriers are also common hindrances, given that some stakeholders have the mindset that the juvenile processes are meant to be punitive. These processes need to be restored. They are supposed to work basing on the best interests of the youth. Some youths have also failed to comply with the directives given by the Civil Citation Courts, which only serve to undermine their effectiveness.
Teen Courts in Florida
Unlike the Civil Citation Programs, the Teen Courts in Florida have a bigger budget, which is approximately $119,300. It also ranges between $ 25,000 and $500,000. The Teen Courts normally have at least two full time employees. Unlike the Civil Citation Courts, the Teen Courts are more flexible, when it comes to determining their jurisdiction of criminal offenses. The statute establishing the Teen Courts in Florida does not make any specific directions on the offenses that fall within the scope of the Teen Court. However, the Teen Courts have established a precedent of dealing with the most serious offenses. Some of the Teen Courts are limited to dealing with first time juvenile offenders. Those that have been in operation for a long time, handle felony cases with the assistance of the State Attorney. Gilbert and Settles (2007) narrate that most of the common offenses, involving the Teen Courts include cases of theft and possession of Marijuana.
The Teen Court relies on the Juvenile Assessment Center (JAC), in assessing juvenile offenders. For instance, it bases its assessment on offender’s psychosocial behavior, the risk posed, family background, and other relevant information. Some Teen Courts also rely on the parents of the juvenile offender, for assessments. The number of sanctions employed by the Teen Courts are also evaluated and included. However, they are not limited to community service. Their sanctions are mandatory. Failure to comply with these sanctions gives the court power to introduce other stringent sanctions. The courts operate under the philosophy of offering restorative justice. Therefore, community service is the most common sanction, where the offender is sent to work in areas where he or she is required to improve his or her life. The Teen Courts have very supportive intervention programs, which are integrated as alternatives to community services. This may include taking teens that have been found to consume drugs or alcohol, through rehabilitation (Hatcher, Bride, King, and Catrett, 2011).
Conclusion
From the discussion, it is clear that the juvenile justice systems in the United States and Florida, handle cases involving offenders aged below 18 years. However, the juvenile justice systems normally have several programs all working for the same purpose. The paper has shown the comparison between the Teen Court and the Civil Citation Courts in Florida. The Teen Courts are more operational and permanent than the Civil Citation Courts. The teen courts are also more flexible in determining the admissibility of the offenses that fall within its jurisdiction.
References
Blueprint Commission of Florida. (2008). Getting Smart about Juvenile Justice in Florida: A Report of the Blueprint Commission. Tallahassee, Florida: Blueprint Commission of Florida.
Clear, T. R., Cole, G. F., & Reisig, M. D. (2012). American corrections. CengageBrain. com.
Gilbert, M. J., & Settles, T. L. (2007). Indigenous Development of Neighborhood-Restorative Community Justice. Criminal Justice Review, 21(1), 5-25.
Hatcher, S. S., Bride, B. E., Oh, H., King, D. M., & Catrett, J. F. (2011). An assessment of secondary traumatic stress in juvenile justice education workers. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 17(3), 208-217.
On Saturday 14 April 2014, Christian Morales was charged with harassing a professor. This happened in September last year in what seems to be a hate crime. Morales was accused of deliberately pulling the beard of the Sikh professor in New York City. According to the professor, a group of young men accosted him chanting the words “Osama” and “terrorist” before Morales grabbed him by the beard while the others attacked him viciously. Preliminary investigations showed that the professor was targeted as a Muslim. Incidentally, the Sikh religion is from India and has nothing to do with Islam (“Hate Crime Charge in NY Attack on Sikh Professor”).
‘Actus reus’ or guilt act is definite here. There was a bodily movement that resulted in Morales grabbing the professor’s beard. This caused the professor bodily harm and pain, which was further compounded by the beating by Morales’ colleagues.
‘Mens rea’ or the guilty mind is expected since the attack was meted on a human being and it was real. The others not in court are also guilty through accomplice liability for helping the perpetrator which they did with the required ‘mens rea’ (Girgis, 1). The fact that they started chanting anti-terrorist slogans the moment they spotted the professor is a clear indication that the crime was premeditated.
Proximate cause is defined as an act resulting in injury. In this particular instance, the injury was a direct consequence of the act by Morales and his friends. Had they not attacked the professor, the injury would not have occurred. Morales immobilized the professor by holding his beard thereby leaving him vulnerable to beating by the others. The injury here went beyond physical as the professor’s dignity was also hurt.
A two-prong test can be defined as a test that is comprised of two different parts. One part deals with the procedure that is followed in a legal suit and which must be fair to both the complainant and the defendant. The other part is substantive and encompasses the laws applicable to that particular legal proceeding.
The totality of the circumstances is the notion that a single fact cannot be used to determine a case. It calls for a consideration of all facts before reaching a logical decision. Totality of the circumstances, therefore, serves to ensure fairness in trials.
The affidavit applying for a search warrant is supported by the following facts: the defendant’s email address was found to have had a link with the child pornography website; it is a fact that those individuals, who collect child pornography, are sexually attracted to the children, as evidenced by the defendant’s admission of indecently touching a seven year old girl 18 years earlier; the attempt to access the website only means that the defendant’s behavior has not changed over the time.
The reasons for denying the search warrant could be based on the following facts: the defendant is not the owner of the website and there is no proof that he actually accessed the information. There is no proof that the defendant indeed purchased membership for any given period. Further, the defendant did not register as a member and only gained access or attempted to gain access as a non member. The fact that his Yahoo account had active internet service during the period does not necessarily mean he was only accessing the said website.
Works Cited
Girgis, Sherif. “The Mens Rea of Accomplice Liability: Supporting Intentions.” Yale Law Journal 123.2 (2013): 460-494. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Hate Crime Charge in NY Attack on Sikh Professor 2014. Web.
This is a book by Katherine Beckett, exploring the theories behind crime control, measures and policies. She supports the theory that, crime policies and laws are based on a political creation of rhetoric and use of power and media; to create preconceived causes of crime and calls for crime control. This is a review of the book and the issues it raises chapter by chapter.
The review
The Democracy at Work thesis shows that, the American public is overwhelmed by crime and they have demanded that their government protects them from the criminals. The public has also called for tougher sanctions on crime, calling for longer sentences and even the death penalty.
The thesis stipulates that the new sentences on crime are as a result of public pressure, due to the rising crime rate. The writer suggests that even if the call for tougher penalties is seen as the answer to the problem, those calling for these penalties are not necessarily affected by the rising crime. The victims actually advocate for lesser sentences.
The writer goes to say that, the penal law regarding the death sentence has been shifting ideals; with calls for a move to custodial and reform practices rather than death. The American society would rather have rehabilitation and formal education than advocate for construction of more prisons.
It is important to remember that, cultural and political agents influence the choice of punishment for crimes. The author feels that the Democracy at Work thesis theory, technically suggests that; the rise of crime is due to lack of punitive action and legal control. There are different theories explaining the rise of crime.
Family breakdown, poverty and lack of government control are some of the factors attributed to these theories. Crimes are considered a social evil. However; society has left the role of who decides the punishments to the politicians.
The societal perception also becomes a major player in the allocation of punishment. The claims makers are the proponents of the social solutions and compete for different forums and symbols to gain support their views. The writer calls them social actors. The example given is that of the Bush campaign, using the Houghton case to persuade the voters that they would be strict on crime; once in office. Bush was portrayed as a walk the talk type of leader and he used his office as president to push the agenda for tougher laws.
The notion in America is that the black man commits more crimes than the white man. The claims maker will use image definitions to picture social problems, which have a different context in the political circles. The example given is that of Civil Rights Activists, who were called criminals yet their activities were political.
The second methodology suggests that crime does not arise from social conditions. In this case, poverty is no longer a cause of crime. The writer goes on to suggest that, those laws such as the Three Strikes Law are made part of the institutions of the American system. The society decides to give criminals 3 chances to reform or be locked away permanently if they do not. People look up to politicians for directions, because they influence a lot of decisions; using avenues like the media to drive their agendas.
Secondly their views carry more weight in the eyes of the public and hence they are more credible even when they are wrong. The effectiveness of the issue frame is determined by whether the claims maker gets access to power and the media. The public official has more access to the media than the non-elite claims maker. This is because the media gives more credibility to the official communication.
The claims maker has to use symbols and oratory proclamations that fit certain cultures and experiences of the community. They are not usually constant and they change from time to time depending on the community perception of the issues. The experts opinion on the issues are often not taken seriously, as the claims makes rhetoric resonates with the people; as they provide solutions and rationales for what fits in with what the masses perceive as the reality.
The theories on crime have changed over time. The first one is the theory of Penological Modernism; this theory stipulates that crime is as a result of a cause rather than chosen behavior. Reform becomes the critical factor than punishment. The other evolution is that of political proponents of punishment to deter criminal activities.
Retribution and promotion of safety for all citizens is the next theory. This is developed on the tenets that, crime is propagated by criminals whose behaviour doesn’t reform and that the correctional systems do not help rehabilitate them. The criminal is viewed as a person with the freedom to know right and wrong and is predisposed to commission of crime.
The politicians are under pressure to reduce poverty hinged on this theory to satisfy the fact that, what is needed is social control and not reduction of the equality gap. The Democracy at work Thesis works on the premise that as crimes rises, the law also changes. This is however disputed by the writer. She gives evidence to show that people, who are at higher risk of becoming potential victims of crime; do not necessarily call for tough measures.
The example suggests that, though blacks are more prone to be victims of crime; it is the white population that supports the law. The other evidence tabled is that of the 1993-1994 action against crime, yet the crime rate was falling. The issue of race in shaping public opinion is stereo typed by the white community, who are more concerned about safety and pushing for change. The role of crime control under the constitution was designated to state and local government bodies.
The Reagan administration put the crime agenda on the forefront, by promising to fight street crime. Once the administration was in office, putting the institutions to fight crime in place proved to be difficult task. They instead shifted focus to dealing with drugs. The take on crime was that, humans have an inherent propensity towards crime.
The American public has the view that, crime was due to social economic matters and not the issue of human propensity to commit offenses. The public opinion on the issue of drugs had not arisen prior to Reagan’s campaign on drugs.
The Reagan administration shifted the emphasis to drugs by increasing the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigations to drugs and increasing its funds. The rhetoric on anti-drugs was geared towards the drug pushers and later to the casual user. Clinton on the other hand had a different approach to the crime issue. The election period saw him push for tougher laws and the death penalty. He sought to have boot camps for young offenders.
He however changed his stand criticizing Reagan and bush for racial connotations to the problem. He was of the opinion that the criminals were victims of inequalities of life. He pushed for more programs to bridge the economic gap. He also supported the push to build more prisons and to increase the number of law enforcement officials. The media plays a critical role in informing the public on issues. This is evidenced by the fact that 90% of all polls rely on the media.
Evidence shows that watching TV shows with violence, persuaded the viewers to vote for punitive measures as they perceived the world as being violent. The Journalists in the 20th century changed facts, reporting from their own point of view. This is what is called objective journalism; the government officials became part of the news and not the source of the news. They were without censure on their veracity.
The issue of crime is emphasized by the conservative ideology that advocates for social understanding that, an individual is not influenced by his environment but makes individual choices. The breakdown of the family structure leading to erosion of authority of the parents is essential to the conservative theory. This forms the foundation for crime uprising. Thus the breakdown of the family leads to immoral behavior.
The state contributes to this by allowing the children to erode authority of the parents. The issue of race is important as research shows that, whites tend to fear crime and view crime as a thing of the blacks. They tend to give more punitive sentences and judgments against the blacks than the whites. The race issue in politics is hinged on the fact the democrats are open to the minorities and they offer them supportive welfare. The white middle class and the rich do not like this and they thus shift to the republican side.
There is need to emphasize the fear of crime. There is need to balance the cause and solution, that is Penal Laws. There is also a need for research and technical support. The Civil Liberties attack means that the crime control policies have to promote civil and constitutional liberties. The last issue is getting the drug traffickers and detaining them before they get to the children. They need to be arrested and given stiffer sentences.
The drug users lead to low productivity, robberies and higher insurance costs. The officials need to allocate more resources to the fight against crime. There is need for an honest commitment. The American public is more inclined to support the conservative approach than the liberal approach. The federalization of crime meant that the local government was given the role of control and crime prevention.
The law and justice lobby mechanisms were strengthened and research on how to improve the law enforcement and judiciary, in terms of delivery was carried out. The penal industrial complex revolves around the fact that, as the judicial system grew so did its beneficiaries call for more laws.
This is because the calls meant more funding for them. They had lobby groups. They lobbied for more funds and improved working conditions. They also supported politicians who were anti crime. The new Penology seeks to move to management of crime rather than eradication and of crime. It also seeks to put in management policies, called Managerial Criminology.
The emphasis is on the use of statistics and probability to assess the risk factors of the criminals. The issue is promotion of efficiency in crime control rather than a look at the social causes of crime and the issues of retribution; if all these are achieved on time, then crime will be reduced significantly in America and across its borders.