Category: Crime

Modern technology in the field of science has yet again proved to be vital in investigating crimes. The discoveries that have been made over the years about the components of blood are now being widely used by the police to ascertain the individual that may be responsible for involvement in a crime. Such investigations are important in cases that involve murder and rape. Following such laboratory tests, many cases have had to be dismissed due to the fact that the suspected victims that were presented were proved to be innocent with the completion of the tests. The main shortcoming of this investigation is that, it is not possible to prove the guilty and only the innocent are eliminated.

Forensic serology is a study of the body fluids like blood and saliva for criminal investigations. Such investigations are usually done in cases that involve murder and rape to determine the exact criminal. Compared to other investigatory measures that may be used, body fluids will provide concrete evidence of the assailant. This is due to the fact that, body fluids differ from one individual to another. The use of forensic serology to investigate crime victims became of importance after it was discovered that, many innocent victims were prosecuted for the crimes they were not guilty of.

Dr. Karl Land Steiner was awarded in 1930 following his investigation that human blood could be divided into four major types. This groups are; O, A, B and AB (Stuart, 2005). As much as it is not easy to determine if certain blood came from a particular individual, it is possible to recognize that, a certain blood sample did not come from a certain person. To enhance such investigations, new antibodies have been discovered in the blood. In these discoveries, it was found out that, an antigen named Kell is found among the white population while the Duffy antigen is absent.

It has been possible to distinguish between human bloods from that of other animals. Human blood can also be investigated to determine the gender and age of the victim. In carrying out investigations, the shape and pattern of the blood assist in determining the circumstances of the murder. Other evidences to ascertain the assailant include; dried blood stains on the clothes of the suspect, the scene of the crime, the weapons used and struggle evidences. A simple drop of blood when critically analyzed can provide a lot of information concerning a case.

When distinguishing between blood stains from other fruit and dye stains, the Kastle-Meyer test is used. In this test, when a solution of phenolphthalein comes in contact with any blood stain, it turns pink. In determining whether the blood under question is of a human being or an animal, the precipitin test is used. Due to the fact that blood of different species contains different proteins, a distinction can be made. The proteins in the blood of a certain species cannot be accepted by the proteins of another species. This is usually due to the presence of antibodies in the blood that are responsible for fighting and resisting any foreign matter.

The serum that is used for the precipitin test is obtained from the rabbit. This is because; the antibodies of a rabbit were found to destroy human blood that came into contact with it. A small potion of this antihuman serum is usually dropped into the blood of the suspect, if the blood is of human nature, it will precipitate its protein. The criminal investigation laboratories are equipped with different anti-sera for the most common animals to enhance their investigations and rule out any false evidences. This test was developed by a German scientist known as Uhlenbuth in 1901 from whom the name of the test was derived.

There is usually a difference between a fresh blood stain and an old one. A fresh one will always appear red while an old one drastically changes its color to brown. Due to this, the peroxide tests take a much longer time to determine the origin of an old blood stain compared to a fresher one. In determining the gender from which the blood stain originated, two British scientists discovered that the female tissues contain a distinctive drumstick structure in the cells nuclei that is rarely found in males. The structure was named Barr after the scientists who discovered it in 1949. The structure is mostly found in the epithelial cells of the mouth and within the white blood cells. The number of chromosomes in a Barr body differs significantly in males and females, which form the basis of their use in investigating whether the blood stains are of male or female being. (Saferstein, 2001)

Blood stains on the weapon used for murder and on the clothes of the suspect are critical evidences that can be extensively investigated to prove the suspect. They can also be used to determine whether the death was violent or not. Blood grouping is a technology that can be used to determine whether there was contact between the victim and the suspect (Ronald, 2008). Different blood groups are distinguished as either A, B or O due to a substance called agglutinate that is present in the red blood cells. Blood group A contains a agglutinate, blood group B has B agglutinate, AB has both A and B agglutinates and O contains none of them.

In 1927, more factors were discovered to occur among the blood of human population that was distributed in certain specific proportions. These factors contributed to the P factor and they were identified as M, N, and MN. This was followed by the Rhesus factor in 1940. It is through the knowledge of these blood groups that, it was also discovered they are hereditary and last for a life time. This was a boost to the criminal investigation department. Even though forensic serologists are able to group different blood groups, it is not yet possible to determine from which individual a blood portion was obtained.

Therefore, the aim of using such investigations to try suspects is to eliminate the individuals that are proven innocent. Once the innocent ones are eliminated, the investigation process is made easier and other possible evidences are used to confirm the suspect.

In carrying out a blood test, the collected sample is placed in a saline solution and a tiny extract mixed with solutions of potassium hydroxide and phenolphthalein with hydrogen peroxide and powdered zinc. The sample will be proved to be blood if it shows a pink color after the experiment. When this investigation is completed, an antiserum from an animal is used to identify whether the blood is of human nature or from an animal. Various tests may also be carried where there is necessity to determine the race and gender of the suspected blood sample.

In determining the blood groups of different races, the international forensic serologist also discovered that, the rhesus antigen V is mostly present among the West African Negroes. The Duffy phenotype was also discovered to manifest in large percentages among the West Africans (Saferstein, 2001). The kell antigen is common with the white race and Diego positives in Caribe Indians, the Chinese and the Japanese. Such investigations may be important where a crime involves suspects from different races.

Case study on forensic investigation

In June 1994, the Beverly Hills residents woke up to a shocking scene where the body Nicole and her friend Goldman were found murdered next to their door. On notification, the police arrived and started their investigations. A left hand glove that was stained with blood was found. The main suspect was Nicole’s ex husband, Simpson who was staying nearby. Although he had taken a night flight to Chicago, they noticed a trail of blood over his car to the house where the second glove was found. He was immediately contacted in Chicago and took the next flight back. He had a bandaged hand, which he related to an injury he had sustained sometimes back. All the investigations were done and evidences revealed that, he was the suspected murderer. Despite all this, the case was dismissed after Simpson’s lawyer claimed that one of the investigating officers was a racist and had all the time to set up the scene. There were also large number of mistakes like unnoticed clues and unsterilized swabbing methods. Simpson was declared innocent after nine months of trial.

Forensic serology has played a big role in eliminating suspects that were wrongly accused of being involved in a certain crime. There have been several cases where the possible evidence that were done led to the arrest of a certain suspect who although may be innocent, is not in the capacity to prove his or her innocence to the court. It is usually difficult to prove the suspect that is guilty in cases involving murder. This is usually because; the main witness who is the deceased is not in position to speak out. Most of the physical investigations that may be carried out may be misleading because; the guilty individual will do all that he can to manipulate the available evidences against him.

There have also been cases in which the victim is unable to identify the assailant due to the circumstances in which the offence was done. In most rape cases, the victim may be blind folded making it difficult to know the assailant. Using the body fluids found on the victim’s body and clothing, the investigations is possible. The first step that is taken in such situations is to gather the possible suspects using physical means. Once this is done, the innocent ones are eliminated by forensic serology. From this stage, the investigations are narrowed down and by the use of other technologies the suspect will be proved guilty of the offence or not.

In conclusion, it is clear that the biological means of investigating criminals provides a strong basis of setting the innocent suspects free. This has proved to be a major step in the criminal investigation department in which manipulation is eliminated. With continuous study in the field, more discoveries may be made on the human anatomy that will be of great help to the criminal investigation. (Saferstein, 2001).

References

Saferstein R. (2001): Criminalistics: Prentice Hall pp. 37-43

Stuart H. (2005): Forensic science: CRC Press pp. 23-28

Ronald F. (2008): Criminal Investigation: Jones & Bartlett Publishers pp. 19-24

Processing the crime scene is one of the main parts of the investigation process and policy management. While it is obviously a victim’s crime to burglarize a house, it is not a victim’s crime merely to think about and plan such a burglary. Nor is it a victim’s crime to “stake out” the house to find the most vulnerable point of entry, or even to buy a gun to threaten anyone who might be encountered. Nevertheless, these preparatory processes are a part of committing burglary that most individuals favor, and legislatures enact, laws against such acts almost as if they were victim crimes themselves. In this way, the net of criminal rule in most communities comes to be cast beyond strictly victimizing acts. Legal statutes in many communities and states have even been extended to behavior that is widely believed to be associated with victim offending

The process of crime scene investigation involves such tools as examination, photographing and sketching. Studies have suggested that criminal behavior patterns be characterized in terms of two major behavioral tendencies: (1) tendencies toward manipulative, callous, and non-empathetic reply patterns in one’s social interactions, and (p. 2) tendencies to be impulsive, irresponsible, and criminal in one’s everyday activities (Wilson, p. 77). No matter what behavioral criteria one follows in identifying the crime causes, it should be kept in mind that, like most clinical classification categories, there is not simply a group of individuals displaying all the symptoms and another group who lack all those symptoms (Wilson, p. 21). The concept of criminal behavior refers to offenses but also encompasses acts that reflect a universal lack of concern for the long-term welfare of others. Also, numerous legal studies indicated that all of the above behavioral correlates of criminal behavior are positively correlated with one another. Overall, not only did this broad-ranging research topics review provide impressive support for arousal theory in explaining criminal behavior, but it also suggested that there are several essentially non-criminal behavior patterns that are universally correlated with victim criminal behavior (Fisher, p. 43).

Processing the crime scene involves techniques of identification, evaluations, and documentation of process and collection of physical, testimonial and fingerprint facts. Processing the crime scene has accumulated confidently for one to give an affirmative answer, at least when the focus is on serious victim crimes. Because more universal correlates of criminal behavior are likely to be found (see Ellis, 1985), and several of those herein identified may be either subdivided or subsumed under other, more general variable names, it is not likely that criminologists will (or necessarily should) ever agree on the exact number of universal correlates of criminal behavior (Wilson, p. 54). Yet, the general correlates of victim criminal behavior can be categorized as behavioral variables and demographic variables. This processing crime scene process contends that individuals most prone to criminality have nervous systems that crave more than a normal level of sensory stimulation. Theoretically, persons who are most criminally prone are seeking higher-than-normal levels of stimulation in a variety of situations. Some of these situations are so obnoxious and even threatening, too many of those with whom they interact that criminal laws have been passed to curtail their behavior (Sutherland and Cressey, p. 31).

The processing of the crime scene process is one associated with high rates of risks occurring after a short period of gestation that is followed by minimal parental care for each offspring. While it is certainly true that the human species is highly K-selected, humans could still show significant genetic variation in terms of their exact location along the continuum. If that is so, and if victim criminal behavior tends to reflect r-selection, then those who commit violent and property crimes most often should exhibit selected characteristics to a greater degree than those who are least prone to criminal behavior. The police officer takes into account possible demographic variables that were universally correlated with criminal behavior — sex, age, social status, race, family intactness, and a number of siblings — can be predicted theoretically. In summary, processing crime scene proposes that to understand the occurrence of behaviors involving substantial risks and only modest external rewards, such as most street crimes, one must postulate that such behaviors receive endogenous biological reinforcement. Researchers argue that processing the crime scene should take into account possible behavior patterns of victims and offenders based on the knowledge about the human brain constructed so as to support behaviors that are risky or arduous or both, even though they do not lead to a quick or certain payoff. Police officers accept as a fundamental premise, that external stimuli produced by operant actions can be, and often are, reinforcing in important ways, and that they can manifest a high level of control over operant behavior (Saferstein, p. 87).

Processing crime scene requirements, in which the suspect, having been cautioned, would be asked whether he wished to confirm, deny, or modify any earlier statement or silence, is in line with the approach recommended by Commission on Criminal Justice. Processing the crime scene should be seen as a complex and multi-dimensional process based on careful data analysis and data collection methods. The collected facts and materials will determine the success of further investigation processes and criminal responsibility issues related to a particular individual. So, the police officer should pay careful attention to details and crime scene-setting in order to ensure an objective and impartial investigation process.

Works Cited

1. Fisher, Barry A. J. Techniques of Crime Scene investigation. CRC Press; 6th edition,2000.
2. Sutherland Edwin H. and Cressey, Donald. Principles of Criminology, 7th ed. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 2001.
3. Saferstein, R. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (College Edition). Prentice Hall; 9 edition, 2006.
4. Wilson, Margaret. The Crime of Punishment. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 2000.

Introduction

What is crime? Crime is defined as violation of law and is punishable or anything that goes “against the law” (Nathalie & Bittle, 2004). Crime is caused by economical, political, cultural and social factors. Crime is committed by those in power and with money as by those who are poor. Crime is a global issue. Hence studies on the causes of crime and how to control it. Crime control is also different in various countries. Developed and developing countries have different level of crime and crime control from the developing countries (Barak, 2000).

In this discussion we shall compare two countries Canada and South Africa.

Economical factors of crime in Canada

Many businesses are prone to economical crime in Canada. This has been accelerated by globalization. Most companies have been victims and have lost large amounts of money. In 2005 economic crime rate went up from US$600,000 to US$3.7 million.

Mortgage crime in Canada runs into millions of dollars. This crime is concentrated in the urban of Ontario, British Columbia and other areas like Quebec. Some of these frauds involve millions of dollars. They are committed through the online where the fraudsters are able to steal financial information. With this information and fake documents they acquire online they are able to access loans from financial lending institutions. These crimes are helped by the technological advancement (Mortgage fraud, 2008).

Companies have been told to be ready for search crimes and avoid being reactive in order to reduce the crime. They should do this by taking internal control measures. The companies should use speed and discretion when tackling financial investigations. They should have ways of detecting fraud and reducing its occurrence.

Political factors of crime in Canada

In Canada the politics contribute to crime especially during presidential campaigns. Drug cartels fund the government and because of this relationship the criminals are left on the loose. They continue to push drugs, which in turn leads to crime by the users. This also affects the economy as people are led by fear and thus cannot operate at their optimal leading to less output (Beare & Schneider 2007).

In the case of money laundering the government is slow to act because it is said that laundering does not affect the environment and no direct threats to human beings are involved. Thus the underhand dealings continue and this eventually hurts the economy of the country (Beare & Schneider, 2007).

Social factors of crime in Canada

Canadians with high levels of education have better jobs. We have area where the level of completing or dropping out of school is high. The rate has declined though we still have the underprivileged youths dropping out. When these people drop out of school they are reduce their opportunities for employment considerably. They mostly end up getting involved in crime and most of them end up in jail (Social and economic factors, 2008). Crime is also high in rural areas more women than women are victims of crimes. Children are also abused in Canada in 2003 over 235,000 investigations involved children below 15 years of age (Social and Economical, 2008). Children from violent families are more likely to get involved in criminal behaviour. Most of them commit suicide after becoming independent on substances (Social and Economic factors, 2008).

Some people reported being bullied because of their race, religion and even ethnicity about 25% males and females about 21%.

Youthful males are more associated with crime as the table below shows.

This trend could be associated with the changing employment patterns. This is unemployment which is becoming a permanent feature. Thus these jobless youths tend to fall into crimes.

With unemployment comes child poverty, rise in crime, families’ breakdown. All these factors tend to lead to crime as the individuals concerned have problems to deal with and they go for the readily available option of crime.

Cultural factors of crime in Canada

Crime is committed more by aboriginals, followed by African Canadians. This implies that culture affects crime rates. What is interesting is that these groups account for 4% and 2% of the Canadian population yet they account for the highest percentages of those found in the correctional system i.e. 14% and 6% respectively (Wortely, 1999).

Men are also more likely to commit crimes than women as studies have shown and this is also true in Canada where we have more men than women in correctional systems. This could be linked to biological factors where men are said to be more aggressive than women and hence more likely to get into crime (Encyclopedia of criminology).

Most Canadians live in homes with portable assets. The parents leave their homes unguarded as they go to work and this encourages burglaries. The youths are a target of robberies as they leave clubs at night as they love the night parties. Drugs though illegal can also be accessed easily and this leads people to crime.

Crime in South Africa

South Africa is one of the countries in the world that is ranked among the countries with the highest crime rates. The murder rate is so high that South Africa has been called the capital of crime. The rate of crime has continued to increase even after the country gained independence and broke away from apartheid. The crime rate is associated with several reasons. By March 2008 the statistics indicated a decline in crime but the figures were still high. 18,487 murders were reported and the ratio for murder was 38.6 for every 100,000 citizens (Nqakula, 2008).

Political factors for crime in South Africa

With the political transition, there has been an increased illegal arms influx into the country. With firearms, more people are getting into crime and thus the rate is on the rise. This has been made possible by the porous borders. Thus arms smugglers can access the country and sell firearms. These small firearms are also sold cheaply thus many people can afford them (Schonteich & Louw, 2001).

The criminal justices system is also blamed for the increase in the rate. This is due to its weakening caused by the abolition of some laws and the making of new ones. The trained people in the justice system are unsure of how to work within the new laws that are based on the constitution. Thus less prosecution is happening and the cases already filed are taking a very long time before they are listened to. The system thus has failed to deter other would-be criminals from involving in crime (Schonteich & Louw, 2001).

Social factors for crime in South Africa

Most South Africans do not have the qualifications to seek employment because for a long time they could not access education. With their reduced opportunities for employment, most of them get into crime to get money to cater to their families. This has led to many immigrants going to South Africa to look for employment. They can get it because they have the necessary qualifications. With this influx of human beings in the country, many are unable to find employment and this results in crime. Consequently, the unemployed South Africans turn on these foreigners violently blaming them for taking their employment opportunities. This explains the recent xenophobic attacks unleashed on foreigners.

There is a culture of violence that got engrained during the apartheid era still has an impact on the crime scene today 90% of the population experienced it. This is because many parents lost control of their children during this era with so many government disruptions with the apartheid policies. Thus the children had no one to guide them and because of witnessing violence, they resulted to it for survival while others did so for revenge (Dixon, 2004).

Cultural factors for crime in South Africa

South Africa has a youthful population. This leads to crime because according to statistics the male youths have a higher chance of falling into crime than older men and women.

South Africa has had to deal with the issue of rapid urbanization. With this more people have been shifting from rural areas to urban centers. With this concentration of people, crime has been able to thrive very well. This is a result of overcrowding and lack of employment. The cost of living is high in towns and they result in crime to be able to survive. This is also made easier by the availability of illegal firearms (Dixon, 2004).

With the violence unleashed on the blacks during the apartheid, many of the youths were forced to get involved in the war to protect their communities. Thus they distrusted the authorities that were unleashing this kind of violence on them. These youths still have a problem respecting the law of the government in place now long after the apartheid. With so much exposure to violence most South Africans solve their problems however small violently in whatever environment they are in (Schonteich & Louw, 2001).

Analysis

Crimes committed in Canada and South Africa are motivated by both similar and different reasons. Unemployment is one of the common factors for crime in both countries. This is because when people are unable to meet their needs they are more likely to result in a crime.

The justice system in both countries is different.Canada has a strong system unlike the one in South Africa that is still coming to terms with the new changes. Due to this would-be offenders in Canada are deterred from getting into crime while the opposite is in South Africa where you have a weak justice system. The system is still a long way to go before it can function at an optimal to address the cases pending in the courts. Hence more people continue getting into crime because they do not see the government doing enough. The people also do not have faith in the justice system and this would explain the number of unreported crimes or even willing witnesses (Ebbe, 1996).

Canada has a strict gun policy and this makes the community safer. This ensures that guns do not fall into wrong hands. Without guns circulating freely less crime happens (Fogman 2008). On the other hand, guns are readily available in South Africa and they are sold cheaply. Hence you have more guns in the wrong hands that are easily misused.

Canada encourages multiculturalism. Hence people from diverse backgrounds are accommodated. With this spirit, people can coexist in peace. This is also promoted by the fact that Canada has a very stable economy. It is easy to find employment and thus no reason to engage in crime (Fogman, 2008). In South Africa, we have xenophobic attacks.

The differences in the social, political, cultural, and economic factors contribute to having high levels of crime in South Africa and low crime levels in Canada. All countries should deal with crime proactively and aim to reduce or prevent crime as this will be less costly. Crime and crime control remain a global challenge.

Works cited

1. Barak G 2000 Crime and Crime Control: A global View. West Port CT: Green Wood Press.
2. Barak G 2000 Comparative Criminology The Criminal Criminologist Journal, Vol 10 No.2
3. Beare E M , Schneider S 2007 Money Laundering in Canada: Chasing dirty and dangerous dollars, University of Toronto Press: Ontario.
4. Dixon B 2004 Justice Gained? Crime and Crime Control in South Africa’s Transition: Juta &Company
5. Ebbe O (ed) 1996. Comparative and International Criminal Justice Systems: Policing, Judiciary and Corrections. Boston: Heinemann Emigrating to Canada.
6. Encyclopedia of Criminology three-volume set.
7. Fogman M 2008 Top 10 Reasons to Live in Canada. 2009.
8. Health Behaviours: Social and Economic Factors.
9. Mortgage Fraud & Organized Crime in Canada.
10. Nathalie D Bittle R. What is a crime? Web.
11. Schonteich M, Louw 2001 A crime and Justice Programme, Occasional Paper No 49 Institute for Security Studies. Web.
12. Wortley S A National Taboo: Research on Race Crime, and Criminal Justice in Canada. Canadian Journal of Criminology, Vol 41 1999

Introduction

Comparing crime rates in different countries can offer valuable insight into the effectiveness of law enforcement and the justice system in these countries. However, different legal traditions influence crime rates by affecting sentences, crime reporting, and legal definitions. The present paper will show how different legal systems in Germany, Saudi Arabia, and the United States affect crime rates and explain why it is problematic to draw conclusions based on this comparison.

Comparison of homicide rates

As shown in Figure 1, Germany had the lowest homicide rate in 2015, which may be due to the legal tradition used in the country (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2015). Germany uses a civil law system, which means that verdicts and punishments are based solely on the written law (Jehle, 2015). German legal tradition is also characterized by rigorous investigation processes (Jehle, 2015). This reduces people’s willingness to commit violent crimes, such as homicides. Overall, a country’s legal tradition, including laws and punishments, affects people’s decisions to commit a crime. This creates problems when comparing homicide rates in Germany, Saudi Arabia, and the United States, as these countries have very different legal traditions.

The second lowest rate of homicides in 2015 was observed in Saudi Arabia. The crime data in this country might be affected by its legal system, as Saudi Arabia uses Islamic (sharia) law, which is known for its severe punishments (Central Intelligence Agency, n.d.). For instance, Saudi Arabia has capital punishment and does not allow civilians to possess guns, which could influence the rates of serious crime, including homicide. The differences in legal systems make it challenging to compare homicide rates in Saudi Arabia to that of Germany and the United States, as Saudi Arabia laws allow for harsher punishments.

The United States had the highest number of homicides, which is largely influenced by its legal system. The country relies on common law, which involves referring to past judicial decisions to make a verdict. If a person was found not guilty of homicide in similar circumstances in the past, this could be used to issue a not guilty verdict. Moreover, the American legal tradition enables states to establish laws that influence punishment for homicide or create opportunities for people to access guns. Both the legal system and specific laws enacted by states can affect people’s decisions to commit violent crimes, as they lower the perceived risk of punishment.

Comparison of robbery rates

Figure 2 shows that Saudi Arabia had the lowest robbery rate in 2015, with 0.3 cases per 100,000 of the population (“Robbery rate,” 2015). This result could have been influenced by the country’s legal system. Sharia legal system is largely based on the Quran and the teachings promoted in Islam. As the vast majority of the population are Muslims, they are motivated by their religion to abide by sharia law. The connection between the primary religion and the legal tradition in Germany and the United States is not as strong. In addition, there is no official information about crime reporting rates for Saudi Arabia, which is why it is problematic to compare crime rates among these three countries.

In Germany, the robbery rate was 55.4 per 100,000 people in 2015 (“Robbery rate,” 2015). German legal tradition is based on civil law, which means that there are strict definitions of different crime types and the punishments for committing them. Thus, if a person has committed a robbery, they will be found guilty and face a punishment, which increases the risk associated with committing a crime. This could lead to lower crime rates, as people will be more reluctant to commit a crime. When comparing data from Germany to U.S. crime rates, it is problematic to make any conclusions because the two systems might have different definitions of robbery, which would affect crime data.

The United States had the highest rate of robberies, with 101.7 robberies per 100,000 of the population (“Robbery rate,” 2015). The common law system used in the country could affect this figure by decreasing the perceived risk of punishment. Also, the U.S. legal system offers various opportunities for inmates to achieve an early release. Given that the country also has a high rate of recidivism and relatively short prison sentences for robbery, this could also contribute to a high incidence of robberies (Hall, Harger, & Stansel, 2015). Before comparing crime rates in the U.S. and other countries, it is thus critical to account for recidivism and parole options granted by law.

Comparison of assault rates

With regards to assault rates, Saudi Arabia is in a favorable position compared to both the United States and Germany. The legal system in Saudi Arabia could have an influence on assault rates in a similar way that it affects robbery rates. On the one hand, the sharia law that is practiced in Saudi Arabia rests on religious premises, and thus Muslim people living in the country have greater motivation to follow the law. On the other hand, the legal tradition in Saudi Arabia also involves more severe punishments, which increases the perceived risks associated with committing an assault. However, when comparing the three countries, one should also review the legal definitions of assault and take into account the possible issues with crime reporting.

As evident from Figure 3, Germany has lower assault rates than the U.S. (UNODC, 2015). The civil law tradition that is applied in Germany could have a negative influence on assault rates, as it increases the risk of punishment following an offense. In addition, the German legal system has enhanced procedures for probation and supervision, which helps to reduce recidivism and leads to reduced crime rates. In comparing data on assault rates in Germany and the U.S., it is problematic to draw conclusions due to the possible differences in legal definitions of assault and crime reporting standards.

Assault rates in the United States are higher than in Saudi Arabia and Germany, which might be because of the common law tradition. By definition, common law involves referring to previous court decisions before issuing a sentence. This could lead to lighter sentences for those who committed an assault, which influences people’s perception of risk associated with assaulting someone. Furthermore, stand-your-ground laws in some states also improve people’s rights to self-defense, thus reducing the possibility of being punished for a physical assault. Overall, the existing differences in legal traditions and laws make it harder to compare assault data in the chosen countries.

Conclusion

The three chosen countries vary greatly in their legal traditions, which affects their crime rates. Saudi Arabia laws include more severe punishments, which makes the perceived risk associated with committing an offense higher. Germany, on the other hand, uses a civil law system and an enhanced probation process to reduce first-time offenses and recidivism. In the United States, the common law system sometimes allows for lighter sentences, while states’ self-defense laws also contribute to violent crime. In order to conclude on the success of the legal systems in these countries, it is critical to take these differences into account.

References

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). (n.d.). Field listing: Legal system. Web.

Hall, J., Harger, K., & Stansel, D. (2015). Economic freedom and recidivism: Evidence from US states. International Advances in Economic Research, 21(2), 155-165.

Jehle, J-M. (2015). Criminal justice in Germany. Web.

Robbery rate. (2015). Web.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2015). Crime data. Web.

Introduction

White collar crime refers to peaceful offense committed with an intention of gaining unlawful monetary gain. There are a number of white collar crimes that can be committed. They include extortion, insider trading, money laundering, racketeering, securities fraud, and tax evasion.

This paper carries out an analysis of the Enron scandal as an example of a white collar crime.

Background of the Crime

Enron Company was an American based energy company. It was the largest supplier of natural gas in America in the early 1990’s. The company had a stunning performance in the 1990’s. Despite the excellent performance, stakeholders of the company were concerned about the complexity of the financial statements.

The management of the company used complex nature of the financial statements and the weaknesses in the accounting standards to manipulate the financial records.

“Top officials at the company cheated investors and enriched themselves through complex accounting gimmicks like overvaluing assets to boost cash flow and earnings statements, which made the company even more appealing to investors” (Federal Bureau Investigation, 2011).

The white collar crime was characterized by inflating the asset values, overstating the reported income and cash flow and failure to disclose the liabilities in the financial records.

Members of top management of the company were closely involved in the crime. The first person was Kenneth Lay. He was the chairman of the company during that period. He permitted actions of the other management without getting to know the nature of the transactions.

The second person was the Chief Operating officer, Jeffrey Skilling. He was involved in negotiating dubious investment deals for the company. The third person was the Chief Financial officer, Andrew Fastow. He had the overall responsibility of ensuring that the books of accounts reflected true and fair view of the company.

In addition, he also created a special purpose company knows as Chewco Investment limited partnership. The debt for the company was guaranteed by Enron. Besides, he did not disclose losses arising from the company in the financial statement of Enron (Santa Clara University, 2012).

Type of the Crime

The crimes committed by the top management were of different types. They can be categorized into four these are, conspiracy, securities fraud, false statement, insider trading and fraud.

Profit without honor shows the “encounter between personal gain and individual integrity” (Pearson Education, 2012). Profit without honor was evident in the actions of the managers who were involved in the crime. The managers made gains without taking into account the underlying professional code of conduct and ethics.

Theories of White Collar Crime

Edwin Sutherland came up with the theory of white collar crime. He explained it “as a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation” (Pearson Education, 2012).

Sutherland further explained that the white collar crime is different from the blue-collar crimes such as arson, rape, vandalism among others.

These blue collar crimes are instigated by factors relating to structures, associations of people and emotions. He further stated that white collar crimes are committed by people in the upper class who are opportunistic and would like to take advantage of situations to make monetary gain.

In the Enron scandal, it is evident that the crime was committed by wealthy, smart and high profile individuals. In addition, their jobs lacked close supervision. They were the overall bosses in the company.

In addition, it is evident that their sole intention was to enrich themselves without taking into account the integrity of their actions.

Social and Economic Impact of the Crime

Enron scandal resulted in a massive loss that had never been experienced in the history of the United States of America at that time. First, shareholders of the company lost about $74 billion as a result of the falling share prices in four years.

Secondly, Enron’s creditors and energy entities incurred hefty losses. Finally, over 20,000 jobs were lost. The employees also suffered losses resulting from the loss in value of the shares because over 50% of the amounts in the savings plans were used to purchase the company’s shares.

The total market failure that resulted from the Enron scandal amounted to over $100billion (Santa Clara University, 2012).

Type of Analysis

A number of analyses have been carried for the Enron scandal. This can be attributed to the fact that it impacts heavily on the economy. The analyses revolve around the causes and effects of the scandal.

For instance, institutions such as Santa Clara University use the case during learning process to help students understand fraud in real life (Santa Clara University, 2012).

Secondly, analysis carried out by the US Federal aimed at improving accounting and auditing profession and also to mitigate the risk which stakeholders are exposed to.

Recommendations

In the case of Enron Company, a number of recommendations can be made to mitigate the possible recurrence of the crime. First, composition of directors of a company should include independent directors as the majority.

Such directors are necessary for their decisions will be in the best interest of the company and not for individual gains. Secondly, all important committees such as audit committees, human resource committee should have independent directors.

Finally, committees dealing with finance issues such as audit committees should comprise of competent and experienced personnel.

References

Federal Bureau Investigation. (2011). Ten Years Later: The Enron Case. Web.

Pearson Education. (2012). Profit without honor. Web.

Santa Clara University. (2012). Lessons from the Enron scandal. Web.

Introduction

The National Crime Victims Right Movement is one of the non-profit making organisations that address human rights worldwide. The programme focuses on formulating solutions to challenges facing various victims of crime in Australia. Besides, it seeks to create and intensify the awareness of various issues that affect the victims of criminal activities.

The movement is supported by a well-stipulated theme of New Solutions for Emerging Challenges (NSEC). The strategy ensures that the whole nation is sensitised to confront various challenges by devising various approaches to the achievement of long lasting solutions. The planning of the campaign via the media to reach everybody by ensuring the engagement of many will result in the accomplishment of robust awareness creation.

The challenges facing the victims of crime have been increasing in Australia due to the negligence of the government and responsible agencies to provide informed guidance and quick response. The movement’s strategy will include a traditional media in the creation of the awareness of the rights of crime victims.

This objective will be achieved through advocacy of adopting robust media strategies to ensure that enduring solutions to the predicaments of the victims are formulated. This essay provides a framework for creating a solution to the challenges facing the victims of crimes in Australia using the media strategy.

Two main objectives will be addressed. The movement’s first objective is to create the awareness of the issue by advocating the rights of the victims through the media to the public to ensure that the various challenges of the victims are solved. It will ensure the achievement of an unbiased outcome to ensure an open advocacy for the rights of the crime victims using the media.

The process objective will be to conduct extensive live broadcast interviews with various stakeholders, especially the government and its agencies, within a period of one month. The strategy will follow the media release of the challenges faced by the victims of crimes in Australia (Frank, Camp, & Boutcher 2010).

The movement’s second objective is to ensure proper media coverage that includes print, broadcast, and online channels among others. The strategy will also consider the outcome objective by providing a detailed media coverage of key information. There will also be an increased reportage of the challenges faced by the victims.

It is expected that the advocacy for the victims’ rights will be 50 percent accomplished within the one-month period of the awareness creation. A process objective under this section will ensure that the real scenario of a challenge faced by a victim is released to various media outlets within the period (Barker-Plummer 2002).

Publics

The public is affected directly or indirectly by the outcome of various objectives stipulated in the strategy (Frank, Camp, & Boutcher 2010). The maintenance of good relationship with the public will be essential for ensuring there is an increased level of awareness and participation.

The target group will be both the active public due to their active participation and knowledge about various challenges faced by the victims of crime (Bassiouni 2006). The cooperation of both active and intervening publics will ensure that the objectives set by the NCVRM group are achieved.

The public is regarded as the primary audience because using the television, newspapers, and radios will be the most appropriate in reaching them. The older audience amongst the public will be reached through the television, radio, and newspapers. On the other hand, the younger generation will be achieved through interactive technology such as the social media (Stolz 2005).

The media will be the primary intervening tool due to the proper moderation of information. There is also a plan to focus the interest of the strategy on the influential public.

This type of public will ensure that various stakeholders such as policymakers, the government, and various NGOs among others are engaged in public activities to ensure the proper implementation of the strategy. This plan will result in a heightened advocacy for the rights of the victims (Stolz 2005).

The Level of the Strategy

The strategy will reach the individual level by addressing some of the challenging factors that place people in high risks of becoming the victims of crime. This situation will also encourage individual participation in events such as conflict resolution, information on the building of skills, and integration of projects into the system to involve many people (Stolz 2005).

The family and peer levels will also be considered to ensure the strength and well-being of the groups. The strategy will be geared towards the involvement, support, and skill development. This state of affairs will bring about positive behaviour due to improved mentorship. Community-based levels and workplace relations will be addressed to reduce or eradicate crime and victimisation.

Information through the media will ensure the promotion of community cooperation and social development among others. Such information will entail the activities of development that are community-based. They will be aimed at creating public awareness and positive networks among others (Stolz 2005).

Lastly, a societal level will also be embraced to ensure the promotion of accepted values, laws, attitudes, and customs that are required by a majority of the people. The information will focus on various activities such as earlier interventions and portrayal of violent crimes in the media among others (Stolz 2005).

The most Important Messages

The National Crimes Victims’ Right is an organisation that seeks to advocate for the awareness of the rights of victims of crime. It helps in ensuring that the victims of crime are not faced with various challenges such unfair trials and compensations (Barker-Plummer 2002).

Various solutions to challenges affecting the victims of violence are available in media and voices of the victims are currently encouraged worldwide to ensure that their welfares are considered (Barker-Plummer 2002).

Understanding the challenges affecting the victims of crime is the main solution to solving their problems regarding the violence that should be factored by the policymakers, governments, and public (Barker-Plummer 2002).

Protective factors such as positive attitudes, conflict resolution skills, parental supervision, education, employment, community engagement, and the availability of various social services cannot be successful in solving the challenges facing the victims of violence if proper awareness and advocacy are not properly conducted (Barker-Plummer 2002).

The National Crimes Victims’ Rights Movement is considered the best programme to tackle the challenges facing the victims of crime. The movement works with other organisations to promote the safety of the victims.

This objective is achieved by ensuring that the criminal justice system is highly structured to capture the needs of such people. It also ensures that the victims are recognised and treated equally as the law requires without discrimination in various aspects (Kirchengast 2011).

Media Outlets and Rationale

The strategy with the information content will be tailored and released to the various media types that are discussed below.

Australian Broadcasting Corporation among others

The corporation was chosen due to its well-known independent outlet in the whole of Australia. The coverage of the corporation is approximated 600,000 to 650,000 within five metropolitan cities in Australia (Brown 2001). The corporation covers vast programmes that include political issues and human rights among others. It is opined that the key issues concerning the challenges of victims of violence can be covered.

Various channels that will be engaged include the ABC Radio National, ABC News 24, and ABC TV on political among others. Another aspect that will be addressed is the online broadcasts such as ABC (2, 21, and 24), and Crikey, which is a current affair site (Brown 2001).

The above channels were included because they provide information on the current affairs that are exhibited worldwide, especially matters pertaining human rights and political news. The outlets were also chosen from the audience who are concerned with the rights of everybody. Policymakers also target matters that connect to the rights of academicians and lawyers among others who form part of the public strategy (Brown 2001).

Print Media

Politicians, human rights editors, and reporters are a target in most of the metropolitan towns in Australia (Brown 2001).The editors are informed of the matters pertaining human rights, especially the ones that are concerned with the victims of crimes and violence of any kind.

They can be used to reach targets that are hard to locate. Such prints media include The Australian, The Age, Daily Tele, The West Australian, and Sydney Morning Herald among others.

References

Barker-Plummer, B 2002, ‘Producing public voice: Resource mobilisation and media access in the National Organisation for Women’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, vol. 79 no. 1, pp. 188-205.

Bassiouni, M 2006, ‘International Recognition of Victims’ Rights’, Human Rights Law Review, vol. 6 no. 2, pp. 203-279.

Brown, A 2001, ‘Australian public broadcasting under review: the Mansfield report on the ABC’, Canadian Journal of Communication, vol. 26 no. 1, pp. 13.

Frank, D, Camp, B & Boutcher, S 2010, ‘Worldwide trends in the criminal regulation of sex, 1945 to 2005’, American Sociological Review, vol. 75 no. 6, pp. 867-893.

Kirchengast, T 2011, ‘The landscape of victim rights in Australian homicide cases—lessons from the international experience’, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, vol. 31 no. 1, pp. 133-163.

Stolz, B 2005, ‘Educating policymakers and setting the criminal justice policymaking agenda Interest groups and the ‘Victims of Trafficking and Violence Act of 2000’, Criminal Justice, vol. 5 no. 4, pp. 407-430.

Appendices

Media Schedule

Abstract

A high rate of crime in the UK, relative to other nations in the European Union, compels defensive reactions from the Home Office but forces a re-examination as well of what afflicts community crime prevention programmes. Over a period of three decades, academic research has suggested that community cohesion, among others, helps strengthen the tripartite mechanisms of private, parochial, and public social control and ought to help close the social divides that engender distrust and close off the possibility of cooperation to make neighbourhoods crime-free.

Disturbances in the northwest during the summer of 2001 impelled a fresh look at racial resentment that erupted in violence. Subsequent enquiries by four Ministerial panels underlined the urgency of community cohesion as a social good.

A local areas booster to the Home Office Citizenship Survey of 2003 provided the opportunity to measure multiple dimensions of community cohesion and assess the relationship with mitigating crime rate. As it turned out, the 32 items measuring cohesion could be grouped into five factors which collectively explained around one-third of the variance in the dependent variable, crime rate. Correlation and regression analysis suggests that high sense of community, belongingness, and trust in political institutions bear measurable effects in ameliorating total crime, as well as common index crimes like violence against persons, residential burglaries and motor vehicle theft.

Introduction

Crime throughout the country remains comparatively high, leaving the Home Office and police trying one actionable measure after another whilst pondering the socio-economic, immigration and community cohesion wellsprings of unlawful activity.

Home Office ministers appear pleased that crime in the UK has reached its lowest level in 40 years after peaking in 1995 and declining steadily since then. However, a cross-EU, 18-nation survey by Gallup Europe (Travis and Traynor, 2007, p. 1) labelled the country a “high crime” nation and showed that the odds of falling victim to the ten index crimes was highest in Ireland, followed by the UK. The nation topped the league table in burglary and was above-average for hate crimes and assault. London itself posed the highest risk of crime victimization amongst all European capitals, with fully a third of Londoners claiming to have been victimised, and was ahead of even New York (significantly lower with a 23% incidence) in this dubious honour.

The Home Office and Gallup findings are not even irreconcilable. Crime has truly fallen all across the Continent since 1996, despite sentencing policies that Gallup observes are characteristically more lenient than in America. The polling firm speculates that two possible correlates might be the fall in the population segment of young males and advances in anti-burglary/anti-theft devices.

In part, the discrepancy arises from the fact that the Home Office uses two sets of statistics. Keeping faith with police records, the Home Office could report that total crime fell 5% from 2007-08 and 2008-09, broken down into 6% fewer assaults, a 10% drop in vandalism and car theft but with burglaries constant (a 1% annual change). On the other hand, the British Crime Survey for England and Wales for 2008-2009 revealed that total crime victimisation incidence had inched up marginally from the 22% finding in 2007-2008 (Home Office, 2009a, p. 1).

Prior research and an outbreak of violence at the start of the decade in Bradford, Oldham and Burnley suggest that community participation, social control, and community cohesion are potential mitigating factors. In respect of a socially disadvantaged community where efforts to implement community crime prevention (CCP) programmes failed to generate consensus and mass-based participation, Schneider (1997) had shown that, despite widespread concern about elevated crime rates, the absence of community cohesion counted for as much as socio-demographic factors, community diversity, ineffective anti-crime organisation, unsuccessful community outreach, dependence on the state for social control, and structural obstacles such as the Western propensity for individualism in hampering CCP programmes.

Al Hunter showed the relationship of community cohesion to social control by dividing the latter into private, parochial, and public forms of control. In a cohesive community, all three partner to minimise crime. But when sphere of social control may need to be dominant – such as when a political apparatus and the police go into action when the private sector and “parochial” community groups such as citizen patrols are ineffective. This was the case in Chicago’s Beltway around the turn of the century when the overwhelmingly white community continued to shut out Blacks and blamed an upsurge of gang violence on ‘encroaching’ Hispanics (Hagedorn 2006).

In the summer of 2001, disturbances erupted across north-west England, in Bradford, Oldham, Leeds and Burnley. In Burnley, police laid the violence at the foot of gang warfare between whites and Asians, though intensified by poverty in the population at large. Hundreds were injured and dozens were called to account for wilful destruction of shops and vehicles. Muslims in Bradford denounced religious discrimination. In Bradford, Lord Ouseley authored a report laying the blame on schools that did not do enough to develop ethnic tolerance (BBC, 2001; BBC News, 2001).

Given the undercurrents of racial tensions that preceded and seemed to underlie the worst instances of community violence the UK had seen in over four decades, the Blair government commissioned a Ministerial Group on Public Order and Community Cohesion to make enquiries. Beyond blaming ‘far-right extremists’ for exploiting ethnic conflict, the ‘Community Cohesion Review’ observed that the four communities were deeply divided along racial, religious, and cultural lines, and called for new community cohesion drives to bring about greater contact and respect.

After more consultations, the Local Government Association subsequently formulated a working definition of community cohesion in aid of local authority planning. This described a cohesive community as promoting equal opportunity, belongingness for all, a common vision, acknowledging and valuing diversity of background as well as socio-economic circumstances, and fostering amicable relationships among diverse people wherever they interact.

Methods

As it happens, the periodic Home Office Citizenship Survey (HOCS) of active citizenship came to incorporate measures of community cohesion and thereby enabled analysis against violent and neighbourhood-level crime as reported to police. This report is based on the 2003 run in England and Wales.

That year, the Main HOCS polled a nationally representative base of 9,486, a quota sample of 4,571 adults to cover ethnic minorities, and a Local Areas booster sample of 10,138 respondents to enable reliable readings of 20 local areas (defined as two contiguous wards). In keeping with the thrust of measuring progress towards active citizenship, HOCS consistently covered:

• ‘Rights and responsibilities, influencing political decisions, and institutional trust;
• Perceptions of racial prejudice and discrimination;
• People’s involvement in their neighbourhood;
• Social networks;
• Active community participation; and,
• Family networks’ (Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate, 2004, p. vii)

The independent variable (IV) in this analysis consists of community cohesion, measured in two ways:

1. As a single item indicator and baseline measure of community cohesion: ‘the proportion of people who feel that their local area is a place where people from different backgrounds get on well together’; and,
2. A compound variable to tap the key elements of community cohesion: equal opportunity at all life stages, belongingness, sense of community, trust in political institutions and other organisations, and respect for diversity.

In total, the Community Cohesion item set contained 32 items, such as the three shown below:

Since full coverage of all 32 items is over-ambitious for an essay of moderate length such as this, one makes use of a factor analysis that identified the above-mentioned themes and two others: ‘Respecting diversity’ (whether ethnic differences are respected by their neighbors) and ‘Political trust’ (trust in local politicians and councillors and believing that these officials truly represent their views. Individually, the five factors proved to correlate strongly with the aforementioned single-item measure of community cohesion (Wedlock, 2004).

In turn, the dependent variable (DV) consisted of crime data as reported to police in half the local areas covered by the booster sample.

Findings

A correlation between each of the five community cohesion factors and reported total crime in the ward representing the local area (see Table 1 overleaf) highlights, first of all, the negative relationship between total crimes and sense of community, political trust and sense of belonging. At -0.76, the Pearson’s r value for ‘sense of community’ factors as a group explains the largest share of variance in the ‘movement of the total crime’ measure.

Table 1: Correlation between Total Crime Level and Community Cohesion Factors

Graphing the data points from the compiled database (Figure 1 below), one sees that there is proportionately more rapid rise in total crime rate per 1,000 residents beginning when sense of community drops below 70% of those surveyed.

Test runs on multiple and stepwise regression revealed that the latter was more productive. When the five community cohesion factors were inputted as predictor variables one by one (hence the term ‘stepwise’), starting with those that correlated highly (positively or negatively) with the total crime DV, the results (Table below) suggest that for the ten local areas as a group, sense of community is the comparatively stronger ‘deterrent’.

Table 2: Predicted Percentage Decline in Total Crime and Leading Index Crime When ‘Sense of Community’ Improve by One Unit

Sense of community also predicts declines in burglary from dwellings, theft of motor vehicles and breaking into motor vehicles.

Discussion

This short analysis suggests that, quite apart from the social control expected from community cohesion, this factor per se has mitigating effects on crime rate as reported to police. Nonetheless, examination of component items for sense of community as the strongest predictor (albeit in inverse fashion) does comprise aspects of social control. This is exemplified by questionnaire items asking about whether respondents believe that neighbours cooperate to improve the area, whether survey subjects feel safe roaming the area at night, whether residents look out for, and trust. each other.

That belongingness is not a significant predictor may imply that being attached to one’s place of residence is not a necessary condition for deterring crime; sense of community is more vital in the practical sense.

Given the strong alienation that drove the disturbances of 2001, another conclusion one may draw from this analysis is that community crime prevention programmes (CCP) need to be recast to include empowerment of disadvantages racial/ethnic, cultural and religious sub-segments of the population. There is value, as well, in accounting for social control, community mobilisation, and undistorted communication across the social divides that degrade mutual concern about cooperating to reduce crime.

Bibliography

BBC (2001) 2001: Race violence erupts in Burnley.

BBC News (2001) Summer of discontent.

Hagedorn, J. M. (2006) Clean streets: Controlling crime, maintaining order, and building community activism. Contemporary Sociology. 35(4) 407-8.

Home Office (2009a) Crime statistics. Web.

Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate (2004) 2003 Home Office Citizenship Survey: People, families and communities. Crown Copyright: Home Office.

Schneider, S. R., Ph.D. (1997) Obstacles to collective action in socially disadvantaged neighbourhoods: Toward a radical planning theory of community crime prevention. Ph.D. Thesis: The University of British Columbia.

Travis, A. & Traynor, I. (2007) Britain named as one of Europe’s crime hotspots: Survey finds highest rate of burglary in the EU, assaults and hate crime also near top of league. The Guardian.

Wedlock, E., (2004) Crime and cohesive communities.

Understanding Basic Crime Analysis Statistics

Statistical measures are can be used in a variety of ways in crime analysis. Each statistical measure is employed at a specific time to study particular trends in data. Most statistical measures lose meaning when the data in question is non-numeric or quantitative (Analysts, Massachusetts Association of Crime, 2008).

The crime rate expresses crime as a proportion of the population in the area under study. The index crime rate computed from the UCR statistics is likely to be lower than that computed using Reported Crimes. this is because the UCR statistics usually exclude other kinds of crimes whereas the Reported Crime includes them. The proportion of the population selected for computing crime rates should be realistic. Using a large proportion when the area under study is small could give the illusion that the crime rate is very low. Sometimes it may be necessary to use different proportions to compare two areas realistically.

The types of crime understudy should also be considered. It is not prudent to mix murder and petty theft statistics. One area might have high petty theft and very low murder rates. However, when the crime rate is computed, an analyst might be tempted to conclude that the area has a very high crime rate. It would be a misrepresentation. The police could end up giving too much attention to an area that does not need it and neglect the area that requires attention (Analysts, Massachusetts Association of Crime, 2008).

The range refers to the difference between the peak and least variable in data. It is a general measure that gives an analyst a rough idea of what to expect. It cannot be used in computing other statistical measures. However, the range should not be disregarded as it can aid in identifying errors in data.

Analysts should be familiar with measures of central tendency as they are useful in many ways. The mode indicates the variable that has been repeated most in a distribution. Supposing the data under study was the number of crimes in various sections of a city. The mode would indicate in which area most crimes occur, thus enabling the department to assign enough officers (Dr. Bobba, 2008).

The mean is the mathematical average of the terms in the distribution. In cases of normal distributions, the mean can be used as a representative of the entire set of data. Alternatively, the median may be used where the data is skewed. Standard deviation is a statistical measure used alongside the mean. It shows how far from the mean the variables are dispersed. When presented with a set of statistics, an analyst can employ all these measures and come up with meaningful conclusions (Dr. Bobba, 2008).

Tactical Analysis

Police reports are the major source of information for tactical analysis. The data in the reports often contain unexplained gaps and an analyst has to employ critical thinking to fill these gaps. Critical thinking involves problem solving and judgment. Police reports provide information about a crime that has occurred. Employing logical thinking could help the analyst to draw meaningful conclusions. Logical thinking involves drawing reasonable conclusions based on what one knows.

Statistical analysis is supported by police reports. The reports contain the time the crime was committed. It could be very useful in temporal analysis. An analyst can be able to construct a schedule for the offender using the clues from the police report. After establishing the frequency of the crime, the analyst can predict when next the criminal will strike. This prediction depends on the frequency of the crime. The distribution could be random, clustered, or uniform. Random and clustered distributions are more difficult to predict than uniform distributions (International Association of Crime Analysts, 2009).

Police reports may also contain a record of events that occur alongside the crime. It could call for correlation analysis to find out whether this is a coincidence or a causal relationship. Correlation analysis employs statistics to determine whether there is a relationship between the occurrences of two separate events. The analyst should be aware of misleading correlation analysis. If the analysis shows a strong correlation, the analyst should question whether the relationship is causal and logical.

The tactical analysis aims at generating a forecast of crime in the short run, such that police can be able to stop the criminal before they strike. It can be done using various statistical measures. Linear timing forecasts and cyclical timing forecasts can be employed to predict when the crime might happen next.

Interpolation can aid in the construction of a suspect’s schedule of activities. Since police reports may not contain all the information about a suspect’s activities, employing statistical methods may help the analyst to complete the puzzle. The analyst must not be prejudiced in drawing his conclusions. Teams should avoid groupthink because they will end up missing important points. The usefulness of police reports in tactical analysis cannot be overstated. They are the basis of this type of crime analysis (International Association of Crime Analysts, 2009).

References

Analysts, Massachussets Association of Crime. (2008). Introduction to Crime Analysis. Web.

Dr Bobba, R. (2008). Crime Analysis With Crime Mapping. Chicago: Sage Publications.

International Association of Crime Analysts. (2009). Work Samples. Web.

If one accepts the hoary concept of white-collar crime as comprising all non-violent offenses, then it must be conceded that the ambit of international white-collar crime in the present era remains as broad as ever. Mail fraud, for instance, can still be perpetrated by one person. By definition, however, bribery and corruption committed by transnational or multinational businesses can involve officials in their home nations and countries where they hope to gain access or already do business.

The requirement for global networks is more characteristic of intellectual property violations, money laundering, drugs, espionage, art theft, and white slavery. These crimes always involve cooperating syndicates and international networks in both the countries of origin and destination chiefly because the desired commodity must be transported from a region of surplus to one of scarcity.

On reflection, therefore, it is the persistence of human greed and avarice that underlies all white-collar crime.

Technology has merely changed the speed, security, and medium of communication. Globalization and the harmonization of the European Community, two logical outcomes of the belief in free markets and value theory Adam Smith espoused in The Wealth of Nations, has also eased of movement of humans, goods, and money across borders.

By themselves, networks are neither new nor special. Informal and transient networks arise and persist both domestically and across national borders in response to common interests, ideologies, or economic self-interest. Recall how an ‘underground railroad’ of sympathetic Americans, North, and South, succored escaping slaves to where they could enjoy freeman status. Or the Poles, Dutch, and Frenchmen who hid Jews from the Gestapo during World War II. By sheer necessity, counterpart networks had to be created in-country, in Italy, Switzerland, Spain, etc. through which Jews needed to pass on the way to freedom.

The great advances made by even the developing countries in modernizing their telecommunications networks means that even the still-impoverished nations of the Caribbean, South America, Africa, and Asia have become transit points for money-laundering generally and the type associated with illegal drugs in particular. In this case, networks of ‘conspirators’ and conduit banks are needed to circumvent banking and money-laundering laws in either the producing- or consuming nation.

At the same time, the broadening of telephone infrastructure and Internet penetration has enabled wily individuals to perpetrate ‘wire’ fraud by the relatively simple expedient of bulk email.

Automated programs (‘bots’) can troll the Worldwide Web to harvest email addresses from readily-accessible Webmail operators and public records. This has made sending news of fictitious sweepstakes winnings or the notorious chance to get a share of the inheritance due to an executed despot’s family (the Nigerian scam) virtually cost-free and worldwide in scope. Greed, after all, knows no boundaries. In the end, only the ringleaders of overseas fraud syndicates attain the financial gain that is the hallmark of all white-collar crime.

By definition, all corporate crime (e.g. the Madoff resurrection of the hoary Ponzi scheme) is also white-collar crime because financial institutions and trusted companies are uniquely positioned to commit computer crime, wire or mail fraud, insider trading, embezzlement, bribery of regulators, and customs, and forgery. In the case of the Madoff scandal, an essential element was a fictitious bank in the Bahamas. Locally, the Serious Fraud Office has therefore gone on record as giving equal emphasis to prosecution and consumer education campaigns (Bowers, 2008).

On the Continent, white-collar criminals can move operations across borders to escape prosecution since legislative systems differ. Thus, networks maintain components of their money-laundering, currency and trade goods counterfeiting, and even white slavery operations wherever laws are more lenient. The EC has yet to harmonize laws and continues to play catch-up, with the establishment of the European Judiciary Network in 1998, Eurojust in 2003, and a greater ambit for Europol (EUROPA, n.d.).

References

Bowers, S. (2008). White-collar crime: SFO boss plans to cut back on prosecutions and investigations. The Guardian, Thursday.

EUROPA (n.d.). Chasing white collar crime across the European Union single market. Web.

Biological Theory

This theory takes a close look at the human biological features that predispose a person to a crime. This is done through various studies comparing twins. One study compared 274 adult twins. It looks at different areas of a person’s behavior. This includes nervous systems, personality and temperament, neuropsychological abnormalities, and physiological factors.

Based on all these parameters, a person can commit a crime because of many things. For example, some people have irritability levels that are hard to control when hurt. This way, they commit crimes in the name of seeking revenge or responding to a previous hurt. Other people may have judgment levels that make them react poorly in cases of hurt feelings. It is also possible that the general body physique of a person contributes significantly to his interactions. People with big bodies feel indispensable and may be irrational and violent at times (Greene et al. 2006).

Sociological Theory

This theory argues that the social set up of a person may contribute to crime affiliations. The approach divides the basis from which this can happen into two: structural and subcultural. In a society where people are not fully economically empowered, cases of violence are rampant. This is because this breeds frustration emanating from too much idle time. According to the subcultural explanation, the theory says that people may have specific values and traditions that fall in the minority.

This means that there is a dominant cultural affiliation, which seems to demean the minor one. The people may have sentiments that emanate from the fact that they feel like second after the rest. This way, they may want to show that they exist. This typically comes out violent. This is the case in many Christian nations with a minority Muslim population. It is also the breeding cause of violence in tribal fights experienced in Africa and the world (Frankel, 2003).

Psychological Theory

This theory cites individual differences as the main cause of violence and potentially criminal behavior. Sometimes these differences can be so minimal, and others are insurmountable gaps, which separate individuals. As relates to this theory, the root of the problem is that people will never be the same, enjoy the same comforts or love from other people. Hence, because of the guilt and sentiments that come, people behave irrationally. This is in a bid to balance nature. This is what breeds psychopaths. These are people considered to be absolutely antisocial and psychologically irrational (Greene et al. 2006).

In today’s lives of people, they wish they can outsmart, make more, receive more, and attract more from people and the world at large. Because of the psychological setup, many people may behave differently if such desires are not met. While others try harder to be seen, others want to impose themselves and get them. This is what makes the whole difference. This is a character that is grown from the age of a kid. A perfect example is a 1946 born Ted Bundy. He was a serial killer with a personality that said that he would be successful and great in life (Solms and Turnbull, 2002).

Social-Psychological Theory

This theory closely combines both psychological and sociological theories. This theory says that it is possible to develop some behavior, which may not initially exist, due to the social set a person is. The process of making a criminal is learned. This is a simple conclusion that the theory puts forth. When people live in violent prone areas, the propensity to commit a crime is way too high. It is also possible to be violent to be in a position to defend yourself in frequently occurring violent situations. The theory says that it is even worse when a person that is preconditioned to be violent lives in such a case as to allow violence (Greene et al. 2006).

Interrelationship of the Theories

The theories are closely interrelated. The biological theory says that a person’s physiques and neurological set up may contribute to violent behaviors. This set up may have emanated from the social set up and or the psychological affiliations. Although many may commit criminal acts to feel the thrill and happiness of hurting people as the psychological theories suggest, others may learn that process as a matter of survival. This closely intertwines the sociological and social psychological theories.

Most Accurate Theory

The sociological theory accurately defines the reasons that lead to criminal behavior. The social set up majorly contributes to people’s violent acts and the temperaments that may lead to it. A perfect example is the tribal situations that African countries find them into. Another closely related example is the violence that is experienced in developing countries. Criminologists argue that it is because of the poor conditions that people find themselves into. They act irrationally to either get what they don’t have or to disrupt what others are doing. This is mostly an expression of fear and an innocuous lack of something. Social setups hence breed most criminals (Henriques, 2003).

References

Frankel, R. (2003). The Biopsychosocial Approach: Past, Present, Future. New York: Boydell & Brewer.

Greene, E. et al. (2006). Psychology and the Legal System. Florence, KY: Cengage Learning.

Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 2: 150–182.

Solms, M. & Turnbull, O. (2002). The Brain and the Inner World: An Introduction to the Neuroscience of Subjective Experience. New York: Other Press.