Category: Crime

Introduction

The inferential analysis refers to a method that allows examining the relationship between the two phenomena. The most common approach used by analysts using inferential methods is a regression coefficient. One example of this method is the correlation between neighborhood characteristics and crime rates collected by the Office of Policy Development and Research (“About PD&R”, n.d.). The following is the example of the report that presents readers with the findings of inferential analysis – “strong social organization, youth job opportunities, immigration, and residential stability are among several neighborhood characteristics associated with lower crime rates” (“Neighborhoods and violent crime,” 2016, para. 5). Hence, this method is valuable when a need for evaluating the correlation between the two factors is present. One should note that this is not the only approach to the matter, and alternative strategies such as the correlation coefficient exist (Ganti, 2019). This method allows the analyst to see a statistically significant relationship between the variables explored. In the case discussed above, the national agency would be able to examine the nature of the correlation between different factors, or to what extent socioeconomic factors impact crime rates.

Descriptive methods are appropriate when there is a need to assess information about specific demographic characteristics and explored phenomena. One example is the Bureau of Justice National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which is a questionnaire distributed to crime victims (“Data collection: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS),” 2017). From it, one can find out which percentage of a specific crime was reported to the police in a given time. Usually, this approach to statistics is applied when there is a necessity to present percentages, rates, or counts. Hence, in this case, the public safety agency used the measures of frequency to conduct the analysis. An alternative to this approach would be to include statistics from other countries and apply the measure of position for comparing the data, which would allow determining the relationship between data sets.

Report

The following report aims to explain the main trends of crimes gathered from data collected as part of the Uniform Crime Report. Firstly, the total violent crime committed from 1985, when the data was first collected until the timeframe for which one has a recent statistics, which is 2014, a total number of 1,514,701 cases of violent crimes were reported by this Police department (“Estimated crime in California,” n.d.; “Uniform crime reporting,” n.d.). Next, the median of these crimes is 50968, suggesting that this is the average value for the crimes between 1985 and 2014, and the mean is 50490. Over the course of calculating the mode, an error occurred suggesting that there the number of violent crimes each year differ and no repetitions occur. The maximum number of crimes occurred in 1991 and totaled 89,875 cases. A record low minimum number of violent crimes was recorded in 2013 with 16,524 instances, and the range is for this data set is 56214.

Murder and non-negligent manslaughter can be defined as an act of killing a person by another individual. This incorporates instances during which individuals were harmed, such as arguments or fights. For this data, the mean is 611, the median is 563, and the latter usually serves as a better representation for population statistics because it allows seeing the actual middle range of criminal cases, instead of the summed and divided aggregate. As with the previous component of the Unified Crime Report, no mode, or a number that can be seen the most often in a data set is present with murder and non-negligent manslaughter statistics. The maximum was 1094 in 1992, the minimum was 252 in 2013, and the range of 577, which is the difference between the years with the most significant number of reported murder cases and the least significant one. It is evident that Los Angeles is subjected to a significant decrease in the context of murder and non-negligent manslaughter cases since 1985. However, in 2014, the city experienced an increase since 260 cases were reported by the police department.

Legacy rape is a term under which data of reported rape cases are aggregated prior to 2013 when the legal definition of this term was changed. The mean for the data set is 1457, and the median is 1413. This difference is enabled by the definitions of the two concepts since the mean is the amount of all reported cases, which is divided by the number of years, and the median provides the average number in the data set. The fact that the two are very similar suggests that the data set is balanced. The median cannot be calculated since all the year has a defend count of legacy rape cases. Calculation of the model results in an error, suggesting that the amount of case reports is unique for each year and the range is 12. The max is 2330 cases, which accounts for the year 1986, and the min is 764 cases reported in 2014. However, one should note that this significant drop in the crime rates is due to the change of the legal definition. Hence these cases account only for the rape crimes that fall under the old definition.

In some cases, the interpretation of data, especially that related to similar reports or national safety, depends on the legal definitions of terms. One example is revised rape, the concept that presents a revised definition of rape that occurred in 2013. Hence, data regarding the instances of revised rape is available only from 2013, while other cases that fall under the previous definition were discussed above. The mean, median, max, and min for this statistic are 1126, and the range is 0 since the data is available only for one year.

Robbery statistics is another aspect of the Los Angeles crime that will be examined. Firstly, the mean value of this element is 20824, and the median is 16874. This suggests that at a certain point in time, the levels of robbery crime is that the city increased significantly since the two values are very different. Another explanation is a significant decrease experienced since 2012. The mod cannot be established, and the max value is 39,778 consistent with the reports from 1994 with the min of 7885 in 2013, and the range of 19,789.

Aggravated assault data has to be interpreted in different ways when compared to other criminal cases examined in this report. This is because, in 2005, the Los Angeles Police Department altered its practices of data collection and reporting; hence, the structure and outcomes from this year and those that follow differ.

The mean number of aggravated assault cases is 27608, the median is 31987, the model cannot be calculated with this data, the maximum is 47104, which relates to the crimes conducted in 1991, and the minimum was 7624 in 2013, and range 35,141.

The mean number of property crimes in Los Angeles is 158,340, with a median of 136,408 and no mode. The maximum amount could be seen in 1991 with 256,349 cases and the minimum in 2014 with 83,139. The range is 97,916, indicating a significant difference between the years with the most substantial amount of reported cases and those with the least property crimes committed in the city.

Burglary statistics’ mean is 33504, and the median is 25,534. The calculation of mode results in an error, which is consistent with the specifics of the dataset. The maximum is 64,201, and these cases were reported in 1986, while the minimum amount of burglary occurred in 2014 with 15,070. The range for this dataset is 15308, which means that there is a significant difference when comparing the years where most of these crimes were reported and those with the minimum occurrences of burglary.

Larceny-theft’s mean in Lost Angeles is 87,269 with a median of 79,667 cases for the examined years. Similar to the previous datasets, the model cannot be calculated since all the report cases are unique for each year. The maximum number of these crimes is 130,234 in 1991, and the minimum is 53469 in 2011, with the range 58,547. This indicates a significant decrease of larceny-theft in Lost Angeles.

Conclusion

Motor vehicle theft’s mean is 37,566 and median is 32,687, while the mode cannot be calculated for this dataset. The maximum of reported burglary cases is 68,655 in 1991, and the minimum was 13,788 in 2013, and the range for this data set is 30,802. Overall, when comparing these statistics, one can argue that the examined statistic indicates a significant decrease in the number of crimes committed from 1986 until 2014.

References

About PD&R.(n.d.). Web.

Data collection: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).(2017). Web.

Estimated crime in California. (n.d.). Web.

Ganti, A. (2019).Correlation coefficient. Web.

Neighborhoods and violent crime. (2016). Web.

Uniform crime reporting. (n.d.). Web.

Scenario

In 2010, Peter Miller was imprisoned due to the participation in a group that was engaged in illegal arms sales. The members of the group had no license and violated other laws, while the brother of the convict was also suspected to be a part of this group, his guilt was not proved. When Miller was released from prison in 2018, the instigator, Adam Green, decided to make sure that he would not relapse into criminal behavior. After receiving a warrant, the investigator attached a Global Positioning System (GPS) device to Miller’s vehicle to be aware of his movements. Within a year of monitoring, Green discovered that Miller started to gather his previous accomplices, and a new crime was conducted. The key question is whether the actions of Green as an investigator using GPS were legal or not?

Answer

I (Issue) – This case focuses on the behaviors of Miller, the released convict, and Green, the investigator. The issue for the trial court is to decide whether Green was eligible to attach the GPS device for the purpose of monitoring and trespass or not.

R (Rule) – Under the Fourth Amendment, unreasonable searches are prohibited, and warrants are to be issued. In United States v. Jones, the judges decided that personal effects of the defendant were trespasses, but the further search was in consistence with the Fourth Amendment.

A (Analysis) – In this case, Miller faced the violation of his rights since the actions of the investigator were unconstitutional. However, the search by police was appropriate as the warrant was obtained before installing the GPS device.

C (Conclusion) – Therefore, Miller is liable for privacy violation, while the search conducted by the investigator to reveal criminal activity was reasonable.

Introduction

Any arrest made on a person who is below the age of adulthood is termed as a juvenile arrest. The age of adulthood varies according to different areas and thus juvenile arrests also vary according to the different jurisdictions where the crime was committed. The age at which one ceases to be referred to as a kid and is considered as an adult makes a huge difference in the world of crime, for example, while in some places the legal adult age is at 18, in others is 21 while in other places it is as late as 25 years of age (Elrod & Ryder, 2009).

The Overall Decrease in Juvenile Arrests

As the report shows, the numbers of juvenile arrests made each year in the United States of America have been declining since the late 1980s. However, law experts have been arguing that despite the decline in the number of juvenile arrests made, these figures can reduce further if the juvenile courts were transformed from civil courts to criminal courts. This is due to the fact that with most of the juveniles charged in civil courts, their crime records are never recorded since most of the juvenile courts sentences are expunged or even forgotten after reaching the adult age and from here, the juveniles are expected to begin fresh lives and this has been a leading factor to the cases of juvenile crimes in the USA (Champion, 2007).

In order to control these ever rising figures of juvenile crimes, the habitual offenders arrested as a result of committing heinous crimes should be charged as adults as this would deter others from committing similar crimes (Wootton & Heck, 2002).

In the recent past, reported cases of juvenile crime have reduced dramatically as noted in a report by the Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Although the report notes that more than 2 million arrests of the people under the age of 18 were made in the year 2001, these figures were less compared to the past years. FBI reports further that of these crimes, 15 % of the juveniles arrested were due to violent crime. However, the report notes that this was a fall to 48% from the rising percentages between 1994 and 2001. It was also noted that the crime rate index also fell to the lowest levels during this year (Snyder, 2003).

The numbers of the juveniles murdered during the year 2001 also declined and of all the reported murder cases in the US, more than 90% were adults. Fewer juveniles were murdered in the United States of America than in any other year. The execution of murders during this year also varied with about two thirds being executed by the use of a firearm. However, the involvement of the firearm varied with the age. For example whereas 14% of the murdered juveniles under 13 were killed using a firearm, a high 77% above 13 or older were killed with a firearm.

The Increase in Drug Offenses and Simple Assaults

In contrast to the declines of major crimes as reported above, the rate of juvenile arrests made between 1980 and 1993 had remained in a constant rate however between 1993 and 1997 the rate increased dramatically but the rate fell to a lower percentage though the levels were still high compared to other years. In the same period, it was noted that the rates of juvenile arrests as a result of simple assaults increased, though the levels dropped, they were still historical high levels and thus there is need to check on them closely to know what really initiated these minor offences (Snyder, 2003).

Implications for Female Juvenile Female and Minorities

With more than 28% of the arrests made in the year 2001 resulting from female juveniles, this is quite strange because most of the times, such high levels are rare to record. The share by the minority races to the crimes also increased whereby the share of the juveniles in crimes reduced in the year 2001; however a larger share of the crimes committed involved the minority races. The report shows that more than three quarters of the juvenile arrests were whites but the blacks were over presented in the juvenile arrests involving violent crimes with a high percentage of 45%.The problems with the increased rate of crimes among the females and the juveniles can be attributed to the changes in crime opportunities and the growing intolerance of violent behavior exhibited by all genders (Backstrom, 1996).

An Assessment of Tracking Juvenile Arrests as a Method of Measuring the Amount Of and Trends in Juvenile Crime

The tracking of juvenile as a method of measuring the amount and trends in juvenile crime is a commendable method since it contains all the crimes included in the violent Crime index and Property Crime Index. However, the problem with relying on tracking juvenile arrests as a method to measure and predict likelihood of crimes can be attested to the fact that not everyone who is arrested actually committed the offence he or she was accused of committing. In addition, except the murder cases where FBI records might be accurate, cases of unreported crimes do not mean the crimes never occurred and thus the figures and the percentages presented might also be inaccurate.

Another shortcoming of tracking of the juvenile arrests is that with each arrest being calculated differently, if a juvenile is arrested for committing several burglaries, the arrest would show up as one arrest with no indications of the number of burglaries and also the fact that one crime may result in multiple arrests since a single crime is likely to occur with juveniles compared to adults.

Conclusion

Whereas the juvenile crime rates have been declining, controlling the vice completely is not possible and enforcement efforts must continue to deal with both violent and non violent crime offenders before it is too late. Whereas the tracking of juveniles as a method of measuring the amounts and trends in juvenile crime is commendable, its short comings need to be checked upon to avoid the existing miscalculations.

Reference List

Backstrom, C. J. (1996).Solving The Juvenile Crime Crisis: A Prosecutor’s Perspective. Web.

Champion, D. (2007). The Juvenile Justice System: Delinquency, Processing, And The Law, Fifth Edition: Prentice Hall, Inc. A Pearson Education Company

Elrod, P., & Ryder, R. S. (2009). Juvenile Justice: A Social, Historical, And Legal Perspective: 3rd Edition. New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Snyder, H. N. (2003). Juvenile Arrests 2003. Web.

Wootton, J., & Heck, R. O (2002). How State and Local Officials Can Combat Violent Juvenile Crime. Web.

White-collar crime is a common occurrence especially in the current world in almost all parts of the world even though it has not been in use for a long time. The word was invented by Edwin H. Sutherland an American criminologist while giving his speech in a meeting of the American Sociological Society. Sutherland explained that there is a difference between crimes committed by people of high social status and people of low social status. The same idea is identified in his definition for the same since he defines white-collar crime as “a crime committed by a person of high respectability and a person of high social status in the course of his occupation” (Benson & Simpson, 2009 pp. 5). Further studies explain that the definition excludes all upper-class crimes that are not committed in course of someone’s occupation. Gender plays a big role since the number of women committing such crimes is different from the number of men. In that case, this paper discusses factors that contribute to gender disparity in white-collar crimes.

Various studies which have been conducted in the field of criminology indicate that men commit more crimes than women. Nevertheless, the very recent research findings indicate that the gender gap has been reducing due to various factors such as economic hardships which are affecting both men and women. Opportunity may not be the only reason that leads to the disparity but it is a significant factor. According to the studies of Friedrichs (2009), women represent twenty to twenty-five percent of the total arrests. They are overrepresented in frauds of the low level while they are underrepresented in the frauds of the high level. Therefore, lack of opportunity plays a very big role in the same.

As much as research has indicated that the gap between male offenders and female offenders in white-collar crime is reducing, there is still some disparity that can be noted. Therefore, there are many factors that can contribute to the same apart from the economic hardships.

Studies of Benson & Simpson, (2009) indicate that there is a difference in the way through which men and women view crime opportunities. More to that, women may commit fewer crimes due to their values which include integrity and self-control. Nevertheless, such a claim is still contentious especially due to the fact that as highlighted earlier, it has been noted that the gap becomes narrower as the number of women in positions of power continues to increase.

Although studying white-collar crimes is a dynamic and complicated issue, it is clear that there exists gender disparity among the offenders as is the case with other types of crimes. Various factors may cause the disparity although some are very controversial. Lack of opportunity is a prime factor as until recently; women have been underrepresented in high-profile careers that are more prone to white-collar crimes. In addition, white-collar jobs are structured in such a way that women are more scrutinized not to mention that studies of Benson & Simpson (2009), illustrate that they are more victimized in case they commit such crimes. Most importantly, is necessary to understand that there are a lot of differences between men and women contributed by different modes of socialization and as a result, a disparity has to exist not only in white-collar crimes but also in other issues in society.

References

Benson, M. L. & Simpson, S. S. (2009). White-collar crime: an opportunity perspective. New York : Taylor & Francis.

Friedrichs, D. O. ( 2009). Trusted Criminals: White Collar Crime in Contemporary Society. Stamford : Cengage Learning.

Assignment 1

Juvenile misconduct retains its position as one of the most flexibly policed crimes, leaving law enforcement with various processual options. Children caught by the police often receive a warning, rather than having an official case opened, but this depends on the severity of the crime (Taylor, 2017). In the case of shoplifting, the first process undertaken by the police could be to question the criminal on site, followed by contacting their legal guardians, referring them to a community agency, or arresting them (Taylor, 2017). Thus, four possible processes may be outlined as questioning, identification, record overview, and, finally, either custodial or non-custodial arrest.

The police force has a variety of options when dealing with juvenile shoplifters, their arrest relying on the existence of a previous criminal record, which mostly decides the processes’ course. Questioning and identifying under-age offenders may require contacting legal guardians, which may be used as a tactic to avoid detainment that is often outlined “as a last resort” (Taylor, 2017, p. 146). Finally, police may bring juvenile offenders into the police department for custodial arrest or serve court summons at home, as a form of non-custodial arrest, both options resulting in the opening of a court case.

Assignment 2

The citizens of any country maintain a right to a certain degree of secrecy, with the constitution of the United States supporting US nationals. Therefore, any actions taken by the government to track the activities of its citizens are met with outrage and negativity even from law-abiding residents (White, 2017). However, preventing the occurrence of crimes may be possible through monitoring those citizens who partake in suspicious behavior, allowing judging their actions as illegal and, therefore, arresting them if enough evidence is amassed. This method could permit reducing the number of transgressions committed and increase domestic safety. Despite the balance between individual rights and national security becoming precarious, this approach may allow reducing the number of crimes.

Organized crime, cyber-crime, and terrorism have become the face of modern-day law violation, requiring modernized solutions to prevent their occurrence. From virtual to real-life attacks, terrorism in its various forms may become the “dominant mode of conflict,” necessitating all levels of law enforcement to be prepared to respond to it (White, 2017, p. 376). Therefore, since the nature of government involvement in crime prevention could be positive, securing countrywide safety may excuse infringing on individual rights, maintaining community safety over merely personal security.

References

Taylor, M. (2017). USA. In S. H. Decker & N. Marteache (Eds.), International handbook of juvenile justice (2nd ed., pp. 135-154). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

White, J. R. (2017). Terrorism and homeland security (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Introduction

The relevance of surveillance in the fight against crime has remained a controversial topic over the past decade. According to Espejo, L’Huillier, and Weber (2016), the United Kingdom has over 4.2 million closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras spread across the country, especially in major urban centers to help law enforcement and intelligence agencies monitor and fight crime in the society. It means that there is one CCTV for every 14 people in the country. The emergence of the surveillance society is motivated by the desire to have a crime-free society. The proponents of this approach of fighting crime believe that the fact that people are aware that their actions are under surveillance deter them from committing a crime. It also simplifies the work of police law enforcement agencies when investigating criminal activities in the country. However, some studies have refuted the claim that greater surveillance can reduce crime in society. According to Nellis (2014), greater surveillance only succeeds in breaching the privacy of innocent citizens without having any meaningful impact on fighting security, especially among those who are fully aware of its existence. The purpose of this essay is to discuss whether greater surveillance is a desirable answer to the problem of crime in society.

Discussion

The United Kingdom’s national government spends millions of pounds to install and replace CCTV cameras in strategic places, especially along the streets and highways to help monitor criminal activities. The cost of having a fingerprint database, monitoring telephone calls, e-mails, posts, and social media messages is even greater than that needed to manage the surveillance cameras. A section of the society is strongly opposed to the idea of investing taxpayers’ money in greater surveillance because it is not having any meaningful impact on improving security (McCahill 2014). On the other hand, some people believe that any attempt to limit surveillance can cripple law enforcement and intelligence agencies. The opponents and proponents of surveillance have valid issues that they raise to support their arguments. It is necessary to review the two sides of an argument before concluding as to whether greater surveillance is desirable in fighting crime.

Proponents of Greater Surveillance

According to Granick (2017), one of the fundamental responsibilities of the national government is to ensure that residents of the United Kingdom are safe from any criminal or terror activities. The law enforcement agencies (the territorial police service, the national law enforcement agencies, and the miscellaneous police service) working closely with intelligence agencies have the responsibility of enhancing the security and safety of people and property in the country (Jeffreys-Jones 2017). When dealing with issues of security, these agencies cannot afford to be reactionary in their response. Reacting when properties or lives are already lost is not a strategy that the government can embrace. Threats to security should be dealt with before they can affect society.

In a report by Granick (2017), the crime rate in the United Kingdom has gone down significantly because of effective policing, including the enhanced use of surveillance. However, there is a new wave of terror attacks that are causing major concerns in the country. The problem is not unique to the United Kingdom. France, Belgium, Russia, and the United States are some of the developed nations that have come under increasing attacks by extremists over the past two decades (Ferguson 2017). Greater surveillance is critical in fighting these terrorists. The cost of loss of lives and destruction of property is incomparable to the money spent on surveillance. Some of these terror attacks are made possible because of the limited surveillance by the intelligence agencies. A good example is the Orlando nightclub shooting on June 12, 2016, as Jeffreys-Jones (2017) observes.

Omar Mateen, a security guard, aged 29 years, organized and executed one of the worst terror attacks in the United States in recent times. He targeted a nightclub in Orlando. 49 innocent people lost their lives, and 53 others sustained gunshot wounds (Jeffreys-Jones 2017). Analysis of this terror act reveals dangers in security lapses, especially when it comes to enhanced surveillance. The lapse in security surveillance started when Omar purchased a semi-automatic rifle and a large round of ammunition without proper justification. Several days before the attack, he had confided in a friend and told him that he was planning to kill people. Hours before the attack, he used several Facebook posts to tell the American community that he was seeking vengeance for American airstrikes in Syria and Iraq (Ferguson 2017).

His digital footprint also shows that he visited websites and pages that sympathized with or supported terror groups such as ISIL and al-Qaida. Soon after that, he went ahead to attack the nightclubs. These events should have drawn the attention of the intelligence community if there were proper surveillance. The activities of this terrorist went unchecked, and the outcome of that error of omission was the death of many innocent Americans. It took a 911 distress call from the victims for the law enforcement agencies to realize that there was a security breach (McCahill 2014). That should not happen in modern society where technology makes it easy to fight such crimes. The events surrounding the Charlie Hebdo attack also demonstrated the dangers of limited surveillance in society.

According to Granick (2017), British society expects the government to assure it of maximum security. The performance of the government is often put into question when lives and properties are lost to criminals and terrorists. People opposed to increased surveillance either lack proper knowledge of security and intelligence management or have something sinister to hide (Ferguson 2017). Officers responsible for fighting crime in the country are human beings. They do not have supernormal skills to predict the actions of criminals and terrorists. They need to use technology to assist them in making the right decisions when fighting crime. When they have means of monitoring activities of specific individuals considered dangerous to the society, such as those who have been indicted for criminal acts or classified as terror sympathizers, they can determine when they are planning to commit a crime.

The problem of terrorism is particularly becoming a major concern in society. The United Kingdom has received thousands of refugees and asylum seekers over the last five years because of the war in Syria, Yemen, Libya, and other countries in the Middle East. Although the majority of these refugees are in genuine need of assistance, Nellis (2014) warns that a few are members or sympathizers of extremist groups keen on attacking the West for its involvement in war in the MENA (the Middle East and North Africa) region. Failing to maintain proper surveillance of these people may pose a serious threat to British society. Granick (2017) also explains that the emergence of cybercrimes forces security agents to maintain online surveillance as a way of fighting crime.

Opponents of Greater Surveillance

Greater surveillance is not a desirable answer to the problem of crime. British society highly values privacy. It is unfair for the government to monitor the activities of its private citizens without a court order. The surveillance is shifting from the use of CCTV cameras to the scrutiny of phone calls, e-mails, and communications in social media (McCahill 2014). If the current trends continue, it is evident that security agencies will start wiretapping most of their citizens in the name of fighting crime. The law requires security agents to seek a court order in case they want to collect information from phone calls or e-mails from people believed to be a threat to security. The judge is expected to analyze the presented case if it has a valid reason to support such surveillance. In many cases, such requests are denied if it is established that it will constitute an unfair breach of privacy. However, security agents are now bypassing the law. They are subjecting people to surveillance without any proper justification. Nellis (2014) explains that one of the problems with such unauthorized surveillance is the misuse of mined data. In an attempt to create big data to fight crime, intelligence agencies are now conducting massive online surveillance on companies and individuals (Jeffreys-Jones 2017).

The problem with such surveillance is that sometimes it leads to misuse of private information. These individuals involved in mining and keeping such data can be tempted to misuse the information they gather. Companies spend millions of pounds to come up with unique strategies to enhance their competitiveness. They have to protect their data from their rivals to enhance their competitiveness. When such information is mined and made accessible to other firms through corrupt officers, the affected companies will lose their competitive edge in the market. In other cases, intelligence officers take advantage of their position to monitor the activities of their friends, family members, or other interest groups. Recent statistics on terror activities show that surveillance may not necessarily fight crime in society. Over the last ten years, cases of a terror attack have been common in the country despite the massive investment that the government has made to improve surveillance (Ferguson 2017). The Manchester Arena Bombing on May 22, 2017, demonstrated the limitations of surveillance in fighting terrorism. Other recent cases include the London Bridge attack, Finsbury Park attack, and Westminster attack. These attacks occurred at a time when the government promised its citizens that their security would be enhanced because of improved surveillance.

Conclusion

Greater surveillance may not be the most desirable approach to managing crime in the country because of issues such as breach of privacy and high costs incurred by the government. Many people value their privacy and do not support approaches that involve monitoring every action they take. However, it is an unavoidable approach to managing the problem of crime. The emergence of cybercrime means that the use of traditional approaches may not be very effective in improving security in the country. When it comes to choosing between privacy and safety, society must choose the latter, which means that although greater surveillance may be undesirable, it is unavoidable in the fight against crime.

Reference List

Espejo, G, L’Huillier, G & Weber, R 2016, ‘A game-theoretical approach for policing decision support’, European Journal of Applied Mathematics, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 338-356.

Ferguson, A 2017, Rise of big data policing: surveillance, race, and the future of law enforcement, University Press, New York, NY.

Granick, J 2017, American spies: modern surveillance, why you should care, and what to do about it, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Jeffreys-Jones, R 2017, We know all about you: the story of surveillance in Britain and America, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

McCahill, M 2014, The surveillance web: the rise of visual surveillance in an English city, 2nd edn., Routledge, New York, NY.

Nellis, M 2014, ‘Understanding the electronic monitoring of offenders in Europe: expansion, regulation and prospects’, Crime Law Social Change, vol. 62, no. 4, 489-510.

Charges and Penalties

On May 20^th, 2016, in Happy Town, GA, sixty pairs of socks were stolen from a local Socks for Feet outlet, and a seventy-six-year-old security guard was shoved to the ground. Multiple witnesses identified the three suspects as Bubba Beauregard Hurt, Skeeter Redrum, and Summer Breeze. The local police force later apprehended the suspects along with the loot. The total value of the stolen merchandise is $672.00, which is a considerable sum.

It is unknown whether Bo Foot, the security guard, sustained any significant injuries during the incident. The four witnesses that gave statements are Clifford Tonell, the owner of the store, Bo Foot, the security guard, Andrea Sianturi, the store employee, and Susan Bunion, a criminal justice instructor who was making purchases at the time of the incident.

The case appears to be an open and shut shoplifting incident, but some details confound me. Susan Bunion wrote in her statement that Redrum put some socks in Breeze’s purse, while Bo Foot asserted that he gave them to her, and she put them in her purse. Bunion and Tonell both mentioned some unknown person yelling, which caused the thieves to flee, while the other two witnesses and officer Winchester neglected to mention this seemingly important detail.

It is also suspicious that witness Tonell, witness Sianuri, and witness Bunion all knew some of the suspects. Witness Sianuri knew Hurt, but not the other two, and witness Bunion knew Redrum and Breeze, but not Bubba Hurt. The fact that Tonell knew all three is explainable by them having priors and him being a responsible business owner, but should still be noted.

Witnesses Bunion, Foot, and Tonell stated that the suspects took “some” socks, yet Sianturi knew the exact number. The police arrived at the store at 18:00, and the witness statements were taken at 19:00. I find it hard to believe that the case was closed, and all the paperwork was done in an hour. I do not know how witness Sianuri knew the exact number of socks Hurt took before the police were able to find them in the suspect’s car. Additionally, Bubba Hurt’s record seems to be forged, as his stated date of birth is 1990, while his fingerprints, palms, and employment indicate that he was already an adolescent in 1985. There may be more to this case than meets the eye. I would recommend that before any conviction is made, a thorough investigation be performed.

Regardless of any extraneous circumstances, I assert that all suspects are guilty at least of one count of theft by shoplifting as described in the Georgia Code, section 16-8-14, subsection (a), paragraphs (1) and (3).Suspect Bubba Hurt is guilty of theft by shoplifting, where the value of stolen merchandise exceeded $300.00, which, in accordance with section 16-8-4, subsection (b), paragraph (2) is a felony, punishable by one to ten years in prison.

The previous shoplifting felony means that he will also be fined $250.00 or more, under section 16-8-4, subsection (b), paragraph (1). I deem that suspect bumped into the security guard Bo Foot as an accident rather than a deliberate act of assault, so it is up to Bo Foot to press charges if he so chooses. Suspects Skeeter Redrum and Summer Breeze are guilty of theft by shoplifting, where the value of stolen merchandise was below $300.00, which is a misdemeanor, according to section 16-8-4, subsection (b), paragraph (1). Their priors were not provided to me, so I will assume they are not pertinent to the case.

Whether all three suspects are also guilty of entering Redrum’s car with the intent to commit a felony, as described in section 16-8-18 of Georgia Code, or only two, is unclear. Further investigation should be performed to determine whether Hurt was acting together with Redrum and Breeze, or separately. The investigation should also focus on the connections between suspects and witnesses, and the witnesses’ involvement in the sock theft.

Level of Criminal Aptitude and Criminal Typology

After examining suspect Hurt’s criminal record, I have noticed that some of it might be fraudulent. The record asserts that he began working for Happy Metals, Inc. in 1985, which is five years before his reported birth in 1990. His palms and fingerprints were taken in 1985 as a juvenile, and his DNA was collected in 1989. Bubba Hurt may operate under a fake identity, or have fraudulent data in his record to evade the police.

His relationship with the town’s residents is unknown to me. Clifford Tonell and Andrea Sianturi both know him by name, probably because he had committed similar crimes in the past. He and Chief of Police Rodney Hurt share a second name, which might be coincidental, but they might also be blood relatives, or the fake identity could be a blood relative. That points to him being a career criminal, and his entire identity could have been constructed after he evaded the law in the past. The manner in which he committed the sock theft, however, was unprofessional and even shoddy. He might be relying on Rodney Hurt to dismiss the charges like they were dismissed for his priors, if the theory of them being related is true.

Skeeter Redrum and Sunshine Breeze do not make the same impression. I do not have their criminal records, so I will assume they are not crucial to the case. The store owner and the criminal justice instructor knew them by name, which leads me to believe they have either attempted shoplifting in the past, or were on some field trip for their community college credit. Their approach to stealing the socks was slightly stealthier than Bubba’s, but their choice of merchandise was poor, as Hang Nail Free socks were relatively cheap.

They strike me as opportunist shoplifters or thrill-seekers, but the fact that Redrum’s car was used by all three is odd. They might have had some connection to the more professional Bubba Hurt, or he took control of the situation during the panic. At any rate, Bobba appears to be the more experienced career criminal, and the other two appear to be amateurs.

As mentioned, there are discrepancies in Bubba’s criminal record, but if we assume his employment record to be legitimate, he might be less than a career criminal. Some thieves are known to supplement their legitimate income with stealing, which, in this case, might be to feed his drug habit. While marijuana is not a dangerous and expensive drug, it is unknown whether Hurt has any other substance abuse problems. The socks might have been for personal use, as they do not seem like goods with high resale value. That said, his whole identity is suspect, and until a thorough investigation is performed, I am not prepared to assert anything with confidence.

The personal use theory goes for Redrum and Breeze, too, as they stole an even lower quantity of cheaper products. It is very likely that they took the socks for personal use, and did not think they would be caught, as many younger shoplifters do. They are clearly occasional criminals: they operated in a group, targeted inexpensive small goods, and did it on a whim. The security guard and the unknown yelling person likely scared the shoplifters into an escape that nobody had planned for, which subsequently led to their arrest.

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program is the federal program that encourages law enforcement agencies to collect data about crimes in their jurisdictions and regularly report them to the FBI. Upon receiving these data, the FBI compiles a yearly Uniform Crime Report that reflects crime rates and trends throughout the U.S. The program was launched in 1929 because there was a need for credible unified statistics of criminal activity in the country (U. S. Department of Justice [DOJ], 1). Originally, the UCR program was designed to provide law enforcement with accurate data (DOJ, 1). However, over time, these reports have become a source of information about crime for everyone concerned.

The participation of law enforcement agencies in the UCR Program is voluntary. It is estimated that over “18,000 city, university and college, county, state, tribal, and federal law enforcement agencies” report the information about crimes either to responsible state bodies or directly to the FBI (DOJ, 1). Four data series constitute the UCR Program: “the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), the Summary Reporting System (SRS), the Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) Program, and the Hate Crime Statistics Program” (DOJ, 1). Each of these sets of crime data turns into a separate yearly report. Apart from that, the FBI issues several topical crime reports that are devoted, for example, to human trafficking or cargo theft.

There are several ways of how crime data for the UCR Program can be collected. There are primary and secondary data, and there are different ways of obtaining them (Kabir, 2). Strategies for gathering primary data include experiments, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, and observations (Kabir, 2). They are appropriate for law enforcement agencies who collect first-hand data to transfer them to the FBI.

For example, law enforcement officers often receive information about offenses via self-reporting, i.e., when a victim informs the police of the crime (DOJ, 3). Secondary data collecting strategies include the review of records, newspapers, data archives, etc. (Kabir, 2). For the present report, I chose the data-gathering strategy involving document review. The documents under review will be crime statistics collected by the police departments in the towns of concern.

The rationale for using this data-gathering method is that it spares the time and effort needed for collecting primary data. Generally, the advantage of using secondary data is that someone has already done the necessary background work (Kabir, 2). If the sources are reliable, there is no need to double-check the validity of the data (Kabir, 2). Police officers often directly communicate with complainants, examine crime scenes and evidence, and cross-check the details of a case to eliminate the probability of mistakes. For this reason, document review with the use of crime statistics collected by police departments is a reliable data-gathering strategy.

Next, crime trends in Happy Town, Frown Town, Smooth Town, and Cool Town will be explored. The statistics show that murder and nonnegligent manslaughter rates increased in Happy Town and Smooth Town from 2010 to 2015 (CRJ 105, 4). Frown Town and Cool Town saw an increase in rates of these crimes in 2012 and 2013, but, by 2015, murder rates had decreased (CRJ 105, 4). Forcible rape rates significantly increased in Happy Town over five years, from 2 in 2010 to 12 in 2015 (CRJ 105, 4).

In Cool Town and Frown Town, forcible rape rates were relatively low, totaling 1-2 per year (CRJ 105, 4). In Smooth Town, rates of forcible rape increased from 3 in 2011 to 5 in 2015 (CRJ 105, 4). In all four towns, there was an increase in robbery rates. The least growth was in Smooth Town that had the lowest robbery rates in 2010-2015 (CRJ 105, 4). The rise in Cool Town and Frown Town was identical, but since the total population of Frown Town was smaller, its forcible rape rates per 1000 people were greater.

Aggravated assault rates were changing differently from 2010 to 2015. In Cool Town and Frown Town, the number of these crimes was rising from 2010 to 2014 but decreased in 2015 (CRJ 105, 4). In Smooth Town, aggravated assault rates were initially higher than in the two previously mentioned towns, and varied from 75 to 80 over five years (CRJ 105, 4). In Happy Town, the increase was the most significant, from 72 in 2010 to 86 in 2015 (CRJ 105, 4).

Burglary rates increased in all four towns up to 18 in 2012, but by 2015, they had decreased in Cool Town and Frown Town and remained almost unchanged in Smooth Town and Happy Town (CRJ 105, 4). Larceny-theft was the most frequent Part I crime committed in these towns. In Cool Town and Frown town, its rate was the lowest and decreased over five years, while in Smooth Town, it varied from 161 to 167 (CRJ 105, 4). In Happy Town, the larceny-theft rate demonstrated the most significant growth over five years.

The final Part I crime to be reviewed is motor vehicle theft. In Cool Town, Smooth Town, and Frown Town, its rate was identical in all four towns in 2010-2013, with an increase in 2011 and a decrease in 2012-2013 (CRJ 105, 4). Despite the similar indexes, the crime rates per 1000 population were different. In Frown Town, the motor vehicle theft rate per 1000 people was the highest because the total population there is the smallest. In 2014, motor vehicle theft rates increased in Cool Town, Happy Town, and Frown Town, but decreased in Smooth Town (CRJ 105, 4). In 2015, Happy Town had the highest rates of this crime (CRJ 105, 4). Overall, Happy Town had the worst crime trends from 2010 to 2015 since all Part I crime rates increased.

Sources

U. S. Department of Justice, 2018, Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program. Web.

Syed Muhammad Sajjad Kabir, 2016, Methods of Data Collection. Web.

U.S. Department of Justice, 2018, Criminal Justice Information Services Division: Uniform Crime Reporting Program. Web.

CRJ 105, Uniform Crime Report (UCR) Performance Task, this is my course assignment.

Forensic Investigation in the Field

Forensic biology applies the procedures and concepts of biological studies to associate persons to an item, location, or another person. In the given case, two men found five skeletons and a decomposing body in the woods in the hole. To identify these skeletons and the body, it is critical to collect and analyze the bones, teeth, and sculls, as well as bodily fluids. More to the point, a forensic biologist can support the investigation by examining insects that can be found in the field and possibly affected the bodies.

The time and reason for death are important to determine to enable the justice system, ascertaining victims and offenders. This particular case also requires the use of forensic biology since the death seems to be caused under suspicious circumstances, suddenly, or under violent actions. Based on data collected by forensic biologists, it is possible to identify persons who were missing by comparing the details of clothing, teeth, et cetera.

After arriving at the scene, a forensic specialist should sign his or her contact information to enter the yellow tape area. In this case, the police officer, who arrived at the location after the call of two witnesses, is the first responder. Another first responder is the detective, who would briefly summarize the case and guide the forensic biologist throughout the crime scene. It is critical that the forensic investigator does not touch anything until the briefing process is finished.

During this process, the biologist should pay attention to the flagged areas and pay attention to information that was already gathered. Once the procedures of photographing and documenting are completed by the police team, the expert can start moving items and collecting the biological evidence. Furthermore, the issues of approaching and transporting the body and items are to be considered. The preliminary observation data should be ready by the time of placing the body in the special bag. Ultimately, the necessary documentation should be completed as the last step of the course of action.

For the correct examination of skeletons and the decomposing body, any contamination should be prevented. At the stage of collecting data at the scene, the forensic biologist should use gloves and cover his or her shoes, thus minimizing the external impact (Dutelle, 2014). Prior to removing any items, he or she should make sure to clarify if it was documented and photographed or not. The preservation needs should be taken into account as well, including identification bands, proper sealing, and other protective equipment (Balk, 2015).

The first responders present a challenge of contaminating the scene by depositing their hair, footprints, and body fluids, which makes the need to wear personal protection equipment rather significant. The improper securing of the area may result in lost evidence and the inability to provide the necessary data. In addition, the failure to escort the forensic investigator and explain the details of the crime can also compose a challenge. Therefore, the investigator should control all the expected procedures and processes to protect data.

The assessment process of the remains should begin with the estimation of the crime scene dimensions, such as the length, depth, and width. The location of the hole in the ground and related territories provides the source of valuable information. For example, the number of offenders can be supposed on the basis of the size of the area. The soil can also signalize the important details, including the remains that were left by transport or equipment. Any evidence that was found on bushes, trees, and terrain should be documented with details. If the soil was removed with the use of machinery to investigate the inner layers, it should be noted along with the impact of machinery.

The remains at the given scene are also presented by the decomposing body that should be removed as soon as possible since it is highly impacted by insects, animals, air, soil, sun, and other climatic factors. The rate of decomposition largely impacts the extent to which the remains can be examined, and conclusions can be made. Precise attention is to be paid to the skeletons and the decomposing body: the number and names of absent body parts or bones, the impact of animals, birds, and insects, clothing, and so on. In addition, forensic entomology is another option for identifying the role of soil-dwelling insects on the body.

The soil and insect samples can help in determining whether the given place is the site of death, post-mortem interval (Dutelle, 2014). DNA is the fundamental evidence that can be collected from the skin cells, hair, and/or bones in the given case. The focus on the dental structures of victims can be beneficial to identify them by using digital radiology.

The documentation can be performed by means of videotaping, photographing, and/or sketching methods. Depending on the availability of these means, the forensic biologist is expected to use either one of them or a combination of several methods. First, there is a strict protocol that prescribes documenting the location and position of the body and skeletons with regard to the area they were found in and each other. Second, all the related materials and substances should be recorded and sealed with caution. The chain of custody is the document format that should be used to note the descriptions of objects as well as the role of each of the persons who was involved in the scene place examination (Baxter, 2015).

The collected evidence and its descriptions should be sent to the appropriate places, where further analysis will be conducted. All these measures contribute to preserving the evidence and avoiding contamination and errors in the investigation.

The transportation of the evidence is an integral part of preserving it, which is rather important since the remains may be easily denatured under the impact of climatic factors and human mistakes. In particular, storing DNA should be conducted in special boxes, while a car’s trunk is not an appropriate place as a cold environment is required. In this connection, the forensic biologist should ensure that the transportation will be held at the proper temperature (Baxter, 2015).

The sample DNA that was saved according to the mentioned adjustments provides valuable information based on a mitochondrial analysis. The decomposing body should be transported to the morgue to perform an autopsy and anthropological analysis. The transportation service should be contacted by the investigator in advance or referred to the first responders if he or she has no personal transport or contracts with local firms.

Laboratory Examinations

The awareness of the reasons for evidence contamination in the laboratory promotes preventing its occurrence. In the given case, the evidence may be contaminated unintentionally during the handling process, namely, hardware and software analysis. During these processes, the examination may be violated by improper laboratory procedures, the failure to ensure sterilization of equipment, et cetera. One of the most prominent cases of contaminated evidence refers to the Phantom of Heilbronn, the woman who could not be caught for many years.

Only in 2008, the police discovered that it was a female who worked for the manufacture of swabs for an investigation that was used to hide her personality (Baxter, 2015). Powder and brushes to be used to examine this case should be clean, without other DNA samples.

To prevent laboratory contamination, great attention should be paid to the integrity of the packages that were transported from the crime scene. In case of any violations, the forensic biologist is expected to report to the unit manager or officer. The secondary risk can be reduced by changing the gloves after opening the bags. It seems to be essential to point out that the cleanliness of the area is one more essential point that should be controlled by the investigator, including personnel clothing, protective face and hair masks, and bench environment. The daily decontamination regimen should involve the examination of all items on a disposable surface to control the bench environment.

DNA is a molecule that composes genetic information and largely determines how people look. 99.9% of a person’s DNA is identical to the DNA of others, but it is the remaining 0.1% that sets people apart as individuals (Mapes, Kloosterman, van Marion, & de Poot, 2016). For forensic specialists, using this data is important to design DNA profiles from the biomaterial gathered. They are important. At the first stage, the expert extracts DNA from the obtained material.

The process of DNA extraction from cells is a rather important stage; therefore, in most cases, the reagent kits of leading manufacturers, such as Applied Biosystems or Promega, are used for these purposes. The decomposing body can contain the degraded cells, which complicates the process of DNA profiling. In this regard, it is of great importance to make sure that proper material is tested.

After DNA isolation, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test is performed, as a result of which certain sections of DNA (loci) increase many times, and their number exceeds the initial one by tens or even hundreds of millions. The DNA mixture obtained from the decomposing body is to be analyzed using capillary electrophoresis during the PCR reaction, and the length of the obtained loci (allelic variants) is determined (Mapes et al., 2016).

The next stage of gel electrophoresis implies that the samples of DNA should be placed on different lanes, and the revealed patterns should be identified as unique characteristics. After that, a specialist looks for a match, focusing on testing short tandem repeat (STR) sequences in the decomposing body, suspects, and the CODIS database of DNA profiles. The key advantages of employing DNA analysis in the given case are the comparison with the database data and the high accuracy of findings.

Forensic serology plays an essential role in the process of DNA profiling as it uses biochemical, microbiological, and immunological methods to define the presence of fluids in the decomposing body. These fluids compose the material for analyzing one’s DNA based on serum, semen, blood, et cetera. The decomposing body tends to degrade, but the serologic investigation can relate the physical evidence of assault, rape, murder, and some other cases since they leave fluid stains. More to the point, odontology is another integral part of forensic biology, which is likely to help in the identification process. The assistance of an anthropologist is required to clarify the bones, the nature of death or injury, and the number of humans.

For example, five thick bones would mean that five human remains were found. The post mortem that is to be performed by a pathologist should examine the corpse and determine the cause of death along with any other changes. Forensic entomology application is likely to identify the period of time of death, which can be understood via the review of bacteria and microorganisms affecting the decomposing body.

Speaking of the barriers that can be faced by the forensic investigator in interpreting DNA, one may note the increasing number of samples in databases, which complicates the procedure of finding a match. The incorrect interpretation of results, in turn, can lead to wrongful convictions, which can occur due to backlogs. The laboratory automation seems to promote greater effectiveness, yet it requires expert system data review that is prone to errors. Another challenge is associated with greater detection sensitivity and the use of complexity thresholds. More compound DNA complexes are created to reduce data interpretation uncertainty, relying on probabilistic genotyping.

On the contrary to the traditional means of analyzing DNA, probabilistic genotyping does not pay attention to subjective judgment (Mapes et al., 2016). The application of this method is also debated in the literature since it is often used as closed-source software. Furthermore, there are laboratories that are not adjusted to work with compound mixtures of DNA.

In the given investigation, facial reconstruction is pertinent to obtain diagnostic data on the signs and external appearance of decomposing and skeletonized corpses of unknown persons. The reconstruction of the face through the skull is performed only in the absence of a version about the identity of the alleged victim (Fodarella, Kuivaniemi-Smith, Gawrylowicz, & Frowd, 2015). The main purpose of restoring the external appearance of the skull is to transfer on the image of a person’s face typical, group, and some individualizing characteristics of the external appearance.

The results of examining skulls and bones of the skeletons allowed obtaining data on one’s age, the condition of the denture, congenital and acquired pathological changes, and specific characteristics. The reliability of the restored signs largely depends on the completeness of the information obtained during the initial examination and the observation of the remains (Fodarella et al., 2015). This explains the importance of carefully examining the corpse at the place of its discovery, documenting the findings, removing the remains of clothing, hair, dentures, auricles, and sending for examination.

Scenarios of Court Case Outcomes

Scenario 1

The given investigation explores the case of two men who explored a hole with five skeletons and a decomposing body in the forests of Georgia. Once the evidence was properly collected and sent to the laboratory, the procedures of DNA profiling started. It should be stressed that all the blanks and documentation were properly completed by the forensic biologist, who also controlled the process of packaging samples and their transportation (the sample of the evidence log is presented below).

The detailed observation of the crime scene allowed suggesting that the criminal actions were performed by a serial murderer. The decomposing body presented the signs of physical violence, such as blood and multiple scratches on hands and chest. Accordingly, this means that the victim tries to struggle with the perpetrator before the death.

The analysis of DNA showed the fingerprints of Mr. T.R., who was previously convicted of being engaged in homicide five years ago. This person was accused of violence towards his wife, but the situation was recognized occasionally since no direct arguments in favor of his guilt were identified. In this case, the suspect’s DNA was found on the decomposing body, as well as a shovel that was also detected near the place of crime as a result of additional investigation.

The fact that the suspected person was put on the wanted list, the law enforcement was able to discover his location and bring it to the court. After the conversation with his lawyer, Mr. T.R. decided to use his right to plead guilty and reduce the sentence. However, the criminal history of this person was complicated by multiple minor and moderate prosecution cases, which led to severe sentencing. Mr. T.R. was sentenced to 35 years, being recognizes as a serial murderer.

Blank 1. Evidence log.

Scenario 2

The case with five skeletons and a decomposing body in the hole in the woods presented complex and unclear outcomes. Namely, the evidence that was collected by the forensic biologist resulted in non-informative results since the perpetrator’s DNA could not be profiled due to its severe degradation. During the transportation, the samples of DNA were stored in the police officer’s car under the sun, which presumably was the reason for contamination.

More to the point, during his visit to the laboratory, the forensic biologist revealed a range of sanitation violations that were reported to the chief officer. The analyses of the social, insects, and pathogens allowed establishing that the last murder was conducted about a week ago, while the examination of bones showed that these people died more than three years ago. The identities of these people were established, yet the prosecution lacked the perpetrator.

Having no other suspects, the prosecution suggested that the men who found the remains were engaged in the crime since their fingerprints were present. According to the version of these suspects, they contacted the decomposing body and skeletons while trying to get out of the hole. Nevertheless, the court ruled that they were minor participants of the group that murdered these people and suggested they refer to plea bargain to provide information about the key initiators. When they refused to do so, the court convicted them in opposing the prosecution and sentenced them to two years of imprisonment. This decision was incorrect since no direct evidence proving their guilt was present.

References

Balk, C. (2015). Reducing contamination in forensic science. Themis: Research Journal of Justice Studies and Forensic Science, 3(12), 222-239.

Baxter, E. (2015). Complete crime scene investigation handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Dutelle, A. W. (2014). An introduction to crime scene investigation (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Fodarella, C., Kuivaniemi-Smith, H., Gawrylowicz, J., & Frowd, C. (2015). Forensic procedures for facial-composite construction. Journal of Forensic Practice, 17(4), 259-270.

Mapes, A. A., Kloosterman, A. D., van Marion, V., & de Poot, C. J. (2016). Knowledge on DNA success rates to optimize the DNA analysis process: From crime scene to laboratory. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 61(4), 1055-1061.

Crime is not distributed evenly across a community, but it is concentrated in particular areas known as the hot spots. Even in areas that are crime prominent, the hot spots are clustered together, leaving some areas that are crime-free. Thus, hot spot policing has become one of the popular ways through which crime can be controlled. The public has the expectations that the police play an enormous role in the reduction of crime. The public disorder is characterized by alcohol consumption, drug dealings, prostitution, which may be in an increase in a particular neighborhood. Researchers and police have concluded that crime has a direct link to a particular community’s fear of crime and its contribution to controlling it. Crime is profoundly affected by drug use, availability, and access to guns as well as other behaviors such as consumption of alcohol (Fisher & Lab, 2010).

The spatial analysis of community problems can be the best way to tell where the police resources can be deployed. The advances in understanding the concentrations of crime indicate that some of the regions have elevated levels of crime. These regions also have the subsequent risk of crime within a relatively short period. The police can be able to prevent these crime scenes if they can be able to identify these regions and control the crime. In some of the instances, in crime hot spots, the levels of shooting can be considerably reduced. The researchers need to understand the specific patterns of crime within a region to be able to be controlled (Vigne & Wartell, 2000).

Even though the experts assure people of safety in the bus stops, studies have indications of high levels of crime. In the inner-city neighborhood, the fear of crime dictates the daily life of the residents. Crimes are also on the rise in bus stops and other forms of transit. Some of the transit companies allow their drivers to carry weapons as a way of protecting themselves. Most of the transit companies have directed fewer efforts to increase the security of the bus stops. Currently, crimes that are committed in the bus stop remain understudied.

Bus stop crimes are happening in a huge percentage though there are few cases whereby these crimes have been reported. A survey carried out on Los Angeles households proves that there are several crimes being committed in the state. It also indicated that the level of crime had increased 30 times than in the previous listed reports. In addition, a survey that was carried in the inner city corridors of Los Angeles indicates that there is a lack of safety in these regions. Most of the police should be deployed in this region to help fight the incidences of crime within this region (Wilson & Petersilia, 1995).

In addition, studies have shown that the features within an environment have attracted crime. For instance, it is easier for most criminals to commit crimes next to the main paths and edges of social activity. The increase in the number of escape routes within the city makes the crime culprits have an easier time to escape. In addition, the surrounding land within a place can have a pronounced effect on the level of crime. For example, the availability of liquor stores, pawnshops, vacant lots, and pool halls, as well as the availability of abandoned buildings, play a key role in generating crime. To reduce the levels of a crime, other features such as the availability of police posts and churches act as the detractors of crime.

Good lighting and excellent visibility, in addition to the availability of, territorial symbols also help in the reduction of crimes. For instance, the neighborhood watch signs and other home personalization signs are crucial. Bushes, tunnels, and walls offer opportunities for hiding of the criminals. Research should be carried out on the design of the walls constructed to avoid the creation of areas that are prone to crime. Studies on residential crimes have shown that corner houses are more susceptible to crimes. This is because they have intersections that create more routes for the escape of criminals.

Houses and bus stops located near the vicinity of alleys offer multiple escape routes for criminals and should, therefore, be considered as potential hot spots. Different types of crime occur under different environmental conditions. For example, pickpockets seek a crowded area for them to commit their crimes. Violent crimes are dangerous and can lead to the loss of life. For instance, in most places, mugging and robbery are exceedingly common. Theft is the most prevalent motif behind the armed robbery, but in some of the instances, cases of rape are reported. Food and drinks spiking are some of the crimes whereby victims are assaulted and robbed after the incidence (Jeffery, 1971).

How the threats can be minimized

Other mechanisms within and without law enforcement play a vital role in the control of the threats related to crime. For example, criminal penalties can be used effectively to control a criminal from committing more crimes totally. In addition, the community can minimize these threats by forming community patrols. The installation of home security systems can reduce the level of crime. Demographic changes have a crucial role in crime rates as well as disorder. For instance, the shifts in age, household organization, and poverty and employment patterns have had a significant impact on a community (Carter, 2002).

Crime is a serious problem. Fighting crime requires a coordinated approach. Intensive police deployment and surveillance decrease the incidences of crime. The police alone are not able to control crime. For example, in Los Angeles, few police officers are supposed to provide surveillance in all the over nineteen thousand bus stops. In this case, the best way to fight crime in these areas is the creation of what is referred to as opportunity blocking by the criminals.

This should work directly with the work of the police in controlling these crimes. For example, to reduce crime within bus stops, careful design of a bus stop to provide a sitting space can help in creating a difficult situation for the crime to take place. Land uses within the environment critically affect the safety of a place. Negative land use should be extremely discouraged. Liquor stores, bars, as well as other check-cashing establishments, generate crime as they concentrate on criminal elements.

These places also encourage anti-social behaviors. Most of the prominent crimes trends occur in desolated areas. These areas have no activity. The proximity to active businesses enhances the visibility of an area. Therefore, the police can be deployed to these regions to increase safety. Good lighting of all the streets and appropriate shelters that do not block viewers can offer visibility to the passing traffic. Bushes, tunnels, and walls offer opportunities for hiding of the criminals. These spots create an adequate place for the hiding of the criminals.

Houses and bus stops located near the vicinity of alleys offer multiple escape routes for criminals and should, therefore, be considered as potential hot spots for crime to take place. To control these crimes, blocking or gating the entrances to alleys can be the best defensible strategy. Different types of crime occur under different environmental conditions. For example, pickpockets seek a crowded area for them to commit their crimes. To control the crimes related to the pickpockets, the creation of wider sidewalks can significantly reduce this kind of crime. Many victims do not report incidences of crime to the police. The explanation for non-reporting includes fear of recriminations. People should be encouraged to report instances of crime to the police without fear (Blakely & Snyder, 1997).

In conclusion, environmental attributes and site characteristics have effects on the level of crimes. Crime has a direct link to a particular community’s fear of crime and its contribution to controlling it. Crime is markedly affected by drug use, availability, and access to guns as well as other behaviors such as consumption of alcohol. Research should be carried out on the design of the walls constructed to avoid the creation of areas that are prone to crime. Fighting crime requires a coordinated approach. Intensive police deployment and surveillance decrease the incidences of crime. Serious crimes tend to occur in desolated areas. These areas have no activity. The proximity to active businesses enhances the visibility of an area.

Therefore, the police can be deployed to these regions to increase safety. Other crimes such as prostitution are linked to the design of the towns that should be done in such a way that it will discourage such crimes. Violent crimes are dangerous and can lead to the loss of life. For instance, in most places, mugging and robbery are extraordinarily common. Community policing should be encouraged to reduce instances of crime in several regions. Communities should take initiatives to protect their communities against crime. They need to report all the suspected areas that can be classified as the hot spots to the police.

References

Blakely, E. J., & Snyder, M. G. (1997). Fortress America: gated communities in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.

Carter, G. L. (2002). Guns in American society: an encyclopedia of history, politics, culture, and the law. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO.

Fisher, B., & Lab, S. P. (2010). Encyclopedia of victimology and crime prevention. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications.

Jeffery, C. R. (1971). Crime prevention through environmental design. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Vigne, N. G., & Wartell, J. (2000). Crime mapping case studies: successes in the field. Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum.

Wilson, J. Q., & Petersilia, J. (1995). Crime. San Francisco, Calif.: ICS Press, Institute for Contemporary Studies.