Category: Crime

Introduction

Entertainment programs on crime such as CSI have created a perception now referred to as the ‘CSI effect’. This is the response of the public who have been exposed to forensic science and eye witness evidence from a fictional point of view. As a result, the society now demands more from law enforcement agents, jurors and scientists. The decisions in court now appear to be based on whether or not there is availability of forensic evidence.

However, what the society fails to realize is that there is a distortion between what they watch on television and the reality. The evidence that seems to be easy to gather on television takes time and money. This distortion is not only spread through television but also print media. This paper examines how the media has affected the eye witness evidence, the jurors’ knowledge and specialist testimony. It further examines whether crime dramas affect the public perception of forensic science and whether this influence affects court rulings.

Forensic evidence

Research on the CSI effect has shown there is a correlation between the need for forensic evidence in court and the increase in crime related programs. The availability of this type of evidence determines whether the accused is convicted or acquitted. This finding questions the integrity and reliability of the justice system, especially the decision made by the jury.

Court rulings were previously based on the law but with the increase in popularity of crime related programs, one is left to wonder if the jurors’ judgment is fair. A study to determine the validity of the CSI effect on the public and the jury was carried out. The main aim was to establish whether the society believed that some proofs were more dependable than others; and whether crime dramas or other factors have an effect on these views.

The study was carried out over the phone and at least 1200 people were contacted. The people interviewed were from different races, 66 percent were white while 6 percent were African American.

Most of the respondents were college graduates with families. The average age was 51 years and more than 50 percent were women. About 30 percent had served in the justice department, 70 percent watched crime related programs, while 40 percent of the respondents were casualties of a crime. Nearly all the respondents believed that evidence presented in court varied significantly.

The results showed that DNA was regarded as the most efficient evidence. It was followed closely by fingerprints. The statement of medical experts and police testimony also received support from the public. However, the public seemed to have little faith in the injured party and eyewitness evidence.

Generally, scientific evidence proved to be more dependable compared to testimonies. The public felt the use of DNA as a proof was good enough. Nevertheless, this rule did not apply in rape or murder cases. The study showed majority of the respondents did not need scientific evidence to convict such offenders. This response was received more strongly for rape offenders as compared to the murder villains.

Bivariate Analyses

Bivariate examination of the study revealed several factors that influenced the responses received. These factors include race, sex, unfair treatment, country of birth, intellect and crime related programs. For example, a high percentage of white residents believed the statement of law enforcement agents and fingerprints as opposed to other types of substantiation. In addition, white people were not likely to rule on a murder case without forensic evidence.

Generally, white residents trust the justice system and the rule of law. On the other hand, women and scholars did not trust the evidence provided by eyewitness. The most dependable type of evidence for scholars was forensic proof, fingerprints and the testimony of law enforcement officers. Majority of the people who had served in the justice department thought the evidence of police was more dependable compared to medical specialist evidence.

Regression Analyses

A regression of the variables used in the study revealed the existence of a correlation between crime shows and the dependability of forensic evidence. Those people who spent more hours watching crime dramas voted forensic evidence as the most reliable proof.

This trend was mostly applied to individuals who watched the programs for more than three hours per week. There was no relationship between the academic level and the number of hours spent watching crime shows. Respondents with a high level of education believed that the eye witness evidence was not dependable.

The study confirmed that the most dependable form of proof is scientific evidence. Additionally, it verified that the number of hours spent watching crime dramas had a significant influence on the preference of evidence. Essentially, crime shows directly shaped the views of the public concerning forensic evidence.

Therefore, the availability of such evidence is important in a court of law. Based on these facts, it is clear that the public and the jurors’ attitudes are not only affected by crime shows but also social and emotional factors. The jury can be influenced by the arguments of lawyers and their ability to support the evidence presented. There are other minor factors such as detest for the lawyers, prosecutors or judges.

‘Objection, Your Honor! Television is not the relevant authority.’ Crime drama portrayals of eyewitness issues

CSI effect on Jurors’

In the past, several cases of wrong judgments have been identified. Police have received confessions and testimony from the true perpetrators, long after the wrong person is imprisoned. A study was carried out with this information in mind. It targeted the crime related programs aired on the television. These programs are believed to be the prime source of knowledge for the public and the panel of judges. According to the study, the media has influenced the attitude of jurors in the courtroom.

Presently, the jury has a high expectation regarding the nature of proof to be presented during trial. Consequently, the jury looks forward to seeing the same technologically advanced evidence displayed in television in a real courtroom. If the proof presented does not match their expectations, the testimony is inadequate and the case is dismissed. Similarly, the jury has more confidence on evidence such as fingerprints. However, experts believe that such evidence is not sufficient and often leads to wrong judgment.

Research further reveals that the knowledge of the jury is affected by news coverage. The media’s perception of a certain topic has a significant impact on the jury. Jurors are more likely to believe the report presented by the media even if the evidence is inadequate. If new evidence likely to affect the integrity of the accused was broadcast by the media, then the message portrayed was likely to influence the views of the panel of judges.

In addition, any new information gathered by the media could easily change the direction of the trial. It has been noted that the jury do not take time to examine evidence presented by the media. What is aired in the news is acknowledged as the truth without further dispute. Research findings reveal that court rulings are based on the opinion of the public and the media.

CSI Effects on Eyewitness

Although the testimony of an eyewitness is based on what was actually seen, it has been noted that this type of evidence can also be influenced by television programs. The information that the society and the jury have on the evidence of an eyewitness is often gathered from crime scene dramas. To test the credibility of this information, a study was carried out to discover how eyewitness information and issues have changed over time.

The study involved comparison of the eyewitness evidence in the media and find the correlation of several variables. Based on this study, changes have been noted in several areas. For example, in most programs children are more precise about events. Most eyewitnesses remember exact particulars of the events regardless of the trauma experienced. The stress levels of witness had decreased over time. In addition, witnesses were likely to provide more information about what they saw or heard later.

Most of the programs had similar information about the behavior of a witness. For example, during trial, the evidence of an eyewitness can be shaped by words used to ask the questions. Similarly, the instructions given by law enforcement agents before a lineup can affect the readiness of the eyewitness to provide information. Violence during crime affects the chances of an eyewitness choosing a suspect in a lineup.

On the other hand, the confidence of an eyewitness may be influenced by other factors not related to the crime. The feelings and expectations of the eyewitness also shaped their testimony. Occasionally, witnesses are likely to identify a perpetrator because they had seen them before. These issues were consistent in most dramas, with a few exceptions such as use of weapons, lineup justice, instructions and level of violence.

The results of the study suggest that there is a balance in the information provided in the crime dramas. Some attributes about the eyewitness were credible while others were not. The study revealed that most of the issues experienced by an observer in television dramas were disguised. The script writers did not reveal their position on eyewitness issues. Essentially, no program portrayed a relationship between the accuracy of the information and eyewitness issues.

For example, in crime dramas, eyewitness had the ability to remember events that took place while they were intoxicated. In view of these findings, it is important for the society to carefully consider all the evidence presented in court before acting or ruling on a case. Moreover, there is need for the jurors to acquire the right information and avoid bias.

Tools and strategies for Quality Improvement and Patient Safety

Quality Health Care

The responsibility of doctors and care givers in medical centers is to provide quality health care. Quality health care refers to the provision of health services consistent with up to date specialized knowledge. However, majority of the health facilities face a challenge in this area. Errors and issues arising during provision of health care complicate matters. This complexity is the consequence of flawed structures and practices. Missing one step of a procedure or using the wrong chemical often results in errors that complicate the provision of healthcare.

According to the institute of medicine, there are six objectives of quality health care: successful, safe, tolerant, well-timed, professional and impartial. To achieve these goals, it is imperative that health personnel understand efficient procedures and practices. Some of the models currently adopted by institutions to improve the provision of quality health include measures and benchmarks, quality improvement strategies, plan – do- study- act, six sigma ,lean production system and failure modes and effects analysis

Measures and Benchmarks

To determine whether quality of health care has improved, there needs to be development in several areas. These developments need to be carefully considered, measured and documented. Measurement is significant because it proves that services are improving. If the hospital management receives numerous complaints about their services, then it is a sign that their services are poor. In the same way, evaluating results among different institutions will enhance performance.

The first measure of performance is results; there is need to see visible results. Secondly, the improvement should lead to changes in unrelated hospital practices and procedures. Thirdly, hospital staff needs to demonstrate leadership by diligently implementing the changes. For organizations to consistently measure results, they require outside benchmarks. The incessant comparison of results with other institutions is referred to as benchmarking.

Quality Improvement Strategies

Measurement can further be demonstrated by examining the organization, procedure and results of healthcare institutions. To assess the structure of a health centre, the following variables can be examined: the number of trained caregivers, availability of goods and services, accessibility of the hospital, the number of patients the hospital can accommodate at a time and the insurance policy.

To examine procedures, it is best to assess whether the staff comply with the set rules and regulations. Lastly, the measurement of results lies on client satisfaction and other factors like mortality rate. It is imperative to differentiate between research and quality improvement strategies.

Plan –Do- Study- Act

The Plan-Do-Study –Act is a cyclic model used to improve and make constructive amends in health care. The cycle begins with identifying a problem and planning the implementation of possible solutions. It is specific in nature and results oriented. The fundamental rule of this model is to make small regular adjustments as an alternative to major changes which take time to execute.

The main objective of the model is to find a practical or informal connection between change in procedures and results. Before implementing the model, the organization has to ensure that they have an objective which can be measured and realized. Once a change is made, the results are documented, assessed and reviewed to measure the outcome.

The six sigma and Lean production system

Six Sigma is a model used to improve processes or procedures. It uses an approached referred to as DMAIC. This approach seeks to identify, appraise, evaluate, improve and organize a project. There are two methods used with this model. The first method looks at the outcome of a process and determines the defects.

The second method estimates the potential of a process and predicts the results. It then calculates the disparity and converts the outcome to a sigma metric. The lean production system also known as the Toyota production system is similar to Six Sigma. However, the objective of lean production system is to determine the client’s needs and eliminate processes that do not add value to the customer.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis

For every process there is likelihood that mistakes will certainly take place. Failure modes and effect analysis is an approach used to establish and eradicate possible mistakes and issues from a process. By eliminating errors, this model ensures effectiveness in the organization. Correspondingly, it allows management to eradicate future disappointments.

Implementing Change

Good leadership is the most important requirement in the implementation of the quality improvement strategy models. Essentially, they need support from the board of directors. Without their support, the management can barely improve the system. The management should be dedicated to see changes in their processes and system. They should be prepared to make difficult decisions and risks. In the same way, they should be prepared to deal with employees who will try to fight the process of change.

Good communication can be used to assure such employees. In addition, the improvements require finances in order to implement the changes. These changes involve additional training of staff, hiring experts and installing new equipment. The personnel may be required to work for longer hours and carry out procedures they are not familiar with. In the initial planning stages, the management should identify sources of financial support.

Crime prevention is an essential set of activities of state legislatures, and its purpose is to implement and maintain special programs aimed at excluding deviant behavior among the population. Particular attention should be given to juvenile delinquency since early manifestations of a propensity for crime can have serious consequences in the future.

In order to find the way to deal with various forms of deviant behavior among children and adolescents, it is necessary to analyze several separate jurisdictions and draw conclusions about the success of the programs used. Also, it is required to consider a specific prevention system, expected outcomes, and the success that can be achieved. It is supposed that the proposed program can make a significant contribution to work on combating youth crime and can be applied in different jurisdictions.

Jurisdiction Description

As a specific jurisdiction that will serve as the basis for assessing and implementing the provisions of the crime prevention program, the District of Florida will be considered. According to Hay, Ladwig, and Campion (2018), “more than 75,000 juvenile cases are referred each year, with roughly 3,000 receiving a residential commitment” (p. 313). These figures indicate that urgent measures should be taken since such a high percentage of crimes committed by young people allows speaking about the inefficiency of the existing preventive system. Hay et al. (2018) also note that the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice (FDJJ) cannot cope with the problem. Therefore, a new program should be implemented and maintained to achieve the improvement of indicators.

Analysis of Similar Jurisdictions Through the SARA Model and the Crime Analysis Triangle

In order to evaluate the current practices used to prevent youth crime, several similar jurisdictions can be considered. For this program, California, Texas, and Illinois will be used to determine the basic approaches to work in the chosen direction. The assessment will be focused on such techniques as the SARA model and the Crime Analysis Triangle. According to Clarke and Eck (2005), these methods allow understanding the causes of a specific problem and its possible consequences. All the three selected jurisdictions will be analyzed based on these two models.

Jurisdiction of California

The jurisdiction of California also provides for the need to counteract juvenile delinquency. As Liles, Blacker, Landini, and Urquiza (2016) remark, every year, a large percentage of young people become victims of violence and are later involved in crimes. The state program provides for the detection of cases of child abuse and their involvement in criminal cases. From the point of view of the SARA model, four main positions can be distinguished: scanning, analysis, response, and assessment (Clarke & Eck, 2005).

Based on the number of criminals, it can be noted that the existing legislation is not sufficiently effective. Analyzing the local protection program, its imperfection is evident because of the lack of a systematic approach. The response to this analysis may be the need to introduce a new program that can change the situation for the better. Evaluation will be conducted after the system manifests itself in practice.

From the point of view of the Crime Analysis Triangle, the activities of the handler, guardian, and manager are not well expressed. Due to the fact that local authorities are in urgent need to find new effective techniques to prevent child crimes, the system needs reorganizing. The positions of the Triangle should be observed in order for the entire mechanism to work effectively.

Jurisdiction of Texas

The jurisdiction of Texas can also feel the need for a new system to prevent child crimes. In the study conducted by Leve, Chamberlain, and Kim (2015), it is noted that the number of girls with deviations in behavior and involved in crimes exceeds the number of boys. Therefore, an appropriate assistance program should be implemented. The use of the SARA model helps to determine that the jurisdiction under consideration has difficulties in providing a gender approach to the solution of the problem, and appropriate measures should be taken. The Crime Analysis Triangle allows assessing the extent of involvement of government agencies and noting the inadequate state’s filling of specialists of an appropriate profile who could work to provide psychological assistance to juvenile offenders.

Jurisdiction of Illinois

When considering the jurisdiction of Illinois, it is possible to note its similarity with previous systems. According to Bowers and Johnson (2017), the state policy provides for the prosecution of juvenile offenders, which, nevertheless, is not always conducted successfully. Applying the SARA model for evaluation, it can be determined that the local government may not have enough proactive staff. A new program can correct the situation. A sufficient number of participants will cope with the tasks set. The Crime Analysis Triangle implies similar conclusions since there is no clear position in the current system regarding the roles of government officials. In order to correct this gap, the implementation of a new program should pass in accordance with an approved plan.

Appropriate Crime Prevention Strategy

When evaluating an appropriate crime prevention program for young people based on the analysis of previous jurisdictions, some valuable components are to be included. In particular, the system should imply a strategically thought-out approach so that all steps could be planned in advance and no unforeseen circumstances could arise. Also, it is necessary to take into account the gender factor since, as practice shows, the nature of crimes committed by boys and girls is different, and the percentage ratio also does not match. Finally, a proactive approach is to be encouraged in order possible innovations to contribute to the development of the program and to be useful for solving specific problems.

Various Crime Prevention Programs

In order to successfully combat juvenile delinquency, it is possible to consider various programs aimed at crime prevention and implying the use of different approaches. Farrington, Gaffney, Lösel, and Ttofi (2017) offer a large list of strategies that can be of use in solving the problem under consideration. The authors advise paying attention, for example, to a parent-training program with cultural adaptation when children with deviant behavior and their parents are involved in joint studies and the process socialization (Farrington et al., 2017).

Also, according to Farrington et al. (2017), violence prevention programs can be useful when psychologists deal with problem children and identify the causes of aggression in relation to other people. Finally, it is possible to pay attention to special mentor programs when a number of characteristics are controlled by responsible persons – social, behavioral, educational, and other outcomes (Farrington et al., 2017). All these systems can be valuable for the intervention aimed at combating juvenile delinquency.

Using Programs in Comparable Jurisdictions

When applying the reviewed programs to the comparable jurisdictions, it is possible to draw certain conclusions about their relevance. A parent-training program with a cultural adaptation will be suitable for the jurisdiction of California. The insufficient effectiveness of local policies regarding crime prevention among young people can be improved through joint work with children and their parents. A violence prevention program can be valuable for the state of Texas where an initiative group does not work actively. Special measures of influence on juvenile offenders can have a significant impact on their behavior. Also, a mentor program can organically fit into the jurisdiction of Illinois because there are problems with a gender approach. A new course will include a full set of controls by the relevant authorities.

Funding Strategy

A financing strategy for a specific prevention program can be based on attracting budgetary funds allocated by the government to fight crime. Also, the relevant rationale should be drawn up in order to prove the effectiveness of the proposed system and its relevance in a particular region. Meetings with legislators will make it possible to convey in detail to them the need for urgent measures and the specific type of work that is planned to be carried out to improve the current indicators of juvenile delinquency.

Anticipated Outcomes

In terms of short-term anticipated outcomes, a new concrete strategy to combat youth crime has an opportunity to significantly reduce the percentage of offenses committed within a short period of time. According to Romo and Ortiz (2018), new systems can help to exclude resources for crimes, for example, by banning the sale of specific products to young people. When talking about long-term prospects, the introduction of a new program may allow changing the attitude of juvenile offenders to the law and making the region one of the most law-abiding in the country.

Impact of the Program on Social Justice

If the new program is successfully implemented, it will certainly have a positive effect on social justice. As Romo and Ortiz (2018) remark, changing the approach to control over the level of crime can be one of the mechanisms to prevent it. The possibilities of the new system help provide legislative bodies with an opportunity to take a fresh look at the measures to combat juvenile offenders and assess the situation from a different angle. If positive dynamics is traced, it will mean that the program is successfully realized.

References

Bowers, K., & Johnson, S. D. (2017). Burglary prevention in practice. In N. Tilley & A. Sidebottom (Eds.), Handbook of crime prevention and community safety (2nd ed.) (pp. 338-372). New York, NY: Routledge.

Clarke, R. V., & Eck, J. E. (2005). Crime analysis for problem solvers in 60 small steps. Washington, D.C.: US Department of Justice.

Farrington, D. P., Gaffney, H., Lösel, F., & Ttofi, M. M. (2017). Systematic reviews of the effectiveness of developmental prevention programs in reducing delinquency, aggression, and bullying. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 33, 91-106.

Hay, C., Ladwig, S., & Campion, B. (2018). Tracing the rise of evidence-based juvenile justice in Florida. Victims & Offenders, 13(3), 312-335.

Leve, L. D., Chamberlain, P., & Kim, H. K. (2015). Risks, outcomes, and evidence-based interventions for girls in the US juvenile justice system. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 18(3), 252-279.

Liles, B. D., Blacker, D. M., Landini, J. L., & Urquiza, A. J. (2016). A California multidisciplinary juvenile court: Serving sexually exploited and at-risk youth. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 34(1), 234-245.

Romo, H. D., & Ortiz, S. M. (2018). Supportive housing contexts and educational opportunities for foster youth transitioning out of care. In E. Trejos-Castillo & N. Trevino-Schafer (Eds.), Handbook of foster youth (pp. 258-281). New York, NY: Routledge.

A criminal investigation is a form of applied science. It deals with the identification of facts and proving guilt among suspected criminals. However, it is important to note that a suspect is always innocent before they are deemed to be otherwise. They have to be proven guilty by a court of law.

The process of criminal investigation includes thorough searches in areas where evidence is believed to lie. It also involves interviews with the suspect, interrogations, as well as collection and preservation of evidence. The evidence is used to prove that the suspect is guilty of the crime they are accused of in a court of law (Osterburg & Ward, 2013). Criminal investigators are recommended for this work because they are highly trained to deal with criminals (Craig, 2002).

Different types of criminal investigations can be carried out depending on the type of case. Intelligence gathering, criminal forensic, electronic surveillance, and intrusive investigation are some of these assessments. In this paper, the author is going to look into these elements of criminal investigation from the perspective of hate crime. To this end, a definition of this form of criminal procedure will be provided, together with some of its features and processes involved in its investigations. An example of a hate crime will be provided, together with the investigations carried out on this case and the verdict passed by the court.

Definition of a Hate Crime

Hate crimes have been reported in different jurisdictions around the world. Some of these cases have disrupted peace in these regions. Law enforcement agents have come up with different strategies to curb the vice in society. A number of investigations are carried out depending on the nature of the crime (Craig 2002).

According to the Federal Bureau of Investigations, approximately 10,000 incidences of hate crime are reported each year. It is not yet known if the crimes are reducing or increasing with time. Research indicates that assaults motivated by biases are more violent compared to other forms of hate crimes. Such aggravations are likely to cause serious injuries to the victim (Jacobs & Potter, 2000). Some of the victims of these assaults include homosexuals and other minority groups in society.

A hate crime is an example of offenses impacting negatively on the lives of people. It is a form of offense that is motivated by sexual, racial, or prejudice. It involves violence in one form or the other (Dunbar, 2006). Some of the cases reported are motivated by religion, race, disability, or sexual orientation. A hate crime is regarded to be against the laws of many nations because it infringes on the right of an individual. It impacts negatively on the individual’s ability to freely socialize with others in the society (Craig, 2002). Hate crimes have been around since World War I.

Features of a Hate Crime

There are various similarities between hate crimes and other forms of offenses. For example, all of them are against the laws of the nation, and they affect either the individual or the community (Dunbar, 2006). For an offense to qualify as a hate crime, it must meet a number of criteria. However, it is noted that statutory definitions may differ from one state to the other (Craig, 2002). In spite of this, it is important to note that a ‘hate’ crime does not only involve hate. Biasness towards something, somebody, or a given behavior may be regarded as an offense motivated by hatred.

Consequently, it is noted that these crimes are intended to harm or injure another person. The intended injury is either psychological or physical (Jacobs & Potter, 2000). It can be uttered in words or written down. Provided the action done is aimed at inflicting harm on another person; it is termed as a hate crime. Some terrorism activities in different places in the world are good examples of hate crimes (Severson, 2011). The activities come with messages intended to provoke a certain community or group of people in the society.

Investigating a Hate Crime

It is hard for criminal investigators to come up with evidence to prove a hate crime. Before a suspect can be proven guilty, the evidence must be deduced to link them to the crime. Most victims of hate crimes are affected emotionally. Some of them find it hard to make their feelings public. In situations where a victim is afraid of giving information to the investigators, then it becomes hard for the experts to establish the truth and access the evidence needed to convict the criminal (Osterburg & Ward, 2013).

Most of these offenses are provoked by race. As a result, the first step in investigations involves establishing the cause and motive behind the offense. The second most important part of investigating a hate crime involves accessing and assessing the nature of the injury caused (Phillips & Grattet, 2000). There are different types of injuries caused by this offense. One of them is a primary injury. It involves an act that causes material and emotional harm to the victim.

At this stage, medics may be involved to check the extent of the physical harm. However, it is not possible to measure the emotional harm caused by the victim. In addition, it is not easy to quantify the extent of the injury. Financial harm is another form of primary injury (Phillips & Grattet, 2000). It can be measured in terms of the losses an individual has incurred as a result of hate crime.

Investigators also look for secondary harm in the process of gathering information. The injury is caused by a lack of support after the crime. Most of the victims who have no access to support after been assaulted find it hard to recover from the incident. Many ends up suffering if no help is accorded to them. Investigators should approach these victims in a way that shows they understand their civil rights.

The persons in charge of the investigations, who include police officers in most cases, must guarantee the safety of the victim (Osterburg & Ward, 2013). Interviews and interrogations help the officers to gather information at this stage. While investigating, the police must have information about the tools used to perpetuate the hate crime. The process involves gathering evidence and organizing facts that prove the individual was assaulted, and the accused is guilty of the offense.

Different types of bias indicators have to be checked during the investigation. Investigators must gather information on the sexual orientation, race, religion, ethnicity, and nationality of both the offender and the victim. Having such details helps the investigators to identify the cause of the biasness or hatred. The individuals carrying out investigations also check for any oral or written statements that may be expressing bias against the victim. Such information is collected, preserved, and used as evidence in a court of law. Bias-related symbols and markings are also checked.

The location of the victim when the incident occurred helps the investigators in studying the environment surrounding the attack. Some of the individuals in that environment may have provoked the actions of the aggressor (Dunbar, 2006). The role of the victim in society is of importance to the investigators. For example, in cases where the victim or the aggressor is an activist, the approach to the inquiry has to change. In many instances, witnesses are very important. They are crucial parts of the evidence and need to be protected.

Investigators also analyze past events surrounding the case (Osterburg & Ward, 2013). The occurrences provide information on any instances related to biasness, such as threats and other forms of provocation. The events speed up the investigation process. In today’s world, some hate crimes are perpetuated through the internet. Provoking messages are sent through social media and other platforms. The advancements have made it possible for the investigators to gather information and evidence through the use of technology. After the investigation is over, all evidence is tabled before a court for judicial officers to rule on the case.

Deryl Paul Dedmon vs. James Craig Anderson: A Classic Example of a Hate Crime

The best example of a case involving hate crime is that of Deryl Paul Dedmon vs. James Craig Anderson. The legal suit is famous in the U.S and in other parts of the world. The defendant was given a life sentence for killing James Anderson. He was 19 years old when he committed the crime. The crime was reported in Brandon, Mississippi (Severson, 2011). The accused was charged with murder and hate crime. He pleaded guilty to both. As a result, the magistrate committed him to life sentence for each count.

The event occurred in 2009. Dedmon had threatened a number of people before killing his victim. The aggressor was a student at Brandon High School. One of his friends from school, Jordan Richardson, narrated how he and his peers called him names (Severson, 2011). They had also threatened him when they found him fishing at Cornerstone Lake in Brandon. According to Richardson’s account, Dedmon used abusive words on them.

He called them ‘little wuss’ who cannot defend themselves. The words were uttered by Dedmon to provoke Richardson and his friend (Severson, 2011). However, Richardson did not want to fight back, as this would have resulted in violence. He knew that Dedmon used to carry shotguns and knives in his truck. Richardson called the police, who came and solved the problem before it went out of hand.

On 26^th June 2009, Dedmon and some of his friends left a party in Rankin County to Jackson in two vehicles. According to the testimony deduced from the accused, it was clear that the group of six was out to make trouble. For example, it is reported that Dedmon used dirty words in reference to blacks as they were leaving the venue. It was around 5 a.m. The two vehicles they traveled in were a Ford-250 and a white SUV. All this information is provided in the court records. Dedmon, together with his friends, was a known bully and troublemaker. A witness saw him pulling into Wendy’s on Ellis Avenue (Phillips & Grattet, 2000).

In the company of his friends, he bumped into Anderson, a 49-year old man. According to the witness, the victim was near his truck, trying to force the door open. He was a little drunk and had misplaced his keys. On seeing Anderson struggling with the door of the truck, Dedmon and his friends assumed that he was trying to steal. They drove towards where he was standing (Severson, 2011). They did not know that the car belonged to Anderson.

Dedmon reached on the scene and started fighting with the victim. The court records are not clear with regards to the extent to which the other boys participated in the beating. However, a witness informed that one of them was using abusive language and encouraging the aggressor to continue attacking the victim.

After the attack, the group left the scene of the crime. After beating and robbing the black man, Dedmon went back to his car. The first group drove off peacefully. However, Dedmon ran over Mr. Anderson, who was lying on the ground. It is the running over that led to the victim’s death. Dedmon did not express any feelings of guilt. On the contrary, he appeared happy of his actions (Severson, 2011). He used racial slur during the attack. He used the statement repeatedly during the course of the day.

Investigations Carried Out on the Case

Investigations regarding this case were conducted by the FBI. The aim was to determine whether Dedmon was guilty of a hate crime or not. A surveillance camera in the parking lot where Mr. Anderson was murdered proved that Dedmon used racial slurs during the attack. It proved that he killed the man because he was black. He was charged together with his friend, John Aaron Rice. The latter was accused of assault. However, this co-accused was later released, leaving Dedmon in the dock alone (Severson, 2011).

The investigations did not take long. Unlike in other cases, the witnesses in this suit were willing and ready to testify. In most instances where delayed investigations are evident, police officers cite the unwillingness of the witnesses to testify. Some of the witnesses cite fear, risks to their lives, or unavailability of evidential material. In this case, the perpetrator was well known. There were no hindrances to the police investigations. The accused was arrested on 6^th July. The prosecution preferred two counts against him. They included capital murder and hate crime (Severson, 2011). Investigators cited that the accused had infringed on the victim’s civil rights.

The words uttered by Dedmon were intended to harm the victim. The victim suffered an injury, which was confirmed by the evidence brought before the court. Technological advancements made it easy for the criminal investigators to access the evidence needed to prove that Dedmon was guilty of the crimes. The persons carrying out investigations reviewed the footage captured in the surveillance cameras to find out the truth.

They also carried out tests on the body of Mr. Anderson to ascertain the real cause of death. At the opening of the hearings, the accused pleaded not guilty. The laws of Mississippi stipulate heavy sentences for capital murder and similar crimes. Such offenses carry sentences of death or life imprisonment without parole (Severson, 2011). The legislations are also strict when it comes to hate crimes. To this end, stiff sentences without the option of bail are meted out on those found guilty.

The Verdict of the Court

The case was heard and determined by Hinds County Circuit Judge, Weil. He sentenced the accused to life imprisonment for each of the offense. The judge cited that the craven act did not represent the behavior of the people of Mississippi (Severson, 2011). He continued to say that the state of Mississippi would not let such a crime go without being punished. It was also wrong for the defendant, a teenager, to commit such a crime to an elderly person just because of skin color (Phillips & Grattet, 2000).

Before the verdict was made, the sister to the deceased had written to the Judge asking him not to give a death sentence to the defendant. She claimed that sentencing the criminal to death would not be of help to the family. In addition, it would not bring back the dead. Her sister also cited her Christian beliefs, which would not allow such an act. She wrote the letter because of the previous judgments that had been passed in Mississippi (Severson, 2011).

Most of the people who were found guilty of murder because of skin color were sentenced to die. Many people in Jackson condemned the racially motivated crime. Most of the residents in this town are African Americans. After the incident, people marched in the streets of Jackson to condemn the crime.

The evidence tabled in court was enough to send the criminal behind bars for many years — most of the cases that have been dropped in Mississippi lack enough evidence (Severson, 2011). The most important thing that the judge was looking for in this case was the aspect of business with an intention to harm the other. An injury on the victim was also an important element in this case. It was unfortunate that the victim could not speak because he was dead. However, the witnesses and the video camera provided enough evidence to show that the defendant was guilty of hate crimes.

Conclusion

Hate crimes have been reported in many parts of the world. Such crimes have led to conflicts between individuals. Any intended harm towards an individual on the basis of their color, religion, gender, or sex is regarded as a hate crime. Apart from the racially motivated case highlighted in this paper, other forms of hate crimes reported in many parts of the world are related to religion. In some regions, there are instances where Muslims and Christians fight because of their faith (Osterburg & Ward, 2013). Such incidences are a threat to peace in the country.

Many governments have come up with laws to fight hate crimes. Most of these legislations are associated with tough punishments, which are meant to ensure that incidences of these offenses are reduced. Investigations around hate crimes have been boosted by the introduction of modern technology. Today, it is fairly easy to gather evidence related to the offense. Hate crimes are violations of individual human rights. As such, the victims have the right to be heard and protected under the law.

References

Craig, K. (2002). Examining hate-motivated aggression: A review of the social psychological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7(1), 85-101.

Dunbar, E. (2006). Race, gender, and sexual orientation in hate crime victimization: Identity politics or identity risk?. Violence and Victims, 21(3), 323-337.

Jacobs, J., & Potter, K. (2000). Hate crimes: Criminal law & identity politics (Studies in crime and public policy). New York: Oxford University Press.

Osterburg, J., & Ward, R. (2013). Criminal investigation: A method for reconstructing the past (7th ed.). London: Routledge.

Phillips, S., & Grattet, R. (2000). Judicial rhetoric, meaning-making, and the institutionalization of hate crime law. Law & Society Review, 34(3), 567-606.

Severson, K. (2011). Weighing race and hate in a Mississippi killing.New York Times. Web.

This report aims to describe the changes in crime patterns, which took place during the period between 2008 and 2009. At first, we need to describe these changes by quantitative methods. This can be done in table format.

The most noticeable trend is the sharp increase in violent crime. In 2008, the total number of violent crimes (homicides, forcible rapes, robberies, and aggravated assaults) was one hundred and seventy eight. In 2009 we have registered two hundred and thirty four violent felonies in this jurisdiction. Thus, we can speak about a 24 % percent increase. The only exception was the number of forcible rapes; in this case, we can observe a minor decline. Furthermore, it should be noted that the level of non-violent crime remains relatively unchanged.

Statistical information is not always sufficient for the analysis of crime trend. In order to get a more comprehensive picture of a crime pattern, we need to know the age, sex and even ethnical belonging of both victim and perpetrator. This information is particularly relevant if we are speaking about violent felonies as in some cases, violence could be triggered by the person’s racial or ethnic prejudices. Moreover, we need to know when and where the crime took place. This information is crucial for data mining and crime mapping. Apart from that, we need to determine whether these violent acts were committed at home, in school, in the street or in some other environment.

As it has been mentioned before, the number of non-violent crimes (larcenies and motor vehicle thefts) remains relatively unchanged. There is only a small increase in the number of larcenies.

Such offences as burglaries require in-depth examination, because they can be either violent or non-violent crimes. This is why a criminal analyst should delve into the circumstances of each case. It should be borne in mind that burglaries can be of several types: theft, vandalism, violent assault or even rape (Mawby 2008, p 3). In the majority of cases, burglary is only a preliminary step and we need to identify its purpose. According to statistical data, the total amount of burglaries has grown at 9,5 percent but at this moment we know nothing about the nature of these offences.

Again, we need to pay close attention to time and location, as the knowledge of these things can be instrumental for the prevention of crime. While analyzing these crimes, a researcher should take a tactical approach because it focuses on the strategies, which help to prevent these crimes or at least minimize their effects.

On the whole, the crimes, which we have enumerated in this report, can be divided into two large groups: violent and non-violent offences. According to the classification, established by the US law enforcement agencies, they can be regarded as Part 1 and Part 2 crimes. The first category includes such felonies as homicide, rape, arson, whereas the second category encompasses fraud, vandalism (Gaines & Miller 2006, p 73). The difference between these types of crime lies mostly in the degree of victimization. Nonetheless, we need to mention that there are marginal crimes, which can belong to both groups; one of them is burglary, especially when we are dealing with car burglaries.

Reference List

Gaines L. & Miller R. (2006) Criminal Justice in Action. NY: Cengage Learning.

International Association of Crime Analysts. (2004). Exploring crime analysis: readings on essential skills. BookSurge.

Mawby. R. (2007) Burglary. NY: Ashgate.

In 2005 the state of California had a population of 36,154,147. This population has been rising steadily. The sharpest increase in population was between 2008 and 2009. The population increased by over 350,000 people. With the increase in population there was an increase in the rate of crime in California.

Objectives

Crime is rooted in economic, social and cultural backgrounds within a society or a certain group of population. This paper will discuss the state of crime in California with relation to its population demographics. It will also look into how environmental, social and economic issues affect the prevalence of crime within the state of California. All of the issues will be based on the crime research data on the State of California within the years 2005-2009. Below is a table of California crime index rates per 100,000 inhabitants.

Factors influencing state of crime in California

For a crime to occur there are five conditions that should be present; space or the area of crime, time, law, offender and the victim (Ross, 2005).

There were several factors affecting crime within the state of California.

Population density

California has been having a population of about 36,154,147 from the year 2005. The state has witnessed a steady rise in population since 2005 to 2009. In 2005 to 2006 the population rose by 303,402 persons. The highest growth of population in California was witnessed in 2008 going to 2009. It rose by a massive 381,293 persons.

With an increasing population crime is prone to occur as many people compete for scarce resources. Those who feel disadvantaged to access the scarce resource resort into crime as a way of asserting their power in the midst of other people. California has managed to ensure that the rate of crime decreases. Within the year 2008-2009 California witnessed its highest growth in population. Over those years, there was also the sharpest decrease in the rate of crime, though still high all the numbers have seen a steady reduction. Within that year the crime index rate per 100,000 persons of violent crimes dropped from 506.2 in the year 2008 to 472 in the year 2009.

Composition of the population

California being a border state has a high level of immigrants searching for greener pastures in the United States. The rise in population in California is largely attributed the increase of immigrants within the state. This is why since 2005- 2009 the number of violent crimes has always been on a higher level (Iceland, 2008). From 2005, index rate for violent crimes has been 3,846.2 in 2005 to 3,203.5 in the year 2009.

Gary (2008) establishes that minorities seek to be heard in the society through a number of ways including engaging in crime to assert their presence in the society. These lead to the development of gangs, (Gary, 2008). These gangs have made the figures to reach such high levels. Worth noting is that the crime index for murder has always been decreasing over time. In 2005 it was at 6.9. This figure dropped to 5.3 by the year 2009.

According to Cohen, youths are more prone to influence from their colleagues due to the fact that they are unstable in making of firm decisions and thus when the influence is negative, a majority of youths engage in criminal activities, (Cohen, 2005). They are more prone to engage in petty crime like burglary, robbery and vehicle theft. The crime index for burglary has been 692.9 from 2005 and has dropped to 622.6 in 2009.

Economic conditions

Generally, it is believed that poverty is the first root cause of crime because people who live in lack struggle to achieve that which they do not have using all the means they have including committing crimes (Short, 2007).Thus, poverty results into lack and lack drives people into committing crime with an aim of satisfying their basic needs

From the economic perspective, unemployment is traditionally thought to be one of the causes of crime. The reason is that many young able-bodied men and women who graduate from colleges often desire to remain independent from their parents and in so doing find themselves at cross-roads when they lack financial resources to sustain themselves. They therefore resort into committing crimes as escape routes for their survival (Federal Bureau of Investigations, 2010). However, new learning in the economic view has also revealed that a part from unemployment, underemployment is also another major cause of crime. Under employment occur when graduates are paid less than they anticipate to be paid due to educational achievements.

In anger and abject dissatisfaction, such graduates resort into stealing from their bosses in order to top up their salaries with the objective of living high class lives as educated colleagues of their levels. In my workplace, this has been the case where many young and freshly employed employees have been sacked and convicted for stealing from their employer. The major cause for this is due to the low salaries paid to fresh employees in the firm which fails to sustain their anticipated basic needs. Thus, the source of crime can be explained from the social, cultural and economic perspective (Cohen, 2005).

Such people tend to engage in violent crimes, murder, aggravated assault and larceny theft, (Lyman, 2008). Violent crimes had the highest crime index level of 3,846.2 in 2005 compared to robbery which had 176.1 in the same year.

Cultural factors

Culturally, children are supposed to be taught moral values from their childhood by their parents as well as other members of the society. However, new learning in the cultural sources of crime has revealed that families and the society at large have neglected their cultural obligations of being role models to their children and have become unfavorable grounds from where children learn criminal behaviors. Broken homes and single parenthood have become common phenomenon in the society from where children grow. As a result, children grow without moral values which make them vulnerable or at risk of engaging in criminal behaviors. They tend to engage first in petty crime before graduating into higher or more violent levels of crime. This is why the crime index for burglary, vehicle theft, larceny-theft and robbery has been relatively high.

Strength of law enforcement agencies

Law enforcement agencies have ensured that there is a reduction in crime. This is because all the crime rate indexes have seen a steady decline over the years. The crime index for property in 2005 was 3,320.6 and it dropped to 2,731.5 by 2009. The crime index for aggravated assault dropped from 317.3 in 2005 to 269.7 in 2009.

Conclusion

California has been ranked as the most populous state in the US. These means that its prevalence in rate of crime is always high compared to other states. There are certain cities within California that are ranked as the most dangerous places in the States. Compton is ranked 4^th, Oakland is ranked 8^th, Richmond 11^th and San Bernardino 24^th. There are also places in California that are also ranked the safest. Mission Viejo is ranked 3^rd, Irvine 7^th, Thousand Oaks 11^th, Lake Forest 15^th, Simi Valley 17^th and Chino hills 21^st. This is the safest places in the United States and the six are found in California.

References

Cohen, M. (2005). The Cost of Crime and Justice. New York: Routledge Publishers.

Federal Bureau of Investigations (2010).Crime in the United States by Metropolitan Statistical Area. Web.

Gary, B. (2008). Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy. 76:2: 169-217.

Iceland, J. (2008). Poverty in America: A Handbook. California: University of California Press.

Lyman, M. (2008). The Police: An Introduction, New Jersey. Longman publishers.

Ross, L. (2005). Civil Liability in Criminal Justice Third Edition. New York: Anderson Publishing Co.

Short, J. (2007). Poverty Ethnicity and Violent Crime. Boulder: West view Press.

Introduction

Police agencies across the world exist to maintain law and order and the question of whether raising police strength will reduce crime is debatable. Increasing police strength may reduce crime but on the other hand, crime can also bring changes to police strength (Blumstein & Wallman, 2006 p 334) and this is due to layoffs or hiring that may be dictated by crime trends. However, hiring or laying off police officers has however not deterred crime from happening the world over. In the United States, crime is widespread from the urban centers to the countryside.

Jefferson County, Alabama

The metropolitan county of Jefferson in the State of Alabama reported the highest crime rate compared to other counties of the state in the year 2008. According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the county reported 637 violent crimes, five murder and non-negligent manslaughter cases, 62 forcible rape cases 282 robbery cases and 288 aggravated assault cases. These statistics exclude minor offenses like those associated with traffic. All these criminal cases happen against a backdrop of 705 total law enforcement employees in the county. Of these, 547 were police officers while 158 were civilians (FBI, 2008).

According to the United States Census Bureau, Jefferson County was the most populous in the state with 662047 people in the year 2000. The population in 2009 had risen to 665027 people. That gives a police to population ratio of roughly one police officer to 1210 people. It’s important to note that the county has the highest number of law enforcers in the state probably due to the high population. Most police departments report police to the civilian ratio of between 1.5 to 2.2 police officers per 1000 residents. In the city of New York for instance, the ratio of police to civilians is one police officer to 218 residents.

Probable reasons for high rate of crime

There are many probable reasons why the crime picture of Jefferson County is the way it is. Pressure from loss of jobs due to the weak economy may be one of the reasons. Social pressures resulting from a high population and the fact that its location is in a metropolitan area may be another. Compared to other counties in the state, Jefferson has the highest number of law enforcers and its possible management issues may be affecting the way the force works.

According to (Klockars, et al. 2006, p 55), the integrity of police agency is indirectly but greatly defined by the size of the agency, the population tasked to police and the number of people it employs. They further say that a large police agency needs to develop effective systems of administration and division of labor. The crime problem facing Jefferson County could be as a result of the above.

Though the above reasons are valid, the ration of police to civilian in this county is slightly less. The number of police officers in this county is hardly adequate and clearly overwhelmed. If the minor offences were to be factored in then the numbers will be even stretched further. This number of police officers in the county therefore needs to be doubled for it to be at par with the recommended ratio and if any gains in combating the runaway crime wave in the county is to be tamed.

For a county like Jefferson, with high crime rates, it is important to increase the number of civilians working in the police force. The current number that stands at 158 may be inadequate leading to delay in solving cases. Raising the number of police officers is not always a sure way of controlling crime but within the extent that it’s successful, Jefferson County needs it.

References

Blumstein A & Wallman J. (2006). The crime drop in America. New York: Cambridge university press.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (2008). Uniform Crime reports. Web.

Klockars B.C, Ivkovic S.K & Haberfeld R.M (2006). Enhancing police integrity. Dordrecht: Springer.

Introduction

Nowadays, identity theft turns to be one of the most frequent and dangerous crimes for society. On the one hand, it does not usually cause much physical harm. On the other hand, it has so many unpleasant characteristics like the inability to be detected in its early stage, ethical contradictions, and the use of information technology progress as a good chance to be improved. This is why identity theft is usually defined as a serious crime that has to be taken into consideration all the time and evaluated by the professionals on a regular basis.

The statistics show that in 2012 more than 7% of all Americans under the age of 16 suffer from identity theft at least once in a life (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2015). It proves that even the current technological progress and the attempts to improve the situation do not influence, but do improve the situation of identity theft. Current paper aims at evaluating identity theft as a serious problem of all Americans that has to be solved. Identity theft should not be regarded as a social threat only; it is an ethical problem that is supported by the development of information technology progress and touches millions of people annually.

Identity Theft as One of the Frequently Used Forms of Crime

A peculiar feature of identity theft is its ability to seduce a person within a short period of time. There is so much personal information around that can be stolen, and many people do not take much care of its security. In fact, it is so easy and sometimes even funny to steal identity in America, and it is so hard to catch a thief. People may get more general information about this issue watching such movies like Catch Me If You Can, Taking Lives, The Jackal, or Identity Thief. These movies may be defined as the sources that involve people into the idea of identity theft and prove that it is one of the possible ways to earn good money.

Identity theft may gain a number of forms: a temporary use of personal information, the use of credit cards, bank accounts, social security numbers, etc. Biegelman (2009) admits that someone’s identity is reported to be stolen every 79 seconds.¹ The reasons of why identity theft takes place so often is people’s inabilities or neglect to protect personal data. Many people do not want to believe that some other person may want to have personal information or do not find it really possible until something wrong happens.

Progress of Information Technologies as a Motivation for Identity Thieves

People want to believe that the currently developed technological progress is one of the most credible forms of personal information protection. It becomes easier to fight identity theft using, for example, technological or conventional coping as a good form of securing information and make it close to people, who should not have any kind of connection to it (Fujun, Dahui, & Hsieh, 2012).

However, at the same time, information technologies may be used as a powerful motivation for people to get involved in identity theft and a good ability to use the easiest ways and steal personal information of other people within a short period of time without any difficulties. This is why the concept of information technology should be regarded as a serious threat to human identity.

The point is that identity theft is the type of crime that may be explained and even appreciated by means of technologies. People understand that an access to each other’s information is possible via the Internet. Lots of people do not even think about the ways of sharing information online. It seems to be normal and appropriate to give personal information during the process of registration and not to consider a number of ethical issues concerning identity theft.

Ethical Perspective of the Identity Theft Analysis

Analysing identity theft, it is necessary to mention various ethical issues by means of which the essence of this type of crime may be properly understood. One of the main rules that cannot be neglected is the fact that identity is something personal, and no one has the right to steal it for any reason. Each person is also provided with a right to privacy. Identity is a kind of privacy, and if a person steals this type of privacy, the right’s violation takes place.

People cannot even understand that identity theft is more ethical than political or economic issues. And America is the country, where much attention is paid to the violations of ethic rights and norms. This is why identity theft in America is a burning question since the 1970s, when it began to grow.² Nowadays, the complicated schemes of identity theft become again too simple so that people can hardly understand that they become new victims of this kind of crime.

Current Victims and Offenders

In fact, nowadays, it is so easy to become a victim of an identity thief. Offenders may offer free music or cheap antivirus protection just in order to make a person download some kind of software (Biegelman, 2009). As soon as the software comes to someone’s personal computer, identity thieves can take any kind of personal information like personal passwords, keystrokes, account information, etc. Though more than 9% of identity theft victims addressed police in 2012 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2012), it did not influence the progress of the crime at all. People continue to lose money, forget passwords, and suffer from unexpected robberies.

Significant Threats of Identity Theft for a Future

The main threat of identity theft is human inability to believe in the seriousness of this type of crime. In other words, people just do not want to understand how it is dangerous to share personal information online and how vulnerable people become as soon as they neglect this simple rule. The role of technology in identity theft remains to be crucial as it may prevent a crime in a future: the use of credible antivirus software may prevent the exchange of harmful files, the use of firewalls can limit the access to harmful applications, and the use of special biometrics may deprive offenders of a chance to get an access to personal information.

Conclusion

In general, the peculiar feature of IT progress is that it may increase the identity theft ratings as well as help people to overcome the problems with identity offenders. There are so many people, who prefer to develop their business online and share their personal information via the Internet. People make their identities vulnerable for offenders, and they have to take as many protective steps as possible to overcome the problems and protect identity. Identity protection is a personal affair of everyone. No one can protect it better, and information technologies as well as ethical issues have to be considered to succeed in this kind of a process.

Reference List

Biegelman, M.T. (2009). Identity theft handbook: Detection, prevention, and security. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2015). Victims of Identity Theft, 2012. Web.

Fujun, L., Li, D., Hsieh, C.T. (2012). Fighting identity theft: The coping perspective. Decision Support Systems, 52(2), 353-363.

Footnotes

1 The official site of Bureau of Justice Statistics may be used to find more information about the current cases of identity theft.

2 Biegelman mentions that the 1970s was the period, when identity theft demonstrated its progression from simple to complex schemes within a short period of time.

Introduction

Starting from the early 1970s, there has been the emergence of a female dimension to most of the theories that have been in existence. This is what came to be referred to as the feminism theory. This development led to the emergence of a new crop of theorists referred to as feminists. These theorists were challenging male dominance in most of the fields in society. The new crop of theorists was fighting for the recognition of the female as an important part of society.

The major role of these scholars is to interpret social and other realities in society from a female perspective. At times, the feminists engage the other conventional theorists and scholars in the society in an open and overt confrontation. At other times, their engagement with these scholars and the riding confrontation is more subtle but aggressive all the same.

Feminism was initiated mainly by the emancipation and liberation of the women’s movement that started in the early 1970s. This movement recognized that woman was capable of playing other roles in society apart from those that are conventionally allocated to them. The woman could perform as effectively as a man in the business world.

Criminology is one academic field that has been flooded by feminist theorists in the past few decades. Many theories in the criminology field seek to explain the dynamics of crime in society. Feminist theorists try to explain this phenomenon from a female perspective. The visibility of these theorists has especially been enhanced by the visible increase in the number of female individuals that are engaged in criminal activities, a hitherto preserve of the male figures in the society. The women are not only claiming their rightful place in the legal spheres of the community; they are also emerging and becoming visible in the criminal world, attracting the attention of the theorists in the criminology field.

Freda Adler is one of the most prominent and most vocal feminists in the field of criminology. In the year 1975, this scholar wrote a book that represented her stand on the female individual and crime in the community. The book was titled Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal, and in it, this scholar sought to explain her views on female criminality. In this book, Adler puts forth and defends her belief that the rise in the number of females involving themselves in crime can be explained by the fact that the liberation of this segment of the society has given them the right to engage in almost every economic activity, crime been one of such activities.

This paper is a review of this book. In this paper, the researcher will try to analyze several arguments made by Adler, and compare this with the opinion of other scholars in the field. The researcher will try to analyze the thoughts of Adler in this book within the context of social reality in the community today.

Sisters in Crime: Review

Criminology can be conceptualized variously depending on the orientation and the interests of the scholar defining it. But many scholars in this field agree that it is viewed as the comprehensive study of various aspects of crime together with other law-breaking acts. This includes the extent, nature, control and cause of crime in the society (Harden 1998: 2). For several years, criminology scholars have wanted to explain the difference in statistics of crimes committed by men in comparison to those committed by women.

Several explanations have been put forth in efforts to define and deal with crime and criminal elements in society. One of the ancient theories in this field is what Siegel (2008) refers to as the demonic theory which was used to explain the dynamics of crime in ancient society. It focuses on supernaturalism in the definition and address of crime in society (Siegel 2008).

The second most influential theory in this field is the classical perspective (Cote 2002). The shortcomings of the demonic theory were the impetus for the formation of this theory. Subsequent scholars felt that the assumptions of the demonic theory were very unscientific, and they felt that it was important to introduce a scientific dimension to the study of crime in society. The theory focused on idealistic conceptions of the social contract and free spirit (Cote 2002).

Its current application popularly recognized as rational choice theory, broadens the focal point for free will and makes analysis on the reasons for committing crimes (Chapman 1980). It tackles choice structuring by arguing that individuals will commit a crime if they believe that their net gain will offset their potential losses and risks.

The classical theory initially accentuated the criminality of males in society, given the assumption that males were more attracted to risk than women. however, upon women achieving greater economic and social rights, their reasonableness made them commit crimes like those committed by men (Adler 1975).

In the book Sisters in Crime, Dr. Adler describes in some detail the social and legal discrimination previously practiced in opposition to women. A greater portion of this discrimination was previously designed as a fortification of the idea that women are the vulnerable and weaker sex (Adler 1975). Notably, the most blatant discrimination by the law against the woman is the handling of prostitutes by the legal justice system in early society. A case in point is the juvenile licentious of girls who are often institutionalized for a crime that does not exist for males (Adler 1975).

Sisters in Crime: Analysis

Dr. Adler, in her book, deals elaborately with the shocking increase in girl gangs and female violence and views this as a predictable consequence of women’s approval as the equivalent of men (Adler 1975). She projects that the liberation of women during the 1970s improved their economic opportunities and allowed them to have a high affinity for crime just like their male counterparts. Many women are of the view that engaging themselves in crime is a sure sign of their liberation. This is for instance white-collar crimes such as robbery, murder and other crimes that were traditionally associated with men in the society (Adler 1975: 3). Her suggestion is that as a greater number of women make their way up the success ladder, they make use of their economic liberation to further their careers in the field of white-collar crime (Zaplin 2007).

Causes of Crime: The Sisters in Crime Perspective

According to Adler (1975), the increase in the number of female criminals in society can be traced back to the early 1970s. This is the period that saw the emergence of feminism as a school of thought in many fields. This development brought about the emancipation of women in society. This emancipation enabled the women to realize that they can engage themselves in varying economic activities, including in crime (Adler 1975: Werner and Einstadter 2006: Stuart 1998). The women felt that they had the right to engage in any economic activity that they have been shunned from in the past. The rational woman felt that crime is as well paying as going to the office (Thomas 1969)

Girl’s Criminality

On the girl’s criminal activities, Adler argues that the women’s lobby group seems to be having a two-fold effect on juvenile crimes (Adler 1975: 95). According to her, the girls get drawn into criminal activities such as stealing, violence, gang activity, and alcoholism in their efforts to adapt to the newfound masculine roles (Hurwitz 1983). The deviation from the safety of conventional female roles and the trying of doubtful alternative roles correspond to the turmoil of puberty (Hagan 2010). It creates criminogenic threat factors for the girl child which is eventually bound to create this increased criminal activity.

Legal Injustices against Women

Adler also tries to address the issue of injustices meted to the woman by the legal system in the society. This legal injustice has a bearing on the criminal activities of the woman (Belknap 2001).

This book is remarkably well written and is highly sophisticated as far as the presentation of the ideas and arguments is concerned. It details the social and legal inequities that have been conducted against women in the history of human society. Most of these injustices were initially designed to defend the woman as the vulnerable and weaker sex in the community (Bhosle 2009). For example, Adler (1975) notes that women in the US can be sentenced to longer jail terms than their male counterparts for the same crime. Additionally, the prisons for women are further isolated with fewer facilities for rehabilitation and education than those reserved for the male offender (Carlen 1983).

In a dreadfully sympathetic section of her book, Adler addresses the issue of black criminality. She illustrates that both the extremely high black redundancy rate and the slave tradition have contributed to black women becoming the prevailing members of their social order (Adler 1975). This means that they have always been more involved in crime than their better-protected white sisters. This does not however mean that the white woman is not a criminal. Adler (1975) notes that a number of white women who are currently moving into higher rating grade jobs also end up getting into white-collar offenses (Meda 2004). This is for example fraud and embezzlement, some of the most serious crimes in the society (Meda 2004).

Biological Explanations of Female Criminality

It should be noted that scholars in this field rarely address the issues which may provide an explanation for female criminality in contemporary society. Denigration of the criminological depiction of female crime is its continued presumption concerning the natural history of females and their predilection away from offense (Wilcox 2010).

This determinate replica of female criminality assumes that differences between the criminality of the man and that of the woman are based on their biological differences. There is an intrinsic and natural variation between the female and male ability and temperament as far as crime is concerned (Carlen 1983).

According to this biological theory, women have little ability to commit crimes given their biological makeup. They have a gentle temperament as compared to their male colleagues and are easily socialized to abide by the law than men (Downes 2007).

Adler is of the view that previous studies on females have come up with theories about feminine criminality (Adler 1975). Criminologists conceptualize female criminals to be more sinister and cruel than male criminals. This perspective has been criticized for its assumption that any female who deviates from the conventional female role is likely to be criminal. The perspective also assumes a large and significant disparity between women and men (Adler 1975. Smart (1976) argues that the disparities existing between females and males are of little significance in the study of crime since the factors causing crime are “culturally determinate rather than an indication of the ordinary qualities of the sexes” (176).

Feminists have rejected this view of criminology for its assumption that females are mainly controlled by their biology and incapability to think for themselves (Kumar 2003). The feminists are of the view that while criminological philosophy has surpassed the gloomy period of biological determinism and the prearranged actor model of crime, criminological illustrations of female crime have not (Simon 2005).

Why Women Commit Fewer Crimes- The Traditional View

Lombroso, one of the most prominent scholars in the field of criminology, opined that criminals are generally of lower intellectual capacity than the average person in society (Lombroso 2004). He was of the view that crime was committed by those individuals who have failed to develop intellectually in tandem with the rest of society. These people continue to be stuck in their primitive past, and as such, have a higher tendency to engage in such acts than the other members of the society who have developed normally (Lombroso 2004).

The scholar was of the view that female criminals were physiologically different from their non-criminal counterparts, and one can easily identify them by merely looking at their physical features. Lombroso suggested that the rate of women’s involvement in crime is lower than that of men for various reasons (Lombroso 1980). He imagined criminal women were slightly stronger than men and could therefore handle pain better, which translates into less effect of imprisonment on them.

Sigmund Freud gives another view of crime and is quoted by Adler (1975) severally. His theory proposed that all women experience envy for penis yet they continue suffering an inferiority complex over it (Adler 1975). As a result of this, they try to get compensation by being narcissistic and exhibitionistic (Adler 1975).

W.I. Thomas in his book The Unadjusted Girl gives another classical view of women and crime. Pollak (1961) claims, for instance, that women prefer occupations such as teaching, nursing, home keeping and such others so that they can be able to engage in untraceable crimes (Lombroso 1980: Carlen 1983). The theories presented above, according to Adler (1975), were the ones that informed lines of thinking within the criminology field. This is as far as women and crime are concerned. However, feminist theorists led by Adler have rejected the arguments made by these theories. This opposition has led to the controversy that surrounds feminism and crime.

Critiques of Traditional Theories

Social disorganization theory suggests a subcultural convention of criminal values existing in an area. This theory is of the view that everyone living within this area is likely to become a criminal, regardless of their status in the society (Wilcox 2010). This theory is furiously opposed by feminists because of various reasons. For example, the theory single-handedly makes universal allusions to women (Wilcox 2010). Thrasher, a principal proponent of the social disorganization theory, linked the ability of women to commit crime with the closer supervision of their male counterparts (Zaplin 2007).

Learning theories, for example Sutherland’s differential association hypothesis, are not spared by the feminists. The view is also criticized for regarding the male criminal as having a minimum, sociable, active, athletic and gregarious personality (Robert and Boeckmann 2003).

Criticism of Adler’s Theory

Adler’s theory has not gone unchallenged in the field of criminology and female offenders (Pollak 1961). Over time, her perspective has drawn significant opposition from other scholars in the field, especially those with a feministic orientation. For example, Brown refers to Adler’s theory as an embarrassment to feminism as a discipline, advocating that it be shunned from the mainstream feminism theories due to the various weaknesses.

Brown argues that feminism as a way of thinking has greatly increased the visibility of female crime in society. This is through amplified exposure for example by the media, given that a female criminal attracts more media attention than the male criminal (Siegel 2009). The female criminals are also given undue attention by the policing and sentencing agents in the society, given that even the players in these agencies are mesmerized by the female criminal (Francis and Cullen 2006).

Brown further asserts that the extent of sentencing would be a further acceptable index of adjustments in offenses amongst females rather than statistical procedures as portrayed by Adler (1986: 374). According to Smart (1986), Adler’s perspective is based on a foundation that can only be described as shaky. For example, the theory relies largely on statistics, and fails to delve into the dynamics behind these dynamics.

Put differently, according to these critics, Adler operates from within a limited area, defining the concept of female criminality narrowly. Her perspective also appears to ignore several issues that are taken very seriously by feminists in this field and other intellectual areas. This is for example the race and ethnicity of the woman, her age and her economic and social status among others (Carlen 1983). Lack of focus on these issues or little focus on them forms the basis for many attacks leveled against this feminist scholar.

Conclusion

Female susceptibility to crime is frequently invoked to make stronger both senses of male control and call for its careful use, explicitly, to protect women. This is the controversy around which feminism in criminology revolves. The view of women as the weaker sex in society has informed intellectual discourses in society for a long time. The apparent weakness of the woman has been used by the male chauvinists to justify their oppression against the woman.

References

Adler, F. 1975. Sisters in crime. the rise of the new female criminal. New York: McGraw Hill.

Belknap, J. 2001. The invisible woman: gender, crime, and justice. 3^rd Ed. London: Wadsworth.

Bhosle, S. 2009. Female crime in India and theoretical perspectives of crime. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House.

Carlen, P. 1983. Women’s imprisonment: a study in social control. 2^nd ed. New York: Routledge.

Chapman, J. R. 1980. Economic realities and the female offender. New York: Lexington Books.

Cote, S. 2002. Criminological theories: bridging the past to the future. London: SAGE.

Downes, P. E. 2007. Understanding deviance: a guide to the sociology of crime and rule-breaking. London: Oxford University Press.

Francis, T., and Cullen, J. P. 2006. Taking stock: the status of criminological theory. New York: Transaction Publishers.

Hagan, F. E.2010. Introduction to criminology: theories, methods, and criminal behavior. London: SAGE.

Harden, M. H. 1998. Breaking the rules: women in prison and feminist therapy. London: Routledge.

Hurwitz, K. O. 1983. Criminology. London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.

Kumar, A. 2003. Women and crime. New Dehli: Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.

Lombroso, C. F. 2004. Criminal woman, the prostitute, and the normal woman. New York: Duke University Press.

Lombroso, C. 1980. The female offender. Oklahoma: Wm. S. Hein Publishing.

Meda, C. P. 2004. Girls, women, and crime: selected readings. London: SAGE.

Pollak, O. 1961. The criminality of women. San Diego: A. S. Barnes.

Robert J., and Boeckmann, C. T. 2003. Understanding the harm of hate crime. Georgia: Wiley-Blackwell.

Siegel, L. J. 2009. Introduction to criminal justice. London: Cengage Learning.

Siegel, L. J. 2008. Criminology. London: Cengage Learning.

Smart, C. 1986. Law, crime and sexuality: essays in feminism. London: SAGE.

Simon, H. A. 2005. The crimes women commit: the punishments they receive. New York: Lexington Books.

Stuart, H. M. 1998. What is crime? controversies over the nature of crime and what to do about it. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Thomas, W. I. 1969. The unadjusted girl: with cases and standpoint for behavior analysis. New York: Patterson Smith.

Werner, J., and Einstadter, S. H. 2006. Criminological theory: an analysis of its underlying assumptions. Boston: Rowman & Littlefield.

Wilcox, F. T. 2010. Encyclopedia of criminological theory. London: SAGE.

Zaplin, R. T. 2007. Female offenders: critical perspective and effective interventions. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Introduction

Hate crimes directed toward the Jewish community have been existent in society for centuries. Although hatred toward various groups and communities has been prevalent across societies, deep-rooted hatred towards Jews otherwise known as anti-Semitism has been widespread and more persistent in society than any other form of hate crime in the world. The Christians accused them of persecuting Christ and His followers and forced them to convert to Christianity and those who declined were openly massacred during Christian crusades. Martin Luther, the founder of Protestantism as well as the Catholic Church promoted the persecution of Jews and accused them of many negative events that were taking place at the time (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p. 151).

Historically hate crimes against the Jewish community were executed in many forms. The community was often prohibited from owning land in many regions of the world and consequently resided in the ghettos. As a result, most of them sought to generate income from trade and merchanting, and this highly facilitated the development of the stereotype that the Jews were greedy and wealthy.

The Jews were constantly subject to governments’ exploitation in these regions and whenever the governments needed money, they often seized the property and wealth of Jews which was more marketable relative to land and justified these seizures by defaming the Jews (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p. 151).

Since the Jew community represented a small fraction of the population in every country that they lived in, they often formed a minority group with different orientations in terms of religion, traditions, and customs as well as their language (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p. 151). These cultural differences significantly promoted hate crimes against the group especially in Europe where ethnic identity remains an issue of great importance.

Further, the Jews were denied citizenship in their own countries and were subjected to widespread discrimination and exclusion by other communities. A clear evidence of the restrictions imposed upon the Jews is the requirement by the Nazis in the 20^th century to wear yellow stars in their clothing; in addition, they were forced to convert to Christianity while in countries like Spain the Jews were literally expelled from the country. Further, approximately 100,000 Jews were murdered between 1648 and 1658 in Eastern Europe (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p. 151).

One of the major indicators used to measure anti-Semitism is the measurement of peoples’ attitudes and social behaviors towards the Jewish community. Surveys can be conducted to assess population’s belief in anti-Semitic notions and stereotypes as well as the preferred social distance and attitude towards the Jewish community (Marrus, 2005, p. 38).

Factors Promoting Victimization of the Jewish Community

The anti-Semitism trend has significantly declined in modern society relative to the post-war period. The modern American Jews still retain the high and average social-economic status with a considerable number occupying prestigious positions in government and high-status professions such as medicine and law (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p.153). Research has further revealed a substantial decline in anti-Jewish feelings and stereotypes with the catholic and the Lutheran church has officially abandoned anti-Jewish doctrines and apologized for the wrongs committed by their predecessors.

Despite these efforts, anti-Semitism is still prevalent in modern America and 2002, Anti-Semitism increased with increased incidences of hate crime incidences and the trend began to increase especially due to the September 11^th bomb blast attack in America which was partly attributed to Jewish-led American foreign politics as well as the crisis prevalent in the Middle East (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p. 153).

The financial success associated with the Jews serves to strengthen the allegations that the community has significant influence on government activities and also promotes resentment and hatred from minority groups who are still struggling in low socioeconomic status. This can e used to explain the common anti-Semitism incidences among African Americans and Hispanics relative to the whites. In addition, Christian viewpoint is the basic fundamental principle governing anti-Semitism in America and while the traditions and customs of Jewish community remain off the limits, the population’s perception of the community remains biased and this serves to increase incidences of hate crimes against Jews (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p. 153).

Further, The Jews are the most powerful minority group in terms of wealth and power and this may pose a threat to the dominating white population since they have the ability to infiltrate their power structure (Gerstenfeld, 2004, p. 155).

Restoration Justice

To counter anti-Semitism, the criminal justice system can utilize victim-offender mediation as a means to resolve the dispute, family group conferencing, educational programs for offenders among other means of restoration justices (Perry, 2003, p. 441). The prevailing criminal justice system and the traditional means of promoting justice in the community limit the ability of a hate crime victim to achieve the justice necessary to promote justice and reconciliation between the two parties (Perry, 2003, p. 440). This is because these methods alone cannot change the offender’s feelings towards the Jewish community hence the necessity to provide the offender with an opportunity to take responsibility for their actions and repair the damage that they have caused on their victims (Perry, 2003, p. 141).

The restorative justice model has restructured the approach toward crime and community cohesion and provided a vision in which the victim plays a central role in addressing the specific crime and the type of reparation received for harm incurred (Perry, 2003, p. 441). Under the traditional criminal justice system, victims’ grievances are overly ignored, restoration therefore provides them with an opportunity to air their voices and provide them with an opportunity to face the person responsible for the crime and the offender can express directly the impact of the offense.

In addition, restorative justice programs promote a greater sense of community protection since it allows for inclusion of various stakeholders in the society to bridge the gap between the people and the organization consequently promoting community bonds and further enhancing peacemaking in the community. Further, the restorative justice model provides an opportunity for the offender to understand the magnitude of his actions and the impact it has on the victims and this has the ability to influence his future attitude toward the Jewish community (Perry, 2003, p. 141).

Hate crimes directed toward the Jewish community can be adequately explained by the Karl Marx’s conflict theory which maintains that the underlying cause’s conflict and crime in the society are social and economic forces operating within a particular society and the prevailing gap between the rich and the poor (Newburn, 2010, p. 407). All the institutions in the society are said to be operating in favor of the powerful and elite people in the society prompting the less privileged in American society to take own action against the Jewish community.

Reference List

Gerstenfeld, B. P. (2004). Hate crimes: causes, controls and controversies. California: SAGE publications Ltd.

Marrus, R. M. (2005). Contemporary anti-Semitism: Canada and the world. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Newburn, T. (2010). The SAGE handbook of criminological theory, California: SAGE publications Ltd.

Perry, B. (2003). Hate and bias crime: a reader. London: Routledge.

When it comes to a criminal investigation, it is very important to remember that every detail of a committed crime is important as it can shed light on the real motives of a criminal. More than that, if investigators are able to analyze every detail, it becomes easier for judges to choose the most appropriate measure of punishment that aligns with the actions of individuals who have violated the laws. Therefore, simulation of a crime scene remains the essential practice facilitating the process of investigation.

In reference to the purpose of crime scene reconstruction, it needs to be mentioned that this practice allows crime investigators to unite all the details concerning certain crimes that are already clear. During crime scene simulation, the specialists are supposed to apply scientific methods in order to reconstruct a crime and answer the most important questions related to it that slow down the process of investigation. There is no doubt that specialists who are expected to fulfill such difficult tasks as crime scene investigation should possess a wide range of skills, including well-developed logical thinking (Milliet, Delémont, & Margot, 2014). There are some elements that are involved in the process; thus, to simulate the scene of a crime, specialists should use both physical evidence and eyewitness testimony that is available. Crime reconstruction is often compared to making sense of a conundrum because it often happens that, due to the lack of information related to crime, specialists are required to develop a few solutions and apply them one by one to check which one seems to be the most exhaustive explanation of a situation (Hueske, 2016). Therefore, I suppose that the purpose of crime scene simulation is to summarize separate facts about crimes in order to reconstruct missing details using logical analysis.

As for the people who should be responsible for the reconstruction of crimes, it is necessary to state that this task cannot be successfully performed by specialists possessing superficial knowledge in a criminal investigation. In fact, when it comes to crime reconstruction in the United States, there is an institution called IAI that conducts specialization training for those who would like to obtain permission to conduct crime reconstructions (Robinson, 2016). The organization identifies a variety of requirements that candidates should meet; for instance, they should have at least five years of experience in criminology and have publications in peer-reviewed journals. To me, it seems that these requirements are very important because crime reconstruction often defines the outcomes of crime investigations.

To continue, there is another question that needs to be addressed, and it touches upon the most appropriate time for crime reconstruction. In fact, the latter should be conducted when crime investigators already possess the information on the key details of a crime. Importantly, if the case involves murder or suicide, it may be necessary to conduct a medico-legal investigation and reconstruct the events as soon as possible because non-reversible processes taking place in a cadaver may cause trouble to analysis (Saferstein, 2013). In general, when it comes to the most appropriate time for crime simulations, it is necessary to consider all the details of a particular case to address the challenge. Nevertheless, such practice should be conducted when investigators understand that the information they possess can be used to reconstruct the main events surrounding a crime and clarify secondary details based on logical justification.

Crime scene simulation is a complex task that may involve many issues related to the interpretation of events, feasibility of conclusions, and the practices applied in order to reconstruct missing details that are strictly interconnected with the outcomes of the investigation in general. Despite that, it is possible to define the most important elements of this process. As for me, I suppose that the two elements in crime scene reconstruction that define the very nature of this practice are the use of physical evidence and eyewitness reports and the proper choice of scientific methods that can shed light on the facts that are still hidden. Considering the fact that an experienced criminal investigator should be aware of the ways to use evidence and process it with the help of modern methods and techniques in criminology, I suppose that proper implementation of the two elements mentioned can be regarded as a formula for the success of an investigation.

Another issue that remains important for professionals who specialize in conducting crime scene simulations is that the use of evidence retrieved with the help of this practice in court may entail certain problems. To begin with, there is no doubt that the appropriate evidence to be used in court should be justified by certain facts. Nevertheless, it sometimes happens that, due to the lack of information, crime investigators are supposed to develop their theories explaining the crime and the motives of a person who has violated the law (Van den Eeden, De Poot, & Van Koppen, 2016). Even though certain theories may seem to be exhaustive explanations helping to define the right order of actions performed by a criminal, there are cases when judges refuse to take them into consideration due to the lack of evidence supporting the theories. More than that, it is necessary to state that judges may regard the results of crime scene reconstructions as invalid evidence if they have doubts concerning the appropriateness of methods applied by criminologists in order to simulate a crime. In other words, if investigators cannot provide additional information on reconstruction requested by judges or by members of defense teams, it may be regarded as a sign indicating possible violations or mistakes that have been made during the procedure.

For instance, in reconstructing crime scenes, investigators are supposed to consider the role of physical evidence found at the place of crime; thus, they have to prove that the evidence has not been planted on by those individuals interested in obstructing justice or by criminologists themselves. Apart from that, there is a range of rules that have been developed in order to define the conditions that make the results of a criminal reconstruction credible. Thus, investigators are expected to provide information proving that there were no outside parties during criminal scene reconstruction and that other people could not change the location of objects prior to the process. Therefore, when it comes to legal issues surrounding the process of crime reconstruction, it is necessary to remember that cohesiveness of documentation is extremely important, and investigators have to include photographs of initial scenery in their reports. More importantly, there is a range of issues related to the use of DNA samples and various objects that can be found at the place of a crime (Fraser & Williams, 2013). To address the issues and present credible evidence helping to define the sequence of events, it is important to consult the laws accepted in the country where the investigation is conducted.

References

Fraser, J., & Williams, R. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of forensic science. New York, NY: Routledge.

Hueske, E. E. (2016). Practical analysis and reconstruction of shooting incidents. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Milliet, Q., Delémont, O., & Margot, P. (2014). A forensic science perspective on the role of images in crime investigation and reconstruction. Science & Justice, 54(6), 470-480.

Robinson, E. M. (2016). Crime scene photography. London, UK: Elsevier.

Saferstein, R. (2013). Forensic science. New York, NY: Pearson.

Van den Eeden, C. A., De Poot, C. J., & Van Koppen, P. J. (2016). Forensic expectations: Investigating a crime scene with prior information. Science & Justice, 56(6), 475-481.