Category: Crime

Comparison between Accreditation and Certification

Crime laboratories usually receive requests from police agencies to analyze and report evidence collected from crime scenes. Such findings and expert testimony are often presented in court proceedings. Therefore, to guarantee the dependability and accuracy of their conclusions, crime laboratories are required to use specific quality assurance procedures (Burch, Durose, Walsh, & Tiry, 2016). The validity of each test and its capability to produce accurate findings is dependent on the creation and adherence to meaningful scientific standards by analysts. Both accreditation and certification play a fundamental role in enabling quality assurance.

These two terms are often confused; however, the word “accreditation” pertains to labs as a whole, while “certification” is concerned with individual forensic technicians and analysts. Accreditation is defined as a recognition process for crime labs that comply with distinctive standards for operations, management, security, and equipment. In the U.S., the four major accrediting bodies include the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB), the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA), Forensic Quality Services (FQS), and the American Board of Forensic Toxicology (ABFT), though each body has its requirements.

Most of the crime labs fall under the bounds of the ISO/IEC 17025 (Kolowski, 2015). Moreover, currently, lab accreditation is deemed to be a voluntary process, but for ten states and the District of Columbia, accreditation is mandatory (Collins, 2018). Accreditation aims to promote standardization and quality control; therefore, if a lab is non-accredited, the results of evidence introduced to trial can be called into question as the reliability and credibility of their work is unsubstantiated. However, accreditation does not always guarantee sound science (Jamieson, 2016).

Crime laboratories seeking accreditation begin the process by conducting an internal organizational audit. If the inspection shows that the lab’s policies, procedures, equipment, and expertise, conform to the required standards, it can then submit a report to the accrediting agency. The accrediting organization then deploys a team of external examiners to verify the findings of the internal audit. They use the checklist criteria to ascertain that the laboratory characteristics comply with the accrediting’s body requirements. If any deficiencies are found, the lab is offered an opportunity to respond and correct them before receiving accreditation. The laboratory is then periodically monitored to ensure that they remain compliant (Collins, 2018).

On the other hand, certification is defined as the credentialing process for distinct technicians and analysts who comply with particular standards for education, training, and experience (Melbourn et al., 2019). There are many agencies providing certifications to forensic analysts on disciplines ranging from DNA to computer forensics. Every certifying organization has its specific prerequisite requirements; however, some are more rigorous than others (Melbourn et al., 2019).

For instance, the American College of Forensic Examiners International Inc. (ACFEI) requires potential forensic consultants to watch a 90-minute video and then pass a multiple-choice test to become accredited. External certification programs usually evaluate analysts through examinations, education evaluation, training and practical experience, proficiency testing, and adherence to the code of ethics (Department of Justice, 2015). Currently, certification is not required for forensic analysts (Melbourn et al., 2019). The FBI Quality Assurance Standards insists on only certified forensic DNA analysts to participate in the CODIS National DNA database, although several laboratory accreditation programs do not require certification (National Commission on Forensic Science, 2016).

Crime Labs in Arizona

North Carolina and ten other states, including the District of Colombia, are not the only ones working to ensure that all crime labs are accredited. Although the law has not been passed in Arizona, presently, all the 12 forensic laboratories in the state of Arizona 12 are accredited. They include the (ANAB, 2019):

• Phoenix Police Department Laboratory Services Bureau that is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017, in various forensic disciplines such as fire debris and explosives, biology, firearms and tool marks, footwear and tire, crime scene investigation, seized drugs, fingerprinting, gunshot residue, trace evidence, and toxicology.
• Mesa Police Department Forensic Services is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017. It has received accreditation for forensic testing such as toxicology, biology, seized drugs, bloodstain pattern analysis, friction ridge, crime scene investigation, footwear and tire and firearms, and tool marks.
• Arizona Department of Public Safety (Central Regional Crime Laboratory) conforms to the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standards. It is accredited for conducting analyses on various scopes in forensic science (biology, toxicology, document examination, seized drugs, fire debris and explosives, friction ridge, and firearms and tool marks).
• Tucson Police Department Crime Laboratory is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2005 in various fields of forensics, which include biology, trace evidence, digital evidence, toxicology, drug chemistry, latent prints, and firearms, and tool marks.
• Arizona Police Department of Public Safety (Southern Regional Crime Laboratory) that is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standard on forensic examinations such as biology, toxicology, firearms and tool marks, seized drugs, footwear, and tire, and friction ridge.
• Scottsdale Police Department Crime Laboratory that is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standards on forensic analyses involving biology, toxicology, footwear and tire, seized drugs, and friction ridge.
• Arizona Department of Public Safety (Northern Regional Crime Laboratory) is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standard to conduct forensic tests involving biology, toxicology, friction ridge, and seized drugs.
• Chandler Police Department Forensic Services Section, which is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2005 standard in performing forensic tests involving crime scene investigation, toxicology, drug chemistry, and latent prints.
• Arizona Department of Public Safety (Western Regional Crime Laboratory) is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standard. The accreditation covers several forensic tests, which include friction ridge, toxicology, and seized drugs.
• American Express Digital and Multimedia Forensic Laboratory is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standard in analyzing digital evidence.
• Arizona Department of Health Services, Bureau of State Laboratory Services, which is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standard in conducting forensic toxicology tests.
• Scottsdale Police Department Crime Scene Section that is compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 standard in crime scene investigation.

Comparison between Accredited and Non-accredited Labs

To be accredited, a crime laboratory has first to prove 100% compliance with the policies, operations, and equipment standards set by the accrediting body (Jamieson, 2016). However, non-accredited institutions are not required to be 100% compliant with the laboratory characteristics before-mentioned. There is a relatively small difference in terms of reliability between the results obtained from an accredited lab, and that from a non-accredited lab. This is because being accredited does not guarantee that the lab will never make a mistake, hence reliable results (Jamieson, 2016). Nevertheless, it certifies that they have proper mechanisms in place to identify deficiencies and quickly rectify them. Therefore, in comparison with a non-accredited lab, the results of their findings have a relatively equal measure of accuracy.

Detroit Police Department Crime Laboratory

The Detroit Police Department Crime Laboratory was entirely closed in 2008 and reopened in 2013 as the Metropolitan Detroit Forensic Laboratory. The original lab was accredited as the audit conducted was used to compare the lab’s characteristics with the criteria of the ASCLD/LAB program. Moreover, the new laboratory, which is the Metropolitan Detroit Forensic Laboratory, is accredited and compliant with the ISO/IEC 17025:2002 standard (ANAB, 2019). It has accreditation for conducting forensic testing in areas of drug chemistry and firearms and tool marks, among others.

Reasons for Non-accreditation

There are several reasons why crime labs might not be accredited, and they are mainly centered on the degree of compliance with the required criteria relating to the management and operations, personnel, and physical infrastructure of the laboratory (Jamieson, 2016). In non-accreditation, deficiencies in the before-mentioned laboratory characteristics might arise before the lab being granted its initial accreditation or during the other successive periodic audits. The flaws comprise poor laboratory administrative policies and procedures, poor evidence handling, limited space allocation, inadequate security, deficient analysis protocols, and lack of or insufficiency of qualified personnel.

Future of Accreditation

In the future, all labs will have to be accredited. The Forensic Sciences Act of 2011, mandates that all local crime laboratories have to be accredited, and a bill, that is, the Senate Bill 2020, was introduced in 2013 to extend the deadline of accreditation for the local crime labs in the U.S. (other than the North Carolina State Crime Laboratory) to 2020 (Department of Justice, 2015). However, the policy does not pertain to digital forensic laboratories.

References

ANAB. (2019). Directorate of accredited organizations. Web.

Burch, A., Durose, M., Walsh, K., &. Tiry, E. (2016). Publicly funded forensic crime laboratories: Quality assurance practices, 2014. Web.

Collins, J. (2018). Accreditation. In HR management in the forensic science laboratory: A 21st century approach to effective crime lab leadership (Chapter 26). Web.

Department of Justice. (2015). Justice Department announces new accreditation policies to advance forensic science. Web.

Jamieson, A. (2016). Laboratory accreditation. In A. Jamieson & S. Bader (Eds.), A guide to forensic DNA profiling (pp. 80-82). Glasgow, Scotland: John Wiley and Sons.

Kolowski, J. (2015). The challenge of accreditation for forensic laboratories within the good/fast/cheap performance management paradigm. Forensic Research and Criminology International Journal, 1(1), 1-2. Web.

Melbourn, H., Smith, G., McFarland, J., Rogers, M., Wielnad, K., DeWilde, D., … Quarino, L. (2019). Mandatory certification of forensic science practitioners in the United States: A supportive perspective. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 1, 161-169. Web.

National Commission on Forensic Science. (2016). Views of the Commission Certification of Forensic Science Practitioners. Web.

Introduction

Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) is a perspective in criminology that examines situational factors in criminal acts and implements specific interventions aimed at disrupting said factors and preventing crime. It is summarized in the article “Situational Crime Prevention” by J. Freilich and G. Newman. This paper will reflect on the description provided in the document and suggest some materials that praise or critique the perspective’s application.

Criticisms and Praise

The rationality principle, stating that potential criminals perform what amounts to a cost-benefit analysis, is a fundamental premise of SCP. However, there have always been doubts as to whether one can always be rational, leading to the notion of bounded rationality (Freilich & Newman, 2017). Sidebottom and Tilley (2017) describe a situation where an offender’s “aggression is ‘expressive’ rather than ‘instrumental’” (p. 79).

Coyne and Eck (2015) further point out that during this supposed cost-benefit analysis, one may not consider the deterrents and “operate on faulty heuristics” (p. 24). This, despite the reduction of provocations’ inclusion in SCP’s 25 methods, contradicts the fundamental notion that people commit crimes to reach some measurable goal.

SCP focuses on deterring crime by increasing the risk and effort in committing a crime. However, research, as well as experience, shows that this is not always an effective tactic. Active resistance by the victim, for instance, should seem like an obvious way to deter an offender. However, in some situations, like child sexual abuse, fighting back and calling for help only succeeded in “warding off an offense in 11.8% and 4% of cases” (Jacques & Bonomo, 2016, p. 11). The same offender-based study shows that removing the excuse by simply refusing one’s advances was the most successful defense tactic by the victim. These findings suggest that different interventions’ effectiveness might vary on a crime-by-crime basis, necessitating further research.

Another criticism is that the design methodologies advocated by SCP, such as defensible space and environment manipulation, create restrictive and unwelcoming places. The paper by Raymen (2015) argues that the results of such methodologies reduce public spaces to “non-places” that prevent day-to-day social interaction along with criminal acts. It further posits that such measures have ultimately led to a rejection of “social solidarity in favor of a competitive individualism which is willing to harm others to further the benefits of the self” (Raymen, 2015, p. 508). Therefore, although most studies corroborate the short-term reduction of crime due to SCP interventions, their possible long-term effect on the broader social structure warrants further research, as it may be harmful.

Despite these criticisms, SCP generally shows positive results in the short-term reduction of crime. In their review, Bowers and Johnson (2016) maintain that overall, situational approaches tend to be effective (p. 123). Their review also mentions that when such approaches were implemented, “geographic displacement was not an inevitable consequence” (Bowers & Johnson, 2016, p. 132). However, they add that the effect of such measures varies based on the location and type of crime targeted. Although no adverse effects have been noted, this suggests that SCP is not necessarily effective in preventing certain types of crime.

Conclusion

SCP, as a perspective in criminology, has demonstrated its effectiveness and positive outcomes in the years since its inception. However, the fundamental principle of rationality is somewhat flawed, even if bounded rationality is taken into account. Furthermore, it has been shown to have unequal outcomes depending on the specific type of crime being targeted by its methods. Finally, while SCP’s short-term positive effect on crime reduction is evident in studies, cautions of a long-term adverse effect on the social well-being related to the planning of public spaces should not be ignored.

References

Coyne, M. A., & Eck, J. E. (2015). Situational choice and crime events. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 31(1), 12–29. Web.

Bowers, K. J., & Johnson, S. D. (2016). Situational prevention. In D. Weisburd, D. Farrington, & C. Gill (Eds.), What works in crime prevention and rehabilitation (pp. 111-135). New York, NY: Springer.

Freilich, J. D., & Newman, G. R. (2017). Situational Crime Prevention. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Web.

Jacques, S., & Bonomo, E. (2016). Learning from the offenders’ perspective on crime prevention. In B. Leclerc & E. U. Savona (Eds.), Crime prevention in the 21st century: Insightful approaches for crime prevention initiatives (pp. 9-17). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG.

Raymen, T. (2015). Designing-in crime by designing-out the social? Situational crime prevention and the intensification of harmful subjectivities. British Journal of Criminology, 56(3), 497–514. Web.

Sidebottom, A., & Tilley, N. (2017). Situational crime prevention and offender decision making. In W. Bernasco, J-L., van Gelder, & H. Elffers (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of offender decision making (pp. 67-87). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Web.

Introduction

In the contemporary world, people have advanced the ways in which they protect their works. This is mainly meant to deter people from copying other people’s work. Currently, scholars and other stake holders have been brainstorming on how well they can protect their content by making unauthorized duplicating and distributing a crime punishable by law. The main aim of going digital by many people has been informed by the fact that fewer materials are produced for sale at any given time. In addition, availing the content of their work on the internet ensures that their work is easily accessed by other people in the whole world. This in turn increases their revenue because they are likely to receive orders from across the globe.

Copyright implications related to Website development

According to Mireille (2003), an individual developing a website should have his or her domain name that is unique, and a trademark that distinguishes such a website from others. This is meant to deter people from using other people’s trademarks in their sites. He adds that it is also illegal for a person to use someone else’s texts in a page and assume they are his or her own. According to the law, this is copyright law violation.

Copyright implications related to usage of content on a Web site

In today’s world, more materials are being accessed on the internet unlike in the past where people used to rely heavily on books, magazines and the encyclopedia. However, it is worth noting that although some materials may be readily available on the internet, there are others that have been protected by their authors. As a result, making copy of such works without due permission from the author amounts to breaching of copyright’s law. According to Gordon (2007), more people are going the digital way and therefore, this is posing a serious breakdown of information flow in a number of societies, which are yet to embrace this kind of technology.

Mireille (2003) has argued that going digital, can result to the use of contracts as the basic way of controlling and regulating the use of any copyrighted material. He points out that such a move is likely to reduce copyright related cases, unlike in the past where people have been accessing and making use of another person’s work without much struggle. As a result, this has led to a lot of pirated materials availed in the market at a cheaper rate. This happens at the expense of the original works which are normally perceived to be expensive.

In addition, Gordon (2007) has noted that copyright law in relation to website development has changed the mentality of the people in the society. According to Yu (2007), the manner in which the holders of copyright are securing copyrights is seen by many stakeholders in this industry as impinging on the privacy of their clients. This is because a lot of personal information is required in order to have a copyright attached to an individual. That way, a person with malicious intention can use such materials at his or her own advantage in other areas.

How to overcome these implications

One of the main ways of overcoming these kinds of implications is by having a strict and firm arm of the police unit that will ensure that all the people involved in this kind of illegal activities are arrested and prosecuted. This will go a long way as a warning to others engaged in similar activities. Establishing a centre run by the government where people register their copyrights would help in reducing cases of scrupulous people taking advantage of their clients.

Conclusion

Creativity is very important in a country that is anticipating moving forward in all aspects. Therefore, it is the government’s duty to ensure that such creativity is protected from imitation and copying from other people.

Reference List

Gordon, H. (2007). Strategic use of information technology for global Organizations. New York: IGI Publishing.

Mireille, M. M. (2003). Choice of law in copyright and related rights: alternatives To the Lex Protection. Hague: Kluwer Law International.

Yu, P. (2007). Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and Related rights. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

Background

After taking up the position of the City Engineering Commissioner for Granite City, manager Jane Reardon faced a severe problem in the workplace. The issue revolved around the allegations against one of the employees, Simon Knash, who used his position for personal gain, including power abuse and the use of his subordinates in non-business-related affairs. Since the issue was complicated by the press attention and the attorney’s refusal to disclose the formal investigation, Reardon resorted to the internal investigation. Its results have proven Knash’s guilt in using the subordinates and city transport for building his house. Thus, the manager must resolve the situation with the tools at hand.

Press, a criminal investigation, and public attention play a crucial role in the case. Hence, the reputation of the whole organization is at stake, especially after several similar problems in the past. Similarly, Reardon must deal with the threat to her public image as a manager. After all, she promised to solve the issues of corruption while stepping on her position. Finally, the ethical side of the problem could affect the staff as well if left unchecked.

Recommendations

The necessary actions on Reardon’s part, as mentioned, must include the decision towards Knash’s penalty, disciplinary work among personnel, and explanation to the public. Specific steps can be described as the following:

• To choose the appropriate punishment for Knash (the severity depending on his readiness to repent);
• To provide the staff with the details on the matter;
• To enhance the disciplinary component of the everyday work;
• To start research meant for the possibility of further investigations;
• To give a public interview explaining the issue and the directions of solving it;
• To prepare for the criminal investigation’s results by searching for capable lawyers.

Anti-immigration advocates, the mainstream media, politicians, and professionals continually perpetuate a biased and stereotypical perspective to the American public signifying that minorities and immigrants are characteristically linked to crime (Moulton, 2013). While these assertions are often mythical and baseless due to deficiencies in documented facts, they have nevertheless continued to be used by the larger public not only to profile minorities and immigrants but also to link them to high levels of crime (Rumbaut & Ewing, 2007). The present paper attempts to debunk the myth by taking a closer look at all the concepts and orientations surrounding the myth.

The concepts surrounding the myth that minorities and immigrants are responsible for most crimes in the United States are many and varied. It is evident from the literature that these groups of the population are linked to crime due to their young age, gender, low levels of education, as well as the unauthorized channels they use to gain access to the United States (Rumbaut & Ewing, 2007). As postulated by these authors, “the fact that many of these immigrants enter the country through unauthorized channels or overstay their visas often is framed as an assault against the rule of law, thereby reinforcing the impression that immigration and criminality are linked” (p. 1).

In the same breadth, minorities are often associated with crime due to perceived illegal migration status as well as perceived exclusion from the formal labor market and other public provisions (Engbersen & van der Leun, 2001).

It is, however, important to note that these mythical perspectives and orientations are not supported by documented facts or scientific evidence. Indeed, the facts already available demonstrate that

1. crime rates in the United States have declined as immigrants and minorities increase,
2. immigrants and members of minority ethnic groups have lower incarceration rates than American natives,
3. immigrants and minorities have lower incarceration rates than native Americans among high-school dropouts,
4. immigrant cities in the United States are often safer than those with fewer immigrants (Moulton, 2013; Rumbaut & Ewing, 2007).

Available literature demonstrates that people believe in the mentioned myth as it is often conceived as a narrative constituent of wider belief systems that underpin their own perception of ‘reality’ or ‘truth,’ implying that the myth is reinforced in people’s minds and way of life on the basis of broader belief systems rather than empirical findings (Moulton, 2013). The underlying tensions within the social, cultural context are also responsible for reinforcing the myth (Engbersen & van der Leun, 2001). For example, the underlying tensions triggered by the 9/11 terrorist attacks led many Americans to believe that immigrants and minorities are intrinsically linked to the crime. Ignorance of the established documentary evidence has also played a part in reinforcing the myth that minorities and immigrants are responsible for most crimes in the United States.

Lastly, in using research to refute the myth, Rumbaut and Ewing (2007) report that “even as the undocumented population has doubled to 12 million since 1994, the violent crime rate in the United States has declined 34.2 percent, and the property crime rate has fallen 26.4%” (p. 1). Another research study reported by the same authors shows that “among menage 18-39 (who comprise the vast majority of the prison population), the 3.5 percent incarceration rate of the native-born in 2000 was 5 times higher than the 0.7 percent incarceration rate of the foreign-born” (p. 1).

Overall, the above research findings demonstrate the inadequacies of the myth that immigrants and members of minority ethnic groups are responsible for most crimes in the United States. The statistics demonstrate that myths are not supported by facts and are mere falsehoods mostly perpetuated by the wider belief systems that underpin people’s own perceptions of ‘reality’ or ‘truth.’

References

Engbersen, G., & van der Leun, J. (2001). The social construction of illegality and criminality. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 9(1), 51-70. Web.

Moulton, E. (2013). Myth and reality: Interpreting the dynamics of crime trends: Lies, damn lies and (criminal) statistics. Police Practice & Research, 14(3), 219-227. Web.

Rumbaut, G., & Ewing, W.A. (2007). The myth of immigrant criminality and the paradox of assimilation. Web.

The cotemporary world has been characterized with increased criminal activities. This has called for greater collaborations between the law enforcement officers and the general public. The alliance has resulted to the adaption of a new concept referred to as community policing. Community policing involves a modern police strategy that entails efficient use of the partnership coupled with problem solving methods that proactively tackle instantaneous conditions that bring forth public safety. Community policing is generally composed of three elements that entails; community partnership which occurs when there exist collaborations between the general public and the law enforcement agency (Peak, 2010). This collaboration helps police and the individuals they serve come up with solutions that address the problems they face which brings increased trust in the police force. The other aspect of community policing is the organization transformation that involves realignment of an organization structures, personnel, information systems and organization managements in order to reinforce the partnership and the proactive problem solving. The last element of community policing is the problem solving aspect that comprises of proactive and methodological evaluation of identified problems in order to arrive at effective responses (United States Department of Justice, n.d).

The Los Angles was characterized by increased criminal activities that mostly entailed violent crimes. The coming of a new Police commissioner known as William Bratton from New York Police station transformed the Los Angeles police completely. By then, I was working for the LAPD when Bratton introduced the Compstat program. The initiation of this program was triggered by inefficiency of Los Angeles police department. When Britton investigated the cause of the poor performance within the police department, he realized that the Los Angeles police department was at odds with the community it was serving. Thus, he realized that was the reason behind its poor performance. The poor performance of the Los Angeles police department in comprehending the criminals in the area occurred, despite the department being served by very qualified and competent officers.

Further investigation revealed that the residents of Los Angeles did not have trust of the police force that was serving them. The lack of trust was as a result of poor communication that existed between the community around and the Los Angeles police. Moreover, the William Britton also discovered that the Los Angeles police were using a very ineffective culture that entailed aversion of risks and opposition to change. The culture had caused low police morale, low organization performance and consequent decrease in proactive enforcement techniques and arrests. This culture had resulted to a notable amplification in violent crimes in Los Angeles City that required appropriate address.

William Britton having worked in New York police department where he had seen the success of CompStat model in reducing the crime rate in New York City opted to implement it in his new work place which was highly characterized by high prevalence of violent crime. CompStat model stands for computer statistics. The model is a well known conceptual framework that greatly helps police departments in ensuring that police gets back to their main task of proactively fighting crime instead of reacting to it. One aspect of CompStat model is its philosophy of making sure that police are accountable and comprehend their duty to combat crime in their assigned region.In addition, the model ensures that the police authority are provided with the authority to use their resources to achieve their set objectives. In most cases the diverse police departments mold the model to reflect their needs to amplify its effectiveness.

The Los Angeles police department had earlier on before the coming of Britton tried to employ another model that was referred as FASTRAC which stands for Focus, Accountability, Strategy, Teamwork, Response And Coordination which had eventually failed. The model had tried to use the concept of trying to concentrate on the duty of combating crime on the leadership of commanding officers in the community police departments. The failure of the model was triggered by the inability of the commanding officers to being given the authority to implement nontraditional tactics of deploying resources. The model was also designed to being applicable to specific crimes with very minimal or no follow- up at all. Due to this shortcomings, the model did not work and thus the high prevalence of crime in Los Angeles City. CompStat often referred as comparison statistics is a system that identifies and existing and upcoming crime trends so that to efficiently deploy the available resource to address those trends. The model employs four rules which are:

Timely and Accurate Intelligence: The principle entails on the use of accurate and timely intelligence. The Los Angeles police department was characterized by existence of very poor communication between the police and the community they served. Lack of effective communication had highly enhanced crime in the region. Thus, by the introduction of CompStat model which emphasized on timely and accurate intelligence there was a great change in the communication process. A great change occurred that increased the communication process from both within the police force and also between the police agency and the community. This eliminated instances where some Los Angeles detectives withheld relevant information from their counterpart patrol officers about information relating to suspects and crime trends which is very vital to the patrol officers since they are the one that are more likely to come into contact with these suspects. The enhanced of information sharing in the Los Angeles police department enabled the institution to greatly improve their services. The principle of Accurate and Timely intelligence suggests that information should be employed as a radar screen to guide police resources to where the exact problem is (Schick, 2011).

CompStat model emphasizes on the use of effective tactics. The model requires that participatory involvement where every faction plays its role in enhancing community safety. The model does not deal with the problem superficially such as just arresting the criminals, but in addition the police should try and establish the environmental factors that promote certain crime trends in a certain region. The model also does not withstand the old attitude that is associated with slow response to crime, but instead advocates for a sense of urgency while responding to crime. Los Angeles police force there before had a tendency to show slow responses to crime instances which had aggravated the crime rate in the region greatly. With the introduction of the CompStat model, the police resumed back to their responsibility of making sure that it is their task to combat crime in Los Angeles City which prompted them to develop a sense of urgency while responding to crime (Kelling, Wasserman & Williams, 1988).

The police in Los Angeles had in the past relied mainly on calls for service which they had always responded in a reactive manner. The introduction of CompStat model resulted to Los Angeles police department being more equipped with more information pertaining to crime trends which necessitated for better strategic police responses. These responses can either being in form of uniformed or plainclothes. The presence of rapid deployment greatly amplified the police operations in the area which in turn reduced the crime rate in Los Angeles to a great extent (Schick, 2011). The CompStat program is still currently performing very well with the help of Charlie Beck as the new police chief of LAPD Since he took over on November 2009.

The Los Angeles police department was formerly characterized by lack of proper and relentless follow-up and assessments as exhibited by the failure of FASTRAC model. The introduction of CompStat entailed critical evaluation of past tactics and identify those tactics that worked and those that did not work. There are usually weekly meetings that are shared by William Britton that provides statistical data and management information that illustrates the weekly performance of the command officer in charge of the crime department. The report assists the command officers in their future work and especially while designing new crime reduction strategies. During these meetings those crime reduction strategies that were successful are highlighted and shared to other commands to help them address similar scenario. The uses of relentless follow-up have greatly boosted the fight of violent crime in Los Angeles City.

Reference List

Kelling, G., Wassermann, R. and Williams, H. (1988). Police Accountability and Community Policing. New York/; Prentice Hall.

Peak, K.J. (2010). Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections. New York: Prentice Hall.

United States Department of Justice. (n.d) Building Relations, Solving Problems. Web.

Schick, W. (2011). CompStat in the Los Angeles Police Department. Web.

Introduction

The health care industry in the Unites states is worth trillions of dollars whereby it forms over 14% of the country’s Gross National Product (GNP). The magnitude of this industry makes it a fertile ground for many crimes to take place. For instance, frauds in the health care industry accounts for as much as 80 billion dollars per annum.

Ways in Which Medical Crimes Are Perpetrated

Medical crimes are committed in many dubious ways among them procurement of unnecessary medical equipment. This loophole is eminent in the elderly person’s healthcare programs in which there are no legislative controls to govern the equipment supply procedures. This leaves room for fraud to thrive in this sector without accountability being demanded. Double billing is another way that medical crime is being propagated in health care industry. Patients who have terminal ailments do not receive the medical bills from the hospital they were receiving their treatment from, but bills originate from individual caretakers. This hides the real cost of treatment and leaves room for double billing of the patients by unethical medical practitioners. Unnecessary treatment is another way that medical crimes are being committed in the healthcare industry. Health providers have been recorded to offer unnecessary treatment where it does not call for that particular kind of treatment. Healthcare providers are now asking for kickbacks which amount to bribery (Bucy, 2003).

Vulnerability of the Government Healthcare Programs to Fraud

The sheer size of the healthcare industry poses a lot of challenges. This makes it vulnerable to frauds. This is because the industry has such a long bureaucracy that makes the efficient management of the organization very complicated due to the decentralization processes. These call for the formulation of programs that will improve the industries’ integrity (Salinger, 2005).

Vulnerability of healthcare seekers to medical crime

The people who visit the healthcare facilities are more vulnerable to the medical crimes and more so, fraudulent crimes (Rosoff, 2009). Their vulnerability is acerbated by the fact that health care seekers have a medical problem that they have no ability to dictate its treatment procedures and need to get well as soon as possible. Health care providers take advantage of the desperate needs of a health care seeker to defraud them (King &Wheeler, 2006).

Medical crimes in mental illness

Mental illness is a complex topic that is not understood by many and thus most of the medical crimes that are committed in field go unnoticed. These crimes include the isolation of people suffering from mental ailments, locking them up in insane people asylums among others. The crimes that are committed in this area are unfairly justified that they are committed in the name of maintaining the tranquility of the public because an insane person is most likely to disturb the calmness at large. This is done at the expense of the ill person health status (Salinger, 2005).

Nature of house nursing abuse

House nursing is an important part of the health care industry. This is because it deals with the frail and weak members of the society who require personal attention. House nursing attendants are mandated to give undivided attention to their patients. However, this is not always the case. Most of the time, the elderly spend long hours in their own stool and urine. Such horrible incidences are occasioned by negligence from the nurses. This amounts to abuse (Nies & McEwen, 2001).

Conclusion

The healthcare industry has seen a lot of lapses in meeting its divine mandate of overseeing the good health. It has been tarnished by unethical practices that have fielded masses of medical crime. This is an injustice to the public and therefore, the industry regulators should come up with good controls that will oversee the redemption of its image.

References

Bucy , P., H. (2003). Health care fraud: enforcement and compliance. London: Law Journal Press.

King, T.,E. & Wheeler ,M., B.(2006).Medical management of vulnerable and underserved patients: principles, practice, and populations. McGraw-Hill Professional.

Nies, M., A. & McEwen ,M.(2001).Community health nursing: promoting the health of populations. New York: Elsevier Health Sciences

Rosoff, S. (2009). Profit without honor. New York: Prentice Hall.

Salinger ,L., M. (2005). Encyclopedia of white-collar & corporate crime. New York: Sage.

Introduction

Four Americans were sentenced to eight years of imprisonment when they were found guilty of shipping lobsters in plastic bags and not in wooden boxes, violating the law (that was no longer enforced) of Honduras (“Rough Justice” par. 1). Punishment and disciplining has been part of the society since the Enlightenment (Foucault 82). Offences, earlier in history were made a public spectacle to insight fear for the power of the ruler. However, in the nineteenth century with the advent of the modern times, the nature of punishment transformed and the new form aimed at deprivation in seclusion, hence the prison system.

Imprisonment was believed to be a method to control the deviant and has been embraced by most of the modern societies today. However, in some countries like the USA, this form of punishment ahs assumed a new meaning. Imprisoning of the law-breaker was no longer just a method to control and discipline the behavior of the perpetrator but also to garner economic growth and business. In this essay, I will argue that incarceration and prisons in America has become a governmental tool to meet economic and political ends by building more prisons and creating new laws.

Prisons and Criminal Justice in America

The justice system in America boasts of being harsher and stricter than any other developed countries. The paranoia over the felonious moving freely on the roads creates panic and hence, the overprotective justice system. Any forms of aberration, even the minutes of them, are punished with imprisonment. Why is it so? Is it because the country’s beliefs in a crime free society or some other reason?

Criminologists believe that the American penal system is flawed as incarceration rate, duration of imprisonment is very high, and the system criminalizes acts that need not be turned into a criminal act. For instance, a 65-year-old orchid collector who has been accused by law as smuggling flowers from South America under the Convention on International trade in Endangered Species (“Too many laws, too many prisoners” par. 3).

This exemplifies the belief that the increase in number of prisoners in US prisons is due to the increase in incarceration due tot non-violent crimes. According to a recent Prison Policy Initiative (PPI) report, there are around 2.4 million people inside prisons and of these, 1.3 million in state prisons (“Who, what, where and why” par. 2). President Eisenhower started the war on crime in the sixties and it was not until the nineties that the American bureaucracy started to develop the prison complexes (Schlosser 3). This has resulted in a spurt in prison construction in the US.

One reason behind this increase in incarceration rate may be due to the increase in number of laws in the US. Criminal law legislations increased from 3000 in 1980 to 4500 in 2008 (Pelaez par. 7). Does this demonstrate the politicians are more concerned about public safety and hence have device means to control the outburst of criminal activities as was observed in the eighties? Some believe that the intent to increase internal security was the initial agenda of the lawmakers but then the power hunger drifted them to utilize this as a tool to influence votes (Schlosser 3).

Prison population has been used since the Civil Wars as a means of cheap labor in the US. With rise in the incarceration rate in America, there has been an increase in prison labor, which is much cheaper than ‘free’ labor. Many private investors are contracting prison labors that have been legalized in 37 states in America (Pelaez para 11). Many eminent business houses are eager to tap into the possibilities of the increase in cheap prison labor the boom that it would cause to the economy. Thus, it is popularly believed that prisons can turn around the economy of a state.

Increasing Prison Industrial Complexes

The politics and economic of prison building was first, unwittingly, initiated by New York governor Mario Cuomo in the eighties (Schlosser 6). The prison building effort of Cuomo was due to his predecessor’s legislation to strengthen criminal act. Overcrowded prisons had become the breeding place of crime and criminals and hence there was immediate need to increase prison faculties.

However, the unconventional method of financing prison building was probably the brainchild of Cuomo, who turned to Urban Development Corporations who invested in rural areas of New York State, to build prisons (Schlosser 6). By building new prisons in the backward areas of the state, helped in giving employment to the locals and therefore, improve the living standard in the area. Thus, prisons helped bring steady economic growth to rural regions: “Prisons are labor-intensive institutions, offering year-round employment” (Schlosser 7).

Prisons not only help in providing employment to the locals, they also develop ancillary industries. Prisons require supplies of various forms – catering, telephones, prison interiors, security cameras, plumbing supplies, health care, and construction. There are investors in Wall Street who handle prison bonds that are specifically invested in prison building purposes (Schlosser 9). Providing and supplying to prisons have become a niche industry in the US.

Therefore, building of prisons helped in achieving two purposes – increase number of cells for overcrowded prisons and generate economic growth. The prison building effort in the US is a large industry that thrives on increased number of prisoners. Hence, reducing prisoners’ intake will negatively affect the growth of this industry that thrives on higher incarceration rate. Though scholars believe in reviving the old fashion method of preventing crime, the politicians believes in rejuvenating the growth engine with the aid of increased prisons, and therefore, increased number of prisoners.

Private Prisons

Privatization of prions in the eighties marked another milestone for the criminal justice system in America, under the leadership of President Ronald Reagan but reached its height in 1990s when the stock market was extremely bullish. Private prisons are believed to provide the largest business opportunity to prison industrial complex. Private prisons are provided with a fixed compensation for each prisoner they guard. Nevertheless, how helpful are these to the justice system of he state?

Private corporations operate on profit motive. Their business model would be same as that of the hospitality or hotel industry. The larger the number of guests in the greater is their profits. In other words, higher the number of prisoners higher will be their profits. Thus, the increase in the number of prisoners can be attributed to an increase in private prisons. The private prison establishments are often mismanaged and are unsafe place for boarding dangerous sociopaths.

These companies are highly controversial and have aided in enhancing prison complex development. Private prisons were brought forth through the privatization drive of Reagan and Bush administration. The justice department has also supported the move by placing minimum-security inmates in private prisons. It was believed that private prisons would drive away inefficiencies of the public sector and make prisons more efficient. However, experience suggests that private prisons were not successful in guarding dangerous criminals, the primary task for which they were commissioned.

Privatization of prisons was a business move as the government sought to reduce its public burden. However, the privatization process led to profit motive that essentially contributed to the increase in incarceration rate.

Conclusion

Crime and punishment in America is governed by political intent to lure votes or to pacify lobbying businesspersons. The political clout and the justice system has helped develop an institution that breeds on injecting fear in the mind of the common people to attract votes with their showy criminal control legislations and then presenting another lure of economic growth to counter their initial mistake that increased prison population. Privatization of prisons demonstrates another motive of the politicians to help the interest of private businesses while overlooking the need for true justice.

American politicians and justice department in conjunction, In the name of war against crime, law and order, and safety, has crowded the American prisons and filled the coffers of the private investors. Prisons, that were supposed to be isolated campus for dangerous criminals, has become home to non-violent offenders. Thus, the political system in America has rigged the justice system to create a flawed correction and incarceration institution for mere profit. Clearly, the policymakers in America have overlooked the need to correct and give another chance. This essay therefore points out, through the words of Michael Foucault that “there is no glory is punishing” (10).

Bibliography

Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison . London: Penguine Books, 1975. Print.

Pelaez, Vicky. The Prison Industry in the United States: Big Business or a New Form of Slavery? 2008. Web.

Schlosser, Eric. The Prison-Industrial Complex. 1998. Web.

The Economist. Rough Justice. 2010. Web.

Too many laws, too many prisoners. 2010. Web.

Who, what, where and why. 2014. Web.

Following the recent increase in the cases of crime in society, laws need to be enforced so that organizations and other criminal justice groups are adequately empowered. Of much interest is a corporate crime or white-collar crime, which despite its often huge negative economic and social impact, continues to the public as well as judicial leniency. Resources from the state, police, and other judicial systems should aim at crime prevention and criminal justice. The Australian Institute of criminology (AIC) of 1973 operates under the criminology research act of 1971 as a statutory authority for the commonwealth AIC is responsible for criminology research and gives its results as well as arranging conferences and publishing its works.

Companies have obeyed LawLaw, but the use of criminal LawLaw in punishing could be one of the effective strategies that can control illegal behavior in corporate bodies. Corporate crime will include crimes by a corporation such as a business firm or by individuals under vicarious or corporate liability. Corporate crime has been found to cause some overlap with white-collar crime since the employees normally represent the interest of a corporation. Organized crime is seen through corporate arrangement and criminal acts of illegal business, which has resulted in making huge sums of money.

State corporate crime has been a corporate crime when links between the corporation and the state create a chance for criminal activities between the two groups. Corporate crime has brought political debates, especially in countries like the United Kingdom, where corporate manslaughter is linked to disaster in rail and sea networks. It also addresses the corporate crime on industries and business enterprises that pose technological hazards. This means that corporate crime poses a threat to the community at large in which their actions and impact on personal injury and cause economic and physical impacts (Glasbeek Harny, 141).

Criminal LawLaw is in place to regulate behavior and makes a ruling on the penalty to give. Thus the legislative makes all considerations to justify an act as a crime or offense punishable by LawLaw or to be termed as a corporate crime. Identify the extent of crime committed should follow behavior is a potential threat to loss and damage. Crime and criminal justice should be approached in a very professional manner because businesses are the major strongholds of many states. Due to the mutual relationship of providing a stable economy then the political influence of a decision regarding is very crucial. All in all, LawLaw should be applicable to all and enforced at all times.

Crime occurs due to the opportunity and thought that it would be committed and go unnoticed. Corporations turn out to be the only means by which crime can be committed, such as fraudulent activities in the accounts department, stores, and control, inventory and acquisition transactions. Crime may also occur where a legitimate business engages in illegal and criminal activity. However, these activities survive due to high levels of secrecy among the top managers and other stakeholders in this activity. Bribery and corporation is a crime in developing societies, especially with public officials. The media has not been explicit in giving reports on corporate crime, mostly due to the weighty issues surrounding companies, the government, and the public.

Persons of high profile commit a white-collar crime; a respectable person with high social status, with white-collar crime, there is a possibility of fraud, bribery, and other criminal activities on white-collar employees. They also suffer insider trading, online crime, and fraud, as well as forgery of documents. Most of these crimes may be detected and not reported or may not detect at all for a very long period. White-collar crime will involve the manipulation of records in the accounts and inventory department.

White-collar offenders are financially supported to get good lawyers, those with some political influence, or are in judicial systems. Such contacts make them have favor on an individual basis without strict measures being taken against them. United States environmental protection agency is a government agency that enforces many corporate crimes when they discover abuse. According to the Law reform commission New South Wales, white-collar crimes have been enforced, with financial fraud receiving higher penalties and punishment than crimes related to drugs and killing. This has been seen in the change from 5 to 20 years in jail for wire and mail fraud. It was made tougher with a rule that a 50 cent drop in a company’s billion share float would see a man serving an 11 years jail term of the chief executives as a result of a material misstatement.

Law at times shields corporate wrongdoers. For example, the huge multinational corporation, shell, is known to be an environmental hazard that has risked and even caused the death of human beings, and yet the directors and stakeholders continue to be free. Some companies that mine asbestos have posed a danger to human life and have caused health risks to many people, yet they have gone scot-free without any justice. This is to means that criminal justice systems are not for such offenders who are insensitive to the life and survival of human beings (Wong K.C. 110).

The working groups are not considered as the owners of the production and labor and thus, what they get is their wage which is in most cases too little to care for all their needs. The criminal justice systems have no relevance to the anti-social behavior of such employers who have total disregard to the need to conserve the environment, provide a working environment for their employees as well as provide enough salary to cater for all their needs. The severe punishment that the poor in society receive cannot be compared to the fair treatment of the rich who inflict harm to employees.

With corporate wrongdoers, civil liability over death and other injuries should e use. Prosecution and punishment by the criminal LawLaw would be the alternative solution for the company rather than an individual. This can be achieved through corporate doctrine, vicarious liability, and management models that take concern of specific corporate offenses. With the powers in a company and the political influence it has on the state, it must be responsible for the society not to harm or injure it, and if not, they should be criminally liable.

When policies and practices of a company are the results of corporate crime rather than an individual’s fault, corporate criminal liability should be on the company itself. It, therefore, cannot be direct to the individual wrongdoer or determine where the fault lies. This is attributed to the fact that corporate hierarchy cannot be veiled; hence the single individual or individuals is hard to be identified. Corporate criminal liability aims at improving the work and company practices to improve the working and safety standards. When there is no means for corporate persecution, the practices would still continue and would be a shield for the company to engage and carry out criminal activities. Another advantage would be for the large structured companies where third parties such as media and other outsiders may be able to have evidence or justify a committed crime.

According to Freiberg Arie, 62, Criminal justice systems should be to provide a due process where criminals are apprehended and punished by the system. It also aims at protecting victims of crime and offering protection to children who are vulnerable to crime. The police force, together with the criminal justice system, detects and brings to criminal scrutiny various crimes committed. Public confidence has been on the decrease for the pile-up of cases in court. Media has a substantial role in creating fear in committing the crime. This is because they have no comprehensive coverage on crime and related stories, and hence people will create the notion that crime is still increasing in society.

Criminalization is a process that ascertains major acts as criminal and against the LawLaw. It, therefore, causes the legislature to regulate and control and give punishment. Consumerism and economic deprivation have been associated with the globalization of crime. In this, there have been criminal activities in the world that have resulted in political crime and related links to committed crime. Crime statistics from the reported cases of crime by police and crime victim surveys are major sources of the statistics. These reports are fundamental in the formation of government policies. The international crime victim survey is a program that surveys the extent of crime, makes policies, and also crime prevention measures necessary to reduce cases of crime.

The British crime survey in England and Wales carries out random interviews with a research group. It has been reported in this survey that a 12% decrease in crime was noted from 1998 to 2000. From 2000 to 2004, it dropped by 33%. Crime and accountability is the major challenge that large-scale organizations have to meet. Decision or negligence of a legitimate organization may lead to acts or omission which civil LawLaw or state punishes the organization. Corporate crime is distanced from organized crime despite certain similarities between them.

Occupational crime may occur where an individual of groups abuse their legal occupational positions for illegal and personal gain. This can lead to direct victimization of consumers or to the entire institution. Corporate crime hence addresses business crime in terms of finances, capital, power, management, and intellectual property. Corporate crimes lead to enormous economic losses by the government, consumers, and workers of the company. It can lead to physical and social costs in illegal deals of pensions and issues concerning the health and environment of the labor force. The corporate crimes further lead to social effects due to unsatisfactory provision of the social needs of the workers while working in the organization.

The economic and physical impact felt by the society ranges from low pay, poor working conditions, polluted environs, among others. This puts to risk the workers and consumers to be victims of corporate crime. The result is bad company reputation, low productivity, lack of motivation by workers, and social injustice. In the course of financial transactions, the selling of financial products may involve some criminal activities (Spalek, B. 79). Tax evasions, bribery, illegal shares, and merges are major illegal accounting activities that can lead to the downfall of an organization. Financial crime has been committed in banks with fraud money transfers, bribery, and money laundering while a company as Guinness and illegal share deals during the 1980s.

Corporate war crime has an illegal connection with the use of military violence. This is seen through the support of corporations to state violence when there is opposition and may seek to be directly linked to military undertakings. Overpricing, well-related illnesses, and other crimes are again consumers (Karstedt, Susanne 86). The defrauding activities include the illegal sale of goods, price conspiracies, illegal labels, and goods not fit for purpose and use. The standard of most products is not checked, and as a result, there is fraudulent use and application of safety testing and leads to death and illness to many consumers (Victoria parliament. Drugs and crime prevention committee).

Work-related illnesses are also occupational health crimes that expose the workforce to fatal substances, diseases, and work patterns that risk health complications. Economic crime regarding misappropriation of funds, cheques, credit card fraud, identity theft, and other criminal issues can lead to the economic instability of innocent persons. In America, in 1977, the economic losses went to $40 billion due to corporate crime. As e-commerce has taken root, online shopping and banking have been interfered with by online fraud and manipulations. Non-existing organizations open web pages and conduct their trading. Furthermore, others are after the intellectual property of the organizations, and they use this to their own advantage.

Criminal activity has interfered with the trust in finance, commerce, and government due to the irresponsible behavior of entrepreneurs, politicians, and financiers. Corporate crime has led to 3759 sudden deaths and over 205,000 due to major injuries in the last ten years. Twenty thousand industrial workers suffer diseases, with 3-12000 suffering occupational concerns. Home-based consumer products lead to 1100 deaths and 1,390,000 injuries. Of great concern is the lack of criminal investigations taking place due to corporate harm (Rudolf J, & Bartle B. 38, 43)

Despite the fact that corporate crime and the criminal circles engaged in, it is often seen as a lesser crime. From a social perspective, it inflicts damage to the entire society where the property is stolen, injured, and death through corporate violence. In the United States, a crime includes burglary, theft, and other fraudulent activities that undermine the efforts of working individuals. Violation of the environment, health, and safety are expensive in that diseases, death, and related illnesses are a social challenge to the community. The economic growth of a country is affected by such activities, and the living standards continue to fall below expectation (Simpson Sally S.153).

Fear, social unrest, and worry are effects that the society feels burdened to plan and organize for their security needs. Corporate crime leads to customer dissatisfaction, organizational crisis, and the general fall in the publicity and company’s reputation to the public. This translates to a loss of business contracts and partner’s financial collapse of the company, and a major decline in production and labor wastage. Fraudulent activities are a social crisis that pollutes the social maturity of the entire society. Greed for easy earned money without originality is a ruining factor to the morality of a society.

Lack of accountability at work and to the organizational passions is an abuse of professionalism, corporate crime, puts into suffering parties that were not involved, partners that were uninformed, as well as innocent customers who are unaware of the happening criminal activities. Corporate crime is criminal behavior. All individuals in the corporate organization should demonstrate maturity, accountability, and transparency in the activity engaged in. the LawLaw should be followed strictly so that social relations are enhanced and maintained. Organizational cultures that scrutinize any corporate crime demonstrate goodwill to their business partners, government and the society at large.

Works Cited

Australian Institute of Criminology. Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics. Freiberg Arie. Sentencing white-collar criminals. (2000).

Glasbeek Harny. “shielded by law: why corporate wrongs and wrongdoers are privileged” University of Western Sydney Law Review. (2002)

Karstedt, Susanne. Inequality, power and morality. Canberra: Australian institute of criminology (1997).

Law reform commission New South Wales. Sentencing – corporate offenders report 102 (2003).

Rudolf J, Bartle B. Criminal liability of organizations, Hobart: Law Reform Institute. (2005).

Simpson Sally S. Corporate crime, LawLaw and social control, Cambridge University Press. (2002)

Spalek, B. White-collar crime victims and the issue of trust. (2001).

Victoria parliament. Drugs and crime prevention committee. Inquiry into white-collar crime. Discussion paper. (2006).

Wong K.C. From white-collar crime to organizational crime. An intellectual history Murdock university electronic journal of LawLaw. 12. (2005).

The state of Nevada is one of the 50 states in America; located 39° 148’ to the north and 119°743’ to the east. What makes this state a pleasant place to live in is its low cost of living, due less tax imposition, lower health costs and low pollution, however crime rates are a warring trend here. According to the federal laws, each state has the freedom of maintaining its own independent jurisdiction in the areas of criminal justice system. As a matter of state policy, each state is responsible of determining what constitutes a crime with an appropriate form of punishment (Wilson 1987).

In the past several years, the crime rate in Nevada has been on the increase according to a report from the FBI’s “Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR)”. The most common nature of crimes in the state of Nevada is property crimes and violent crimes. In the city of Las Vegas only, the property crime rate is 57,552 while that of violent crime rate is 9,158. Most of the crimes begun in 1981 but its peak was in the mid 1990s a time when the state was introducing casinos.

Since the operations of casinos begun, the rates of major crime rates increased to 6.7% as compared to when there were no casinos. The crimes involved murder, forcible rape robbery, property offences like burglary and larceny. When this number is compared to the national chart trend, it is evidently higher by about 1.26 times during the 1990s, a time when there was a tremendous decrease in violent crime rates in United States (Glase and Palla 2004).

A notable difference is that Nevada is listed to be one of the last states to record a decrease in crime rate compared to the rest of the states. There was a drop after the mid 1990s crisis but soon after the crime rate raise in the state begun to rise in the year 2000 (Nevada Division of Child & Family Services nd).

Further evidence show that from 1960, the rate of criminal activities like murder rate stood at lows of 21 murders per 100,000 but those figures had risen to 200 murders per 100,000 people by 1996. Records of about 197 murders were confirmed to have taken place in Nevada in 2003 where the number per residents is said to be 100,000 while compared to 129 murders confirmed in 2000.

The violent crime rates have increased to 20% from 2003 to 2007 while the property crime rate has increased to 12% during the same duration (Bureau of the Census 2011). It is a given fact that Nevada has been following the same pattern in property crimes and violent crimes over the years.

Nevada is ranked among the most criminal state in the nation. Some of the cross county regional trends complied by the federal bureau of investigation records that Las Vegas has the highest violent crime rate up to 770 per 100,000 crimes are committed while Reno reports the second highest crime rate especially murder crimes. While this is the case with the mentioned counties, Washoe was recorded with a rather low rate report of violent crimes committed compared to several other counties an estimated 84 violent crimes for every 100,000 residents (Cullen & Ball 2011).

The state’s department of criminology believes that most of the crimes are usually committed by the youths and that delinquency is the most common phenomenon during the adolescent period for most youths but soon they deter from criminal activities. Having this in mind, one way of reducing crime rates will be to set up a program that will help the youth and increase the supervision of youth behaviors (Harrison. and Beck. 2004).

Other ways that would help to curb the crime problems include increasing police patrol especially in the youth hangout places mostly after school hours; provide ways through which people especially the youth can acquire money through legal activities, have a comprehensive coordinated work force by the government and the other people serving agencies. In addition, build trustworthy coalitions of youth serving organizations.

References

Bureau of the Census, 2011. Poverty in the United States: Current population Reports: Consumer Income, Series P60-201. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Cullen, L. & Ball, E. (2011). Criminological Theory 5^th Ed. New York: Sage Publications.

Glase, L. E. & Palla, S. (2004). Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Probation and Parole in the United States, 2003. Washington D.C.: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.

Harrison, P. M. & Beck, A. J. (2004). Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin. Nevada Department of Corrections. Web.

Nevada Division of Child & Family Services (nd). The Uniform Crime Reports; 1960-2003. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Web.

Wilson , W. J. (1987). The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner-City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.