Category: Crime

When it comes to a criminal investigation, it is very important to remember that every detail of a committed crime is important as it can shed light on the real motives of a criminal. More than that, if investigators are able to analyze every detail, it becomes easier for judges to choose the most appropriate measure of punishment that aligns with the actions of individuals who have violated the laws. Therefore, simulation of a crime scene remains the essential practice facilitating the process of investigation.

In reference to the purpose of crime scene reconstruction, it needs to be mentioned that this practice allows crime investigators to unite all the details concerning certain crimes that are already clear. During crime scene simulation, the specialists are supposed to apply scientific methods in order to reconstruct a crime and answer the most important questions related to it that slow down the process of investigation. There is no doubt that specialists who are expected to fulfill such difficult tasks as crime scene investigation should possess a wide range of skills, including well-developed logical thinking (Milliet, Delémont, & Margot, 2014). There are some elements that are involved in the process; thus, to simulate the scene of a crime, specialists should use both physical evidence and eyewitness testimony that is available. Crime reconstruction is often compared to making sense of a conundrum because it often happens that, due to the lack of information related to crime, specialists are required to develop a few solutions and apply them one by one to check which one seems to be the most exhaustive explanation of a situation (Hueske, 2016). Therefore, I suppose that the purpose of crime scene simulation is to summarize separate facts about crimes in order to reconstruct missing details using logical analysis.

As for the people who should be responsible for the reconstruction of crimes, it is necessary to state that this task cannot be successfully performed by specialists possessing superficial knowledge in a criminal investigation. In fact, when it comes to crime reconstruction in the United States, there is an institution called IAI that conducts specialization training for those who would like to obtain permission to conduct crime reconstructions (Robinson, 2016). The organization identifies a variety of requirements that candidates should meet; for instance, they should have at least five years of experience in criminology and have publications in peer-reviewed journals. To me, it seems that these requirements are very important because crime reconstruction often defines the outcomes of crime investigations.

To continue, there is another question that needs to be addressed, and it touches upon the most appropriate time for crime reconstruction. In fact, the latter should be conducted when crime investigators already possess the information on the key details of a crime. Importantly, if the case involves murder or suicide, it may be necessary to conduct a medico-legal investigation and reconstruct the events as soon as possible because non-reversible processes taking place in a cadaver may cause trouble to analysis (Saferstein, 2013). In general, when it comes to the most appropriate time for crime simulations, it is necessary to consider all the details of a particular case to address the challenge. Nevertheless, such practice should be conducted when investigators understand that the information they possess can be used to reconstruct the main events surrounding a crime and clarify secondary details based on logical justification.

Crime scene simulation is a complex task that may involve many issues related to the interpretation of events, feasibility of conclusions, and the practices applied in order to reconstruct missing details that are strictly interconnected with the outcomes of the investigation in general. Despite that, it is possible to define the most important elements of this process. As for me, I suppose that the two elements in crime scene reconstruction that define the very nature of this practice are the use of physical evidence and eyewitness reports and the proper choice of scientific methods that can shed light on the facts that are still hidden. Considering the fact that an experienced criminal investigator should be aware of the ways to use evidence and process it with the help of modern methods and techniques in criminology, I suppose that proper implementation of the two elements mentioned can be regarded as a formula for the success of an investigation.

Another issue that remains important for professionals who specialize in conducting crime scene simulations is that the use of evidence retrieved with the help of this practice in court may entail certain problems. To begin with, there is no doubt that the appropriate evidence to be used in court should be justified by certain facts. Nevertheless, it sometimes happens that, due to the lack of information, crime investigators are supposed to develop their theories explaining the crime and the motives of a person who has violated the law (Van den Eeden, De Poot, & Van Koppen, 2016). Even though certain theories may seem to be exhaustive explanations helping to define the right order of actions performed by a criminal, there are cases when judges refuse to take them into consideration due to the lack of evidence supporting the theories. More than that, it is necessary to state that judges may regard the results of crime scene reconstructions as invalid evidence if they have doubts concerning the appropriateness of methods applied by criminologists in order to simulate a crime. In other words, if investigators cannot provide additional information on reconstruction requested by judges or by members of defense teams, it may be regarded as a sign indicating possible violations or mistakes that have been made during the procedure.

For instance, in reconstructing crime scenes, investigators are supposed to consider the role of physical evidence found at the place of crime; thus, they have to prove that the evidence has not been planted on by those individuals interested in obstructing justice or by criminologists themselves. Apart from that, there is a range of rules that have been developed in order to define the conditions that make the results of a criminal reconstruction credible. Thus, investigators are expected to provide information proving that there were no outside parties during criminal scene reconstruction and that other people could not change the location of objects prior to the process. Therefore, when it comes to legal issues surrounding the process of crime reconstruction, it is necessary to remember that cohesiveness of documentation is extremely important, and investigators have to include photographs of initial scenery in their reports. More importantly, there is a range of issues related to the use of DNA samples and various objects that can be found at the place of a crime (Fraser & Williams, 2013). To address the issues and present credible evidence helping to define the sequence of events, it is important to consult the laws accepted in the country where the investigation is conducted.

References

Fraser, J., & Williams, R. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of forensic science. New York, NY: Routledge.

Hueske, E. E. (2016). Practical analysis and reconstruction of shooting incidents. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Milliet, Q., Delémont, O., & Margot, P. (2014). A forensic science perspective on the role of images in crime investigation and reconstruction. Science & Justice, 54(6), 470-480.

Robinson, E. M. (2016). Crime scene photography. London, UK: Elsevier.

Saferstein, R. (2013). Forensic science. New York, NY: Pearson.

Van den Eeden, C. A., De Poot, C. J., & Van Koppen, P. J. (2016). Forensic expectations: Investigating a crime scene with prior information. Science & Justice, 56(6), 475-481.

Abstract

This paper not only discusses why caring for the injured, ensuring scene safety and security, and undertaking scene walk-through for evidence and chain of custody are the most important crime scene responsibilities but also illuminates aspects of what needs to be done to ensure that these selections are conducted properly. From the discussion and analysis, it is evident that caring for the injured and ensuring scene safety and security should be the first priorities of the responding officers, hence their selection. It is also evident that the responsibility of undertaking scene walk-through for evidence and chain of command is equally important based on its capacity to provide the lead investigator with the opportunity to not only gain an overview of the situation but also to implement a tactic for the methodical assessment and documentation of the whole crime scene. Although each crime scene responsibility is unique and important in its own way, this paper has provided enough justifications to show why the three selections are of utmost importance in crime scene investigations.

Introduction

Available forensic science scholarship underscores the importance of preserving and recording evidence at a crime scene in its original condition if investigators are to succeed in searching for the perpetrator (Fisher & Fisher, 2012; Saferstein, 2012). As a matter of fact, the actions of the first professionals in attendance at a crime scene are of immense importance not only in maximizing the recording and recovery of relevant evidence but also in ensuring that the executors of the crime are apprehended. Crime scenes that have been correctly safeguarded and proficiently assessed using a methodical, sequenced strategy can provide fundamental evidence, hence the need for investigators to develop an adequate understanding of crime scene responsibilities and their importance (Horswell, 2013).

Concurrently, research is consistent that forensic evidence in crime scene settings may be damaged by the absence of essential crime scene preservation procedures, thus the need for investigators to take firm and active steps aimed at protecting crime scenes (Jamel, 2014). In this light, the present paper discusses why caring for the injured, ensuring scene safety and security, and undertaking scene walk-through for evidence and chain of custody are the most important crime scene responsibilities and what needs to be done to ensure that these selections are conducted properly.

Importance of the Selected Crime Scene Responsibilities

Caring for the injured is an important crime scene responsibility based on the fact that the preservation of life should form the primary objective of the investigators. Here, it is important for the investigators to ascertain whether the victim needs any medical assistance since the preservation of life should be given primacy in crime scene investigations. Available scholarship underscores the need for investigators to call for medical assistance when they reach a crime scene with the view to ensuring that first aid is promptly rendered to the victims (Fisher & Fisher, 2012). Additionally, this crime scene responsibility is more important than the others due to the fact that the victim may help in identifying the perpetrator of the crime if concerted efforts are made to preserve life.

Moreover, it ethically and morally fits for investigators to first care for the injured even as they take appropriate measures to preserve and record evidence (Horswell, 2013). The responsibility of ensuring the safety and security of a crime scene is equally important based on the fact that the lives of police and other professionals offering support services may be endangered in a crime situation. Although it is important to secure the crime scene with the view to ensuring minimal contamination and disturbance of physical evidence, the first priority of the initial responding officer should be to ensure the safety and physical well-being of officers and other persons in and around the crime scene (Fisher & Fisher, 2012). As such, it is important for investigators to implement measures aimed at controlling physical threats in a crime scene with the view to protecting their own lives and those of the general public. Lastly, the responsibility of undertaking scene-walk through for evidence and chain of custody is important based on its capacity to provide the lead investigator with the opportunity to not only gain an overview of the situation but also to implement a tactic for the methodical assessment and documentation of the whole crime scene.

Adverse Events to a Crime Scene

If the selection of caring for the injured is not conducted properly, it is possible to lose unnecessary lives and also to lose critical pieces of evidence that may be known to the victims. Additionally, failure to ensure the safety and security of the crime scene may occasion harm to the investigators, medical personnel, and other people in and around the crime scene. Finally, failing to undertake a proper scene walk-through for evidence and chain of custody may adversely interfere with the evidence that could be used by the investigators to solve the crime and apprehend the perpetrator. It may also be impossible to preserve the scene from possible contamination, formulate a strategy for processing the scene and the collection and preservation of evidence, and make a determination on whether additional equipment or personnel are needed to process the scene if the responding officers failed to undertake a proper scene walk-through for evidence and chain of custody.

How to Conduct the Selections Properly

A multiplicity of recommendations and guidelines can be used to ensure that the crime scene responsibilities selected in this paper are conducted properly and professionally. In ensuring scene safety and security, it is important for the responding investigators to remain observant of any persons, vehicles, events, and other environmental conditions with the view to ascertaining that the perpetrator is no longer in the immediate vicinity of a crime setting and is not a threat to individuals at or in close proximity to a crime scene (Saferstein, 2012). It is also important for the responding team to examine the crime scene for physical things, sounds, and scents that may signify danger to the professionals and other people at the site. The crime scene should be approached in a manner that not only minimizes the risk of harm to the responding officers but also optimizes the safety and security of victims, witnesses, and other people in close proximity to the area. Lastly, it is also important to not only survey the crime scene for potentially dangerous people with the view to controlling the situation but also to notify supervisory personnel and call for assistance or backup (Burrell & Bull, 2011).

In caring for the injured, it is important for the responding professionals to ensure that proper medical attention is given to the injured individuals without unnecessarily contaminating the crime scene. Available forensic science scholarship demonstrates that this crime scene responsibility can be conducted properly by (1) assessing the victims for signs of life and medical requirements with the view to providing immediate medical attention, (2) calling for medical professionals, (3) guiding the medical professionals to the victim with the view to reducing contamination or alteration of the crime scene, (4) pointing out potential physical evidence to the medical professionals and instructing them to reduce contact with such evidence, (5) instructing the medical professionals not to “clean up” the scene and to desist from removing or altering items originating from the scene, (6) obtaining the names, units, and telephone numbers of the medical professionals providing assistance to the injured, (7) obtaining the name and location of the medical facility where the victims are to be taken for further treatment, (8) attempting to obtain a dying declaration in situations where the victim may die, and (9) documenting any statements or comments made by victims, suspects, or witnesses at the crime scene (Balemba, Beauregard, & Martineau, 2014; Saferstein, 2012). Lastly, in undertaking scene walk-through for evidence and chain of custody, it is important for the responding officers to document and photograph the items found in the crime scene, ensure that any fragile evidence is secured or tagged, place numbered markers near each item of evidence located with the view to alerting other crime-scene personnel to the location of difficult-to-observe evidence, canvas the area outside the barricaded scene, and take particular note of aspects of the crime scene that may suggest the timing of the incident (Saferstein, 2012).

Conclusion

This paper has not only discussed why caring for the injured, ensuring scene safety and security, and undertaking scene walk-through for evidence and chain of custody are the most important crime scene responsibilities, but also illuminated aspects of what needs to be done to ensure that these selections are conducted properly. Although each crime scene responsibility is unique and important in its own way, this paper has provided adequate reasons to show why the three selections are of utmost importance in crime scene investigations.

References

Balemba, S., Beauregard, E., & Martineau, M. (2014). Getting away with murder: A thematic approach to solved and unsolved homicides using crime scene factors. Police Practice & Research, 15(3), 221-233. Web.

Burrell, A., & Bull, R. (2011). A preliminary examination of crime analysts’ views and experiences of comparative case analysis. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 13(1), 2-15. Web.

Fisher, B.A.J., & Fisher, D.R. (2012). Techniques of crime scene investigation (8th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Horswell, J. (2013). The practice of crime scene investigation (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Jamel, J. (2014). An exploration of rapists’ motivations as illustrated by their crime scene actions: Is the gender of the victim an influential factor? Journal of Investigative Psychology & Offender Profiling, 11(3), 276-298. Web.

Saferstein, R. (2012). Forensic Science: From the crime scene to the crime lab (2nd ed.). New York City, NY: Pearson.

Introduction

White-collar crime in business designates offenses that are committed with the purpose of obtaining financial gain by resorting to a particular form of deception. Generally, they include lying, stealing, and cheating in a business context. The variety of white-collar crimes is limited only by the fantasy of the person who commits them and may include: tax evasion, insider trading, bribery, embezzlement, money laundering, and a long list of other offenses (Shover, Hochstetler, & Alalehto, 2013). This type of crime is typically linked to business people who are involved in a lawful activity and have access to considerable amounts of other people’s money. Generally, such people occupy respectable positions until their illegal actions are discovered (Payne, 2016).

However, it would be a mistake to attribute white-collar crimes exclusively to large businesses where millions of dollars can be stolen. In fact, fraud and theft are even more widespread in small companies as they have much less reliable protective systems. Even a long-trusted bookkeeper, who initially has access to small amounts, can gradually steal a considerable sum of money from an organization (Payne, 2016).

According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, white-collar crimes cost the United States app. $300 billion annually; a substantial part of these financial losses have to be sustained by small businesses, which suffer indirectly even from crimes committed by public officials (Payne, 2016). Small companies have to pay more taxes because of reduced government revenues–this is another reason white-collar crimes are ruining them and can even lead to bankruptcy when they cannot face an advantage created by a fraudulent capital infusion to their competitors in the market (Shover et al., 2013).

Thus, the paper at hand is going to investigate what strategies can help small businesses prevent white-collar crimes.

Crimes of Fraud by Vendors

Small businesses can fall victims to crimes committed by vendors who contract the company, which is not a rare case. There are several possible scenarios for this type of criminal offense. The first possible situation is that the company purchases a bulk of goods from another company at a considerably lower price (e.g., pens), but when it receives the order, it finds out that these goods are low-quality or do not have all the characteristics of their alternatives (the pens may have the only half amount of ink). According to the second scenario, the company may buy used products (e.g., furniture) in order to save money, but after the delivery discovers that some items are broken or too old to continue being used (broken chair wheels, damaged desks, etc.). Finally, the company can give a deposit for needed supplies, but the vendor disappears for good after the payment (Payne, 2016).

In order to make sure that such situations do not happen, the company can take the following steps:

1. The leaders of the company can launch a fraud awareness program helping to prevent such crimes. These programs, as well as crime prevention resources, are numerous and can be chosen from.
2. They can also introduce a policy making it obligatory to receive board approval before any operations are conducted. As a result, more than one representative from the organization will take part in the decision about a new vendor, thereby increasing the possibility of fraud detection.
3. It is possible to create a policy that would require investigating all new partners of the company before any contract is signed. Such services as Better Business Bureau allow collecting necessary information.

Environmental Crimes

This type of white-collar crime is especially dangerous as it may not only cause financial losses but also lead to legal prosecution if not detected in due time. A business owner may be held liable for the crime of another company without even having any malicious intent to become an accomplice. In some states, this liability is strict indeed and can bring about a lot of negative consequences (Payne, 2016). For instance, if a small business decides to expand or just to move to a new location, it may acquire land from a seller and act according to the initial plan. However, the owner may later discover that there are barrels of dangerous materials underground, which the company is now forced to remove. If this cannot be performed without a side party, another company will have to be hired to clean up the materials. After that, it may easily dispose of them dumping barrels into a river, or a lake, which will soon be discovered by environmental agencies, and the small business possessing the land will be exposed to prosecution (Shover et al., 2013). The only strategy to prevent situations like that is to research all organizations, with which you have to deal in advance and find out whether they were noticed in some illegal activities.

Fraudulent Cash Flow Representation

In times of recession or financial crisis in the country, small businesses often have to face a number of cash-flow problems as their customers opt for delayed payments because of their own financial hardships. As a result, the company starts seeking loans to stay afloat. Yet, when they present their financial picture to all the stakeholders, they usually stretch the truth about the real state of things in order to avoid unrest. At a certain point, this good intention finally transforms into a fraudulent representation (Shover et al., 2013). This crime is referred to as cooking the books and is often committed without any malice like the previous type. The best strategy to avoid it is to be careful about stretching the truth and resort to it only in cases of emergency.

Crimes Committed by Employees

Small businesses may suffer not only from crimes committed by partners or high authorities but also from their own employees who have access to the budget. It is a common cause that a small company has only one bookkeeper, who performs all the job connected with accounting and financial statements–this saves a considerable amount of money on hiring several specialists. Allowing a person to have this power puts the company at risk of laundering, embezzlement, and tax evasion, which may pass unnoticed for a long period of time (Payne, 2016). The crime of this kind usually starts out small, from the theft of $50-100; later, the employee learns to conceal bigger sums. There are two strategies that could be helpful in this case (Shover et al., 2013):

1. The company must require at least two signatures on all its checks to ensure that more than one employee controls the situation.
2. The company may hire an independent accountant to conduct an audit on its financials two or three times a year (it does not have to be a certified audit as it is done only for inner purposes). This would make employees less tempted to try cheating.

Conclusion

Although it is generally believed that white-collar crimes can be attributed only to huge corporations and involve millions of dollars, they actually happen to small businesses, too. It is important to take measures to prevent such crimes as they may lead to bankruptcy or even legal prosecution. For this purpose, a lot of different strategies (including all the above-mentioned) can be implemented.

References

Payne, B. K. (2016). White-collar crime: The essentials. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Shover, N., Hochstetler, A., & Alalehto, T. (2013). Choosing white-collar crime. The Oxford Handbook of Criminological Theory, 475-493.

Houston is the 4^th largest city in the USA and the largest city in the state of Texas. In the 2009 United States census, Houston had a population of 2.3 million people within an area of 1500Km² and it is an economic center of the Sugar land-Bayton metropolitan area with approximately 5.9 million people.

Location of Houston City

Houston is the largest city in Texas and it is located near the Gulf of Mexico. It is a big United States port handling a lot of foreign tonnages each year. In addition, the city is also significant to world trade since it is a major production hub for natural gas as well as oil (Miller & Dollard, 1941, P.32).

Innovations in policing

Current innovations in policing will often require a more geographically centered focus on crime and the centers of interest. It should be noted that the patterns are restricted to the knowledge of crime alone and this is of particular consequence in the struggle to determine which areas are more prone to criminal activities (Reinhold, 2009. p. 1).

Crime statistics in Houston

Oil and gas that is found in this place make it to be ahead of other cities in the Job market because its economy is more secluded from others. On the other hand, the climate of the city is quite humid and as such, the heat, rain, and humidity are unbearable to someone who is not accustomed to it. In Houston, Medical positions such as Doctors and nurses have the highest paid salaries in the United States and they realize more net income because the cost of living in Houston is less as opposed to places like New York or California. Green jobs in Houston are now on the rise as the Oil and Gas technology transcends towards higher levels (Zarka, 2007, P.25).

Non-violent crime in this city dropped by two percent in 2005 compared to 2004. Homicides have risen to twenty-three point five percent and have also experienced a rise in crime which the police relate to the influx of individuals from New Orleans after the occurrence of the Hurricane. The intersection of Westheimer Road, an area within Houston, had the least incidents of crime in 2010 (Miller & Dollard, 1941, P.32). Late last month, police announced initiatives that targeted these three dangerous zones which are made up of large apartment complexes with concentrations of the Katrina evacuees.

The Major Hot spots and crime prevalence

When dealing with these high crime zones, the main concern should be to deal with areas with high levels of violent criminal activity in and around Houston. The dangerous areas in this city match locatio which are held commonly by the residents. In addition, the rate of prostitution is very high in the neighborhood. The presence of the bus station is also associated with the high rate of criminal activities. According to Zarka (2007), the area near Congress and Louisiana has been identified as one of the most dangerous zones. This area is a few meters from the Northern side of Downtown where jailbirds loiter after being released from prison.

Conclusion

In conclusion, stringent measures should be taken so that these hotspots are brought under effective police control so that intervention is taken to curb crime. It is also noteworthy that not only are the police responsible for curbing crime but it is every person’s responsibility for the prevention of crime in Houston city.

References

Miller, N. & Dollard, J. (1941). Social learning and imitation. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Reinhold, R (2009). Houston: A fresh Approach to Zoning. Web.

Zarka, H. (2007). Biological, sociological, and psychological theories of crime. Web.

Introduction

In her book titled The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Ages of Colorblindness, Michel Alexander draws a parallel between the modern racially-oriented mass incarceration tactics and the Jim Crow era. The author argues that “callous colorblindness” associated with modern society has been instrumental in the emergence of the United States as a country that “incarcerates an astonishing percentage of its racial or ethnic minorities” (Alexander 9). Alexander supports her arguments with historical evidence and derives her conclusions from solid statistical data. The aim of this paper is to discuss a closing passage from James Baldwin in which the novelist mentions innocence as a basis of crime. It will be argued that Baldwin refers to the unwillingness of the American society to face the truth of mass incarceration that has destroyed countless lives of African Americans, as well as its indifference in respect to the underlying problem of racial injustice.

Discussion

The idea of racial caste has acquired new social momentum in the post-emancipation era, which has led to the emergence of Jim Crow. According to Forman, convicted individuals are denied public housing, food stamps, certain types of loans, and employment opportunities, among others (107). After a moment’s consideration, it becomes clear that the analogy of Jim Crow used by Alexander for the description of a new framework of racialized social control deserves the merit of being discussed in detail. Indeed, the effects of criminal convictions regularly dispensed with innocent indifference are strikingly similar to the racial ostracism that marred the twentieth century (Alexander 24). The consequences of incarceration for people who come from disadvantaged backgrounds are both terrible and far-reaching (Drucker 21). By depriving offenders of student loans, housing, and gainful employment, modern American society turns those convicted of crimes into a stigmatized caste.

The creation of the racial caste system was the process that presented racial discrimination under a new guise of the war on drugs. As the result of the government’s attempt to curb the spread of crack cocaine, the population of the American prisons grew from less than 300 000 to 2 million (Alexander 8). If one were to forsake innocence so poignantly condemned by Baldwin and explore the racial dimension, they would quickly discover that the racial undertone of the war cannot be attributed to actual disparities in drug crime.

While there is no surprise that racially-oriented incarceration is used as an instrument of social control, it is not clear why so-called post-racial America is not capable of recognizing that its judicial process has become a bludgeon in the racial war. There is ample evidence suggesting that the police are more likely to kill a black individual than a white individual even though “white people commit crimes at roughly the same rate” (Hooper 143). It means that institutional racism rests on the shoulders of a social system comprised of individuals whose bigotry prevents them from opening their eyes to the truth.

Following Baldwin’s line of reasoning, it can be argued that palpable racial injustice afflicting the American society is only a symptom of a disease—innocence. This type of innocence is especially pernicious. According to Plaff, despite the incarceration disparities, whites are more likely to become drug offenders than people of color (18). Such facts show that unlike white supremacism, the disease of indifference resides much deeper in the collective psyche of the country, which prevents it from being exposed to sunlight of public denunciation. Far from the radical expressions of racism, this innocent indifference seethes under the surface of the American social institutions resulting in people turning a blind eye to substantial prison term disparities, high incarceration rates, and other implications of structural racism (Alexander 34; Erickson 1425). Many seemingly racially neutral laws that disproportionally affect African-American youth reveal that it is far too early to celebrate a triumph over race.

The excerpt from Baldwin’s letter fits nicely along the lines of Alexander’s social purpose. History, indeed, moves inexorably in the direction of justice; therefore, new generations of civil rights organizations and social activists cannot help but become great doctors of our time. Racial justice advocacy is a pill that, if regularly and properly dispensed, will help to cure the American society of the intractable disease of innocence. There is no doubt that social change is a product of much struggle that requires “greater vision, courage, and determination” (Alexander 261). However, one must not be afraid of struggle in the attempt to dismantle an outdated paradigm at this critical juncture in time. A social movement of such significance would help to build solidarity and gain awareness that are important prerequisites for charging guilty parties with a dire crime of indifference.

Conclusion

The paper has helped to better understand the role of the war on drugs as an instrument for social control. It has been argued that Baldwin refers to the unwillingness of the American society to face the truth of mass incarceration that has destroyed countless lives of African Americans, as well as its indifference in respect to the underlying problem of racial injustice.

Works Cited

Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. The New Press, 2012.

Drucker, Ernest. A Plague of Prisons: The Epidemiology of Mass Incarceration in America. New Press, 2013.

Erickson, Jessica. “Racial Impact Statements: Considering the Consequences of Racial Disproportionalities in the Criminal Justice System.” Washington Law Review, vol. 89, no. 4, 2014, pp. 1425-1465.

Forman, James. “Racial Critiques of Mass Incarceration: Beyond the New Jim Crow.” Racial Critiques, vol. 26, no. 1, 2012, pp. 101-146.

Hooper, Deona. “Ferguson Proves the United States Justice System is not Broken, but Working Perfectly as Designed.” Critical and Radical Social Work, vol. 3, no. 1, 2015, pp. 141-148.

Plaff, John. Locked In: The True Causes of Mass Incarceration and How to Achieve Real Reform. Hachette, 2017.

Introduction

Crime is prevalent in the United States. Americans report incidents of crime on a daily basis. To help combat crime, it is imperative for law enforcement bodies to understand characteristics of a crime incident. For example, if there is one victim, what is the likelihood that there was one offender? Of the incidents reported, how many male and/or female victims are involved? What is the most prevalent crime? Additionally, it is crucial to understand locations that are susceptible to crime. Local, state, and federal law enforcers need this kind of information to assign resources effectively and to help seize offenders. In this regard, I will orient this research towards indentifying and analyzing such factors. Lastly, the paper will develop research examining the number of prisoners in the USA jails because of these crimes, recidivism, and the importance of education in tackling crime.

Background

Crime in the United States has been on a decline since its peak in 1980s. However, the characteristics of offenses have taken a new turn whereby offenders use sophisticated methods such as extortion, kidnapping among others (Aucoin, 2011). Normally, these crimes are reported to law enforcement during or after the incident. A new school of thought suggests that the justice system perpetrates the problem instead of solving it. Consequently, over a third of minorities lack college education because when they are supposed to be obtaining an education they are sent to prison. Once they are outside, the time for them to attend college is gone. Hence, the justice system needs to be overhauled to ensure that it does not punish. Rather, it should find a way in which the perpetrator pays for their social misdeeds without denying them a life, which makes it worse because these are minority groups. Additionally, this does not frequently happen with white males because majorities are incarcerated at between 35 and 45. At this age, a person has completed college and started a family. Hence, there will be little sentiment when the person gets out of prison.

According to the government’s statistics (in the United States for example) approximately 1 million prisoners are released annually. Most of them offend again and return to prison together with the first time offenders. The United States government spends over $30 billion to construct prison facilities. If the government were to reduce this recidivism rates by half, it would save so much. Education provides individuals with confidence in life and an alternative from crime. Once educated, a prisoner can rely solely on oneself. A prisoner is able to raise a family when they have equal chances for the available opportunities (Kleck, 2004).

However, this is not possible in a case the opportunities are skewed. Once an individual raises their family well, chances of a generational circus of crime are grossly reduced. In the long term, this is beneficial to both the society and the economy. Education in prisons provides better ways of utilizing the free time that inmates have in prison. This free time may be used for planning other evil deeds and making life for other prisoners and superintendants hard. Provisions of education bring some order as prisoners are expected to be at particular centers at particular times (Borghans, 2005).

A study of close to 20 empirical studies suggests that higher education reduces the possibility for re-incarceration of prisoners from both genders. Without any education on average 80% of the prisoners who are released from prison, return there within five years. If they were to be educated, the rate of recidivism would reduce according to the level of education achieved. The higher the education level, the lower the chances of returning to prison. For prisoners who attain a bachelor’s degree around 6% are re-incarcerated, for those who attain an AA degree around 14% are re-incarcerated, for those who attain a Masters degree, there is a zero chance of re-incarceration. It is also crucial to note that while in prison, these convicts are always in a constant torment and a dangerous environment. This may be transferred to society.

Data and methods

In order to answer the question of characteristics of a crime incident, I will use GSS data from the 1978 to 2011. I will use seven variables. Two of the variables will be categorical variable. They are most serious incident offense (msioff) and Incident location (inc_loc). The other five are quantitative variables. They include count of victims in incident (vic_count), count of offenders in incident (off_cnt), count of victims under age 18 (vlt18), count of male victims in incident (vmale), and count of female victims in incident (vfemale). The respondents to these questions were the different police and incident reporting stations in the USA. Hence, it constitutes official data of actual events. I will use three variables to determine the relationships, for example, to assess the relationship between the count of offenders in incident (off_cnt) and count of victims in incident (vic_count). I will run the data through Regression Analysis to determine the relationships. Another relationship is Incident location (inc_loc) and count of offenders in incident (off_cnt) and/or count of victims in incident (vic_count). The relationship may be crucial in predicting the number of victims in a hostage crisis when the offenders are known. I will also conduct cross tabulations to establish relationships between different variables. Lastly, descriptive statistics will be crucial in determining different measures such as the mean and standard deviation (National Opinion Research Center, 2013).

Results

Descriptive statistics

Table 1 lists statistics for the various variables such as count of offenders in incident (off_cnt) and count of victims in incident (vic_count). Table 2 shows the frequency of occurrence of various serious offenses in percentages. As Table 2 shows, robbery is the most prevalent offense recorded 98% of the time. Figure 1 also shows these frequencies in a diagrammatic format (i.e. a bar graph). Table 3 shows how often an offense happens in various locations. Most crimes (28.6%) happen in highways while the least crimes happen in churches.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics

Table 2: Most serious offense frequency table

Table 3: Frequency of incident per location

Cross tabulations and chi-squared tests of independence

Tables 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 indicate that there is a relationship between every two variables been cross tabulated. The inherent chi square tests indicate very little values (Incident location * Count of victims in incident Cross tabulation in Table 4 indicates that most incidents have one victim in different locations. In fact, incidents with more than five victims are limited in any location. Table 6 that cross tabulates Count of victims in incident and Count of offenders in incident indicates that most of the single victims encounter one offender. That is, most offenders target one victim in many occasions (12350). The small value of significance of P indicates a strong relationship between the variables.

Table 4: Incident location and count of victims in incident cross tabulation

Table 5: Chi-Square Tests for Table 4

Table 6: Count of victims in incident and count of offenders in incident cross tabulation

Table 7: Chi-Square Tests for Table 6

Table 8: Count of offenders in incident and count of victims under age 18 cross tabulation

Table 9: Chi-Square Tests for Table 8

Table 10: Count of victims in incident and count of male victims in incident Cross tabulation

Table 11: Chi-Square Tests for Table 10

Table 12: Count of victims in incident and count of female victims in incident cross tabulation

Table 13: Chi-Square Tests for Table 12

Table 14: Count of offenders in incident and Count of female victims in incident cross tabulation

Table 15: Chi-Square Tests for Table 14

Linear regression results

Tables 16 to 24 examine relationships between different variables with the aim of establishing whether one variable influences the other. However, as the model summaries indicate, the R Square and adjusted R Square values are too small as to indicate any relationships. For example, Table 16 indicates that the count of offenders and count of victims have a small relationship. Only 20% of the model is accounted for by count of offenders. The same case applies to the other model summaries. Hence, it is safe to conclude that the variables in this model do not influence each other as to causality.

Table 16: Regression of Count of female victims in incident and Count of offenders in incident

Table 17: ANOVA for Table 16

Table 18: coefficients for table 16

Table 19: Model summary Count of offenders in incident

Table 20: ANOVA for Table 19

Table 21: Coefficients for table 19

Table 22: Model summary

Table 23: ANOVA for Table 22

Table 24: coefficients for Table 22

Discussion

Returning to the original research question, it follows that cross tabulation and chi-squared tests are the most relevant analytical tools for this data. Additionally, descriptive statistics shows that majority of the offenses occur because of robbery. Hence, federal and state governments should dedicate their resources towards combating robbery. A continued incarceration of social and criminal offenders has not deterred crime. With the world population increasing by day, more and more people are finding themselves in prisons. Most of them are first time offenders and a considerably large number of recidivists. Because of this trend, it is logical to employ the use of education, especially higher education, as the social and fiscal alternative in tackling this menace.

There are far reaching positive effects of education on youths and ex prisoners. These effects have wide social and fiscal benefits. Education in itself is an avenue to employment after prison. With private and public partnership, this can bear fruits in the overall societal life. It reduces chances of an offender going back to crime and makes offenders responsible for their families. Further, education increases self-esteem, self-confidence, enables youths and ex prisoners to become role models, and most critically, increases their options in the larger society (Biraimah, 2005).

Mnemonics list

Reference List

Aucoin, Robert. “Information and Communication Technologies in International Education: A USA Policy Analysis.” International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership 6, no. 4 (2011): 1-11.

Biraimah, Karen. “Achieving Equitable Outcomes or Reinforcing Societal Inequalities? A Critical Analysis of UNESCO Education for All and the United States No Child Left Behind Programs.” Educational Practice and Theory 27, no. 2 (2005): 25-34.

Borghans, Heijke. “The Production and Use of Human Capital: Introduction.” Education Economics 13, no. 2 (2005): 130-133.

Kleck, Gary. “Measures of Gun Ownership Levels of Macro-Level Crime and Violence Research.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 41, no. 1 (2004): 3-36.

National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, General Social Surveys, 1972-2011: Cumulative Codebook. Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, 2013.

Introduction

Available criminology scholarship demonstrates that La Cosa Nostra (LCN), also referred to as the mafia, the mob, the outfit, the office, and the family, was by any standards the most prominent criminal organization in the United States from the 1920s to 1990s (Finkenauer, 2007; Mallory, 2007). Although law enforcement agencies have in the recent past registered marked success in infiltrating LCN due to its organizational structure, it remains an influential organized criminal enterprise not only in the United States but also globally (Layman & Potter, 2007). This paper provides an assessment of LCN, explicitly focusing on the group’s historical orientation, national and multinational structure, operating techniques about the drugs business, as well as its business-related interests over time.

Historical Analysis of LCN

A historical examination of LCN shows that the organized criminal outfit was initiated by Sicilian immigrants in the United States in the early 1920s, with available documentary evidence demonstrating that most of these immigrants were Sicilian Mafioso who entered the country illegally. Charles “Lucky” Luciano is one of the notable Italian organized crime figures who came to the United States during this era and helped in structuring the LCN after the Sicilian Mafia (Mallory, 2007). However, it is essential to note that other Sicilian Mafioso, including Giuseppe Esposito, had successfully entered the United States during the late 1800s.

American Mafia operations were heralded into the limelight with the October 15, 1890 murder of New Orleans Police Superintendent David Hennessey, though the criminal outfits continued to operate independently and evolved over the years under different names including Black Hand gangs, the Five Points Gang and the Al Capone’s Syndicate. By the end of the 1920s, two primary organized crime factions had emerged, leading to a war of organized criminal activities in major cities across the United States and subsequent murder of faction leader Joseph Masseria (Italian Organized Crime, 2014; Mallory, 2007). The violent killing of the faction leader in the 1920s brought an end to hostilities between the two groups and even facilitated they’re coming together to form a more lethal organized criminal group now popularly referred to as LCN.

National & Multinational Structure About the Drug Business

At the national level, the group is structured around the so-called families, each with a boss who controls the family makes executive decisions, maintains order, and maximizes profits for the family. Drawing on the hierarchical organizational structure, the underboss is the second in command and functions to collect information for the boss and ensure that instructions get down to the underlings. The senior advisor (consigliere) serves at the same level with the underboss but enjoys considerable influence and power in the context of providing advice to all members of the family, including the boss and the underboss. Further down, there are several captains or “capos,” whose primary function is to supervise ground crews consisting of “soldiers” or “made members” of the criminal enterprise (Finkenauer, 2007; Mallory, 2007). Although LCN is operational in the United States, it works with affiliate criminal groups in Canada, South America, Australia, and parts of Europe by forming associate relationships (Italian Organized Crime, 2014).

In the illicit drugs business, the boss has all the contacts and makes all the decisions relating to trafficking and maximization of profits, while the “soldiers” engage directly in distributing drugs on the ground, protecting the business, and collecting the proceeds for onward submission to the “capos” and those above them (Mallory, 2007). It is important to note that the boss, the underboss, and other high-ranking officials within the family are not directly involved in the trafficking of drugs on the ground as this is squarely the function of soldiers. A soldier may operate an illicit drug ring in a particular city on a commission basis, or he may have the right to ownership of the illegal drug enterprise and pay an agreed amount of the proceeds to the organization in return for protection or right to operate (Layman & Potter, 2007). In multinational contexts, LCN has been found to enter into agreements with other international organized crime entities to manage the trafficking of heroin and cannabis products while other groups control the smuggling of cocaine and related drugs.

Operating Methods & Business Interests

In the trafficking and sale of illicit drugs, LCN operates through corrupting the police and public officials, employing violence (threats, assault, murder), and enforcing discipline over members and non-members (Finkenauer, 2007; Mallory, 2007). When the criminal enterprise was at its peak during the 1990s, it was known for its ruthless employment of personal and property violence through targeted beatings, killings, bombings, arson, and explosions. The systematic use of force was and is still considered a tool of doing business among the loosely consolidated organized crime families within the LCN. The group continues to employ violence and threats not only to discourage and eliminate competitors in the illicit drugs industry but also to maintain internal discipline (Layman & Potter, 2007). The oath of secrecy taken by members upon recruitment demands strict adherence to the rules of the organization and members who open up to the outside world are punished by death. Additionally, the group has continued to use its vast resources and financial capability to corrupt the police and other public officials as it goes about its illicit drugs trade (Mallory, 2007).

LCN has traditionally relied on gambling (numbers, policy, dice, bookmarking) and drugs (heroin and marijuana) as its principal business interests. However, the available evidence demonstrates that the organization has diversified to other legitimate (e.g., food products, restaurants, bars and taverns, garbage disposal, securities) and illegitimate (e.g., loan sharking, extortion, hijacking, murder) business interests (Finkenauer, 2007).

Conclusion

From the above exposition, it is clear that LCN is not a new organized criminal outfit in the U.S., and that it is organized around the so-called families and employs a hierarchical organizational structure to maintain order and discipline in the organization. It operates within the international arena through associate relationships and entering into agreements with other organized groups. The group’s working methods about the illicit drug business entail corruption, use of violence and enforcing discipline among members, while its primary business interests are in gambling, drugs, loan sharking, extortion, and infiltration of legitimate business organizations.

References

Finkenauer, J.O. (2007). La Cosa in the United States. Web.

Italian organized crime. (2014). Web.

Layman, M.D., & Potter, G.W. (2007). Organized crime (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Mallory, S.L. (2007). Understanding organized crime. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

In the world of organized crime, experts have offered two models which seek to understand and describe the nature and the structure of organized crime groups. These two models are bureaucratic and the client patron. The use of these two models in the world of organized crime depends on the scope of operation and the organizational experience of gang leaders.

The bureaucratic organization model can be described as a rational organization sharing a number of qualities which include a complicated hierarchy, extensive division of labor, assignment of positions according to the skill one possesses and finally bears extensive and written regulations, which every member has to follow. Bureaucratic organizations sometimes exist as an extension of the queer ladder of mobility theory which can be explained by the succession battle where one group replaces the other in the ladder of crime (Potter & Layman, 2007). However, when the ranges of the crime become too vast and bureaucracy breaks then a client patron organization model is formed. The model is usually advantageous both for business and security reasons since the patron usually provides the protection required and the client in turns pays back with tangible assets. Power is not concentrated among few individuals as everybody has the freedom of doing any activity as long as it is beneficial to the organization. The bonds are founded on mutual material advantage although patrons have enormous power on how to distribute the proceeds gained from the illegal activities (Brinkerhoff & Goldsmith, 2002).

Similarities and Differences of the Two Models

In the bureaucratic model also referred to as the corporate or the hierarchical model, efficiency is usually the prime factor for the huge number of activities involved. The creation of a bureaucratic structure usually becomes important when the activities expand and the necessity to control the enterprise through the use of rules, hierarchy, specialization and the desirable means of communication while the patron client model is based on the bond that tie the group or the organization together (Ruggiero, 2010). It operates in such a way that the patron provides the required aid and protection while the client becomes a loyal member of the group. The system is not strict or hierarchical in any way.

In the bureaucratic model, in case the leader of the group dies or becomes incarcerated the command personnel leaves dangerous gaps in operations and administration of the group whereas the client patron model offers advantage to continuity if the leader dies or is incapacitated as the patron will assume the position and life continues. Compared to the bureaucratic model, this model is less centralized and has low control over the subordinates. There exist organized crime groups which carry the characteristics of both models. Mallory, (2007) gives the example of “mafia as a patron client group whose structure is hierarchy and bureaucratic, but its activities are patron client models that operate as independent crews who are entrepreneurs” (p. 41). He describes the goal of the mafia being to create profits while the outlaw bikers’ main aims are to promote their lifestyle.

The patron client model requires more complex guidelines and laws enforcement efforts due to the decentralization characteristic of their activities and the large number of social networks whose members are not closely connected to each other while the bureaucratic model is more susceptible to law enforcement efforts due to its hierarchical rigid chain of command, its communication structure and the heavy involvement in crime activities of the leaders. The patron is usually not involved in the crime and provides the information and targets for the clients to steal (Mallory, 2007).

Bureaucratic organizations are formal and consist of laws and protocols which have to be followed in such a way that those low in authority are not allowed to make decisions without the approval of the administration while in patron client organization the lower ranking members can take upon themselves to obtain outside contracts and even conduct business outside the provided environment without approval as long as the organization benefits from the decisions of the individual. This brings out the reason why in bureaucratic organization model, the administrators are the ones who are blamed in case of failure while in patron client organization, everybody carries the burden (Paoli, 2002).

The two models used in organized crime groups is that they are both popular techniques in the ordering of government or legitimate capitalistic enterprises and they maintains a highly structured local, national and even international conspiracies.

Bureaucratic and patron client organizations are the two models which exist in the world of organized crime but despite the understanding of how organized crime works under the two models, cases of organized crime will always continue to occur due to the dynamism and resilience of the crime organizations. The fact that organized crime groups have got large networks which allows them to communicate with powerful economic, administration and political structures shows why organized crime will remain part of our culture for a very long period. Finally with advancements in technology, new era of globalization and efficient communication methods, their connections to multinational organizations will make it even harder to control it.

Reference List

Brinkerhoff D.W; Goldsmith A.A. (2002). Clientelism, Patrimonialism and Democratic Governance: An Overview and Framework for Assessment and Programming. Web.

Mallory, S.L. (2007). Understanding Organized Crime. New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning

Paoli, L. (2002). The paradoxes of organized crime. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Potter, W. G; Lyman D. M. (2007). Organize Crime, 4th edition. New York: Prentice Hall

Ruggiero, V. (2010). Organized Crime: Between the Informal and the Formal Economy, Working Papers Series, no. 4, July, Global Consortium on Security Transformation. Web.

The world faces the process of rapid globalization and the extreme development of modern technologies. Numerous devices have become integral parts of everyday life. Technologies have been implemented in various spheres of human activity. The usage of technology for crime analysis revolutionized crime prevention. Technologically-aided crime analysis is a promising way of fighting with the criminal world that requires particular methods of information gathering and retrieving and results in several benefits for communities and law enforcement.

According to Grant and Terry (2008), any crime analysis should assist police managers in comprehending the nature of a particular problem and taking necessary measures. Thus, technologies should help to collect and analyze data and prevent or react to the crime. The essential technology for crime analysis is GIS — geographic information systems. This technology provides the possibility to examine the geographical location of criminals. Disorder events, places of the commitment, the usage of land can be evaluated in such ways that give new insight into the problem. With the help of GIS, police officers can be able to predict the further development of the crime. Besides, these systems are useful for arranging police officers during various operations. GIS resulted in the advanced methods of crime mapping — visual depicting incidents on the map and their analysis. An accurate crime analysis should be accomplished when the police officer can evaluate the previous similar cases.

There is the technology that allows the police department to look for necessary information from one place. Record management systems have been developed for this purpose. Thus, police agencies enter information in the systems and make it available for further usage. Spreadsheet software represents the other system of data organization. This system allows police agencies to analyze a large amount of data and find some connections between crimes or events. Analysts also use spreadsheet software for statistical analysis. There are also technologies that were specially designed to satisfy the needs of police agencies. CrimeStat, Crime Analysis Extension, GeoBalance, and other systems stand for some specially designed technologies (Santos, 2012). Crime analysts use a variety of methods for data collection, storing, and retrieving. These processes are necessary for successful crime analysis as far as they help to receive additional materials and evaluate the situation from a particular perspective.

The choice of the method depends on the purpose of the crime analysis. Police agencies may use a group of qualitative methods to collect information that is not numerical. First, field research is the qualitative approach that aims at collecting data concerning a particular event. Field research is conducted with the help of other methods. These methods include observation and face-to-face interviews. The technique of content analysis is the second method that presupposes the reviewing of existing reports connected with particular cases. Such techniques give the opportunity to gather as much information as possible from various sources and analyze it.

The next group includes quantitative methods. Here belong general methods of statistical analysis such as percentages, rates, or frequencies. Together with record management systems, spreadsheet software can be used as the source of information as well. These types assist in storing and retrieving information (Kleck, Tark, & Bellows, 2006). The significance of the described methods for crime analysis should not be underestimated. It also should be noted that a profound investigation is possible when various techniques are utilized. For instance, any analysis starts with observation and information collecting.

However, it cannot be completed without the statistical data, their comparison, and evaluation. The comprehensive and profound crime analysis is of great importance for law enforcement and the community. Crime analysis is a part of law enforcement activities. Its primary goal is to collect and evaluate information relevant to wrongdoing prevention. The first benefit lies in the fact that police agencies can use the data for identifying the reasons for crime or potential suspects. The second advantage refers to the formulation of particular crime prevention strategies on the basis of the analysis.

Thus, crime analysis improves the system of law enforcement by providing additional possibilities to react to crimes adequately and prepare for potential threats. Crime analysis is also helpful in communities. The first benefit concerns the possibility of analyzing local data to identify potential risks. The analyst can gather information about the residents of the area, previous crimes, and find some connections. In such a way, police officers may know who is dangerous for public safety and monitor that person or organization. The second benefit refers to the direct reaction to the crime. Taking into account previous data, the crime analyst can suggest the most appropriate way of reaction.

Crime analysis can be conducted with the help of numerous modern technologies. GIS, record management system and spreadsheet software are essential. The necessary information for crime analysis can be collected and stored with the help of a variety of qualitative and quantitative methods. As a result, a profound crime analysis provides evident benefits for both law enforcement and the community.

References

Grant, H., & Terry, K. (2008). Law Enforcement in the 21 Century. Upper Saddle River, USA: Prentice Hall.

Kleck, G., Tark, J., & Bellows, J. (2006). What methods are most frequently used in research in criminology and criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(2), 147-152.

Santos, R. (2012). Crime Analysis with Crime Mapping. New York, USA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

The issue of false accusations is a topical problem that needs to be managed, especially given the fact that there are vulnerable groups that are more susceptible toward false accusations than others are. In her speech, Malloy (2016) explains that young people are prone to confessing to the crimes that they did not commit due to the inconsistencies in the modern justice system and the lack of strategies and training needed to question underage people properly.

According to Malloy (2016), there is a higher rate of possibility for teenagers to waive their Miranda right when being questioned, due to high psychological pressure levels combined with the profound lack of basic knowledge of the justice system. However, the most common reason for the specified age group to confess to the crimes that they never committed is the lack of techniques for questioning teenagers that can be observed in the modern legal environment.

The assertion made by Malloy can be proven when considering developmental theories that delve into the psychology of adolescents. For example, the theory of cognitive development in adolescents provided by Piaget shows that the specified age group is prone to high levels of self-consciousness, which may lead to low self-esteem (McCormick & Scherer, 2018). As a result, the probability of young people resorting to a confession due to psychological pressure increases exponentially.

Malloy insists that strategies for questioning young people should be introduced into the modern legal environment. In addition, the support of legal counselors and advisors should be seen as necessary for both young people who have been accused of a crime and their family members, particularly, parents or legal guardians. Launching education processes in law enforcement units along with the creation of counseling services for young people and their parents will help to reduce the threat of false convictions in adolescents.

References

Malloy, L. (2016). Why teens confess to crimes they did not commit [Video file]. Web.

McCormick, S. B., & Scherer, D. G. (2018). Child and adolescent development for educators (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.