In his article “A Tale of Two Cities,” Franco Moretti analyzes a great contrast between the macroscopic and microscopic levels of London’s economic texture as it is represented on a nineteenth-century map published in Charles Booth’s Life and Labour of the People of London in 1889 (77). Moretti remarks that while Booth has presented a thorough analysis of the city based on its division into seven social groups, there are still some unclear issues as to how and in what ways criminal life in the city is represented in the works of fiction (77).
Upon studying the article, it seems possible to say that the portrayal of criminal activity in London in the nineteenth century was closely associated with the division of the city into districts based on people’s financial achievements. At the same time, there is a huge contrast between the actual criminal activity and the fictional one. Thus, the paper argues that the representation of crime in nineteenth-century literature was based on disparities between the regions of the city as well as the countryside.
According to Moretti, at the microscopic level, London is a “self-organizing system” with a set of “regular patterns” (77). However, at the microscopic level, it becomes clear that there is no strict division between prosperous and less fortunate streets and regions of the city (Moretti 77-78). It is not possible to say that “extreme poverty” and “great wealth” are present in some major parts of London since they are present in the neighboring streets (Moretti 77).
The distance between the divergent social classes may be as little as just two hundred meters. Within this distance, one may see both “the brilliant gold” and “patches of chronic unemployment and misery” (Moretti 78). Thus, Moretti concludes that Booth’s map indicates that the city as a whole is rather ordered whereas its individual parts are predominantly random (78). Such a confusion evokes wonder and fear, and it makes London “not easy to read” (Moretti 78).
One of the reasons for such a state of affairs is the psychological conditions created by large cities (Simmel 131). People are contingent on the “supplementary activities of all others,” which leads to inevitable contrasts between various parts of the city as well as between rural and city life (Simmel 130). Such an opposition posed a complicated question to nineteenth-century writers who had to come up with the most appropriate narrative mechanisms of making cities “legible” (Moretti 79).
The approach favored by the authors of that time was showing only a part of London rather than the whole city. Thus, only West End used to be portrayed in novels, which was “not really a city” but “a class” (Moretti 79). Characters living in West End did not use to work but merely “lived” (Moretti 79). Several features were common in all novels: a city square, some “exclusive” gathering spots, parks, and “the border” (Moretti 79-83).
The border, which was marked at Regent Street, was considered the most crucial element of all, and it was a “splendid neoclassical barrier erected between 1817 and 1823” (Moretti 83). As Moretti remarks, writers avoided addressing urban complexity by reducing it (83). Their characters did not go further than Regent Street, and even if they did, no street names were ever mentioned, and “roads lost their names” (Moretti 83). There was a great contrast between West End addresses and other areas of the city: while the former was meticulously acknowledged, the latter was “lumped wholesale in… anonymity” (Moretti 83). The symbolic amputation of some parts of the city leads to the inability of writers to represent some crucial aspects of the city’s life.
As soon as the border “has been crossed,” it is sensed by the language (Moretti 84). Diverse spaces do not only mean different landscapes but represent different “narrative matrixes” (Moretti 84). In order to exemplify his opinion, Moretti analyzes Charles Dickens’s Oliver Twist – the novel in which “the metaphor of the labyrinth” has the power to return time whenever the storyline becomes close to dangerous places (84). As Moretti remarks, there were two different halves of London: that of West End and one of the less prosperous districts (84).
However, the paradox was that those two halves did not make a whole when combined. Whenever a novel concentrated on one half of London, it could not “see” the other half or even depict the fact of crossing the border between the halves (Moretti 86). When Dickens made an attempt to unify the two halves, the outcome was more than just the sum of the parts. London became not only larger but also more complex, which gave the writer a possibility for “richer, more unpredictable interactions” (Moretti 86).
In his analysis of the crime epicenter, Moretti concludes that it was almost always in West End (134). In his investigation of Conan Doyle’s works’ popularity, Moretti concludes that the lack of success of Doyle’s first two novels was connected with their being located between Lambeth and Camberwell (135). As soon as the writer made a “shift in location” and situated his short stories in the City and West End, he became very successful (Moretti 135).
Another interesting fact is associated with the crimes occurring in the countryside. As Moretti notes, with Holmes’s moving away from London, the crimes became more and more “bloody” (138). While none of the seven “London stories” incorporated murder in the first Holmes collection, each one of the five “countryside” stories did (Moretti 138). Thus, the contrast between the city and the countryside was quite stark.
The most interesting issue outlined by Moretti is the opposition between fictional and real crime scenes (136). According to the author, the areas that are marked as “vicious” and “semi-criminal” on Booth’s map are “the exact inverse” of Conan Doyle’s city of crime (136). In fiction, the crime occurred in the “world of wealth” (Moretti 136). Meanwhile, in reality, it happened in “the London of poverty” (Moretti 136). Moretti concludes that there is a profound symbolic argumentation behind the “two Londons” (137).
While the actual map indicates crime as it is, the fictional world presents some mystery of which the real world is devoid. Writers found it much more exciting to portray “fancy hotels, mansions overlooking the park, great banks, diplomatic secrets…” than unamusing life in East End (Moretti 137). Therefore, the crime in nineteenth-century fiction was based on the difference between London regions and the contrast between the city and the countryside. Writers preferred to focus on the areas that they found to be the most exciting to describe rather than write about realistic situations in poor or rural regions.
Works Cited
Moretti, Franco. “A Tale of Two Cities.” Atlas of the European Novel 1800-1900, edited by Franco Moretti, Verso, 1999, pp. 75-140.
Simmel, Georg. “The Metropolis and Mental Life.” Art in Theory 1900-1990: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, edited by Charles Harrison and Paul Wood, Blackwell, 1999, pp. 130-135.
Social criticism refers to a situation where malicious conditions are revisited with reference on how they have been entrenched in the social structures. Social criticism is geared towards getting practical solutions by applying certain measures to reform the society. Social criticism has permeated the academic arena, specifically in literature. Fictional literature has been used widely to expose social vices in societies. The Scandinavian fiction has been used largely in the crime novel to portray social criticism (Stieg, 6).
Notably, when Scandinavian crime fiction is mentioned, novels like “The Girl with a Dragon Tattoo” and “Silence of the Grave” come into play. The fiction novels have been rated, and their content has achieved a widespread acknowledgement. The novel “The Girl with the dragon Tattoo” uses a woman as the leading character whereby all events in the novel are centered on her. The novel opens with the introduction of Mikael Blomkivist who has lost a defamation case under doubtful circumstances.
Mikael is set to start investigations of his niece who disappeared forty years ago. As the story unfolds, and Henrik, who has hired Blomkvist to carry out the investigation, is convinced that the disappearance of Harriet was engineered by family members. The investigations take a different turn when Blomkvist meets Lisbeth who proves to have a good memory, bad temper and intimacy issues (Stieg, 24).The two team up to unfold the mystery behind Harriet’s disappearance (Stieg, 7).
During the investigations progress, it is discovered that Harriet’s death forms part of a series of murders that took place in 1950s and 1960s. The novel depicts men as violent among the Swedish society. This is evidenced by the fact that, with the exception of Blomkvist, every male character in the novel is violent. In the process of the investigation, Blomkvist’s relationship with the daughter and a co-worker deteriorates considerably (Stieg, 8).
The novel presents a morally questionable cycle where a rape revenge fantasy is presented. The empowered woman in the novel stops at nothing to revenge. The nature of the violence that she goes through depicts a crime dominated society. The novel builds a society based on violence against violence.
The society is not represented as depending on the due process of the law. The leaning towards reactionary violence stems from lack of trust in the established institutions. The issue of revenge being a better option in the Swedish society is evident when, at the end of the novel, Blomkvists makes efforts to bring down the executive who worn the lawsuit mentioned at the beginning of the novel (Stieg, 12).
The violence on Lisbeth in the novel portrays the society as working against a woman since rape is the norm of the day. Lisbeth turned into a hacker and planned to take revenge on her abusers by letting out all the dirty secrets about the wealthy. Her revenge is not confined to what has been done against her, but she takes revenge on behalf of women in general. The novel presents a situation whereby women are viewed as sex objects.
Therefore, raping cannot be ruled out from such a society. A reader is shocked by the treatment that Swedish men give to their women. In addition, the book presents other crimes such as murder and suicide. The novel has a slight criticism on the Swedish welfare state. Bureaucracy is evidenced by the police investigations and the role of such bureaucracies in showing how investigations are obstructed.
The tradition of employing the use of technicalities to deny people justice is what Lisbeth and Mikael are aiming to eliminate. A different way of carrying out investigation based on learning and knowing that seems immune to obstruction is introduced by Lisbeth. This method of investigation mainly centers on investigation through hacking that cannot be obstructed (Stieg, 26).
The novel introduces the reader to the vengeance and violence in the Scandinavian society. The novel portrays the Swedish society as that which is not ready to depart from the Norse legal system that advocated for personal revenge. The parallelism between the ancient justice system and the modern legal system is clearly depicted in the novel when Lisbeth decides to take revenge.
The writer tries to cast blame on the failure of institutions such as the police to offer excellent investigations. He also considers the weaknesses of the justice system to awaken an alarming desire to take personal revenge. The renewed nationalism and contemporary violence are evident in Sweden at a time when justice is left in the hands of individuals. In the culture of violence, the writer strives to differentiate between men and female violence. The novelist shows that women are greatly affected by violence (Stieg, 22).
Genders comparison of violence in the novel shows that men are more violent than women. Cultural setting shows that many men are violent, and they consider women as objects upon which they can perpetuate their violence. The rape scene shows the state of crime in the Swedish society. The writer further paints justice as influenced and not free to everyone.
Though the story opens as pro-feminist, many believe that the writer departs from this notion when he portrays Lisbeth as subordinate to men. The complexity of her character and skills in her hacking, which are mainly meant to achieve revenge, leaves many unanswered questions regarding the pain of the women in the society and the determination to take revenge. The writer builds on the character of the woman as strong when she opts to take revenge.
This shows celebration rather than sympathy in revenge. A reader can possibly avoid the temptation of celebrating Lisbeth’s actions when she is taking revenge. At the end of the novel, the reader wonders whether the writer wanted to portray revenge as necessary or was trying to show how revenge has consumed the community.
In other words, the writer seems to agree with the notion that revenge is unavoidable in Swedish society, and only a strong woman takes revenge. In the societal context, the writer used the stereotypical male impulse to build the character of Lisbeth (Stieg, 32).
In the novel, “Silence of the grave”, the author applies the crime epic story telling with a unique sociological complexity. The author opens the story with a thrilling narration of discovery of a skeleton on the estate located at the outskirts of Reykjavik. The excavation of the place leads to a discovery of red bushes surrounding the place.
Therefore, the reader is introduced to a twist of suspense in making a guess on who may have planted the bushes on the hillside. The archeologists were left to undertake their work, but the detective ordered the place to be investigated. The investigation on the area around the hillside points to the small farms where there was a military base. This base was manned by the British army at the time of the World War II. The detective makes interviews on the residents of the district, and the history becomes clear to him (Stieg, 24).
The place is surrounded by mysterious stories. The shocking part of the author is employing thrill in his work evidenced when he invites a voice from the grave to have a conversation. The story is sad, and it is narrated by an abused wife who lived in the hill before. The narration takes a portrayal of the society as being violent to women and purely patriarchal.
The connection between the story and the buried skeleton is left as food for thought on the parts of the reader. The writer does not make the skeleton voice mean that the woman and children were killed by the sadistic laborer who worked on the hillside. However, evidence points to the notion that the two are related.
The use of the parallel narrative leaves many questions that the reader gets answers as the story continues. The writer unveils the history and makes and exposes the history of Swedish community that has reached the new age. The attachment of the society to the historical past has gradually affected today’s Swedish, living styles (Arnaldur, 12).
There is breakdown of social values. The narration shows a situation whereby the society’s social values have completely broken down. The discovery of the skeleton was accompanied by a parallel voice of an abused woman and neglected children. The author portrays the society as being very ignorant about the weak. According to Elrendur’s work, there are cases of spousal abandonment and neglected children.
There is despair that surrounds the society, which does not seem to care. The detective experiences cases of neglect in his day to day duties. He encounters the worst experiences of a society that has lost touch with the observance of moral and social obligations. The introduction of the book is closely related to the conclusion whereby the detective becomes very compassionate after meeting gloomy men in his line of duty.
While the detective is taking an interest in investigating the presence of the bones, he is faced with a strange encounter that makes him leave immediately. His daughter is taken to hospital. It is discovered that she has comatose. He is instructed by the doctor to talk to her (Arnaldur, 13).
The novels “The Girl with A tattoo,” “Silence Of The grave” and “Blind Goddess” has been viewed like a mirror hence helping readers to have a glimpse of the Scandinavian society. The mentioned novels carry themes of violence, revenge and crime. It has been established that the vengeance justice is still rooted in the living styles of the Swedish people.
In the novel, a woman is treated like a sex object and violence is more pronounced amongst men than women. The second novel centers on neglect and abuse of spouse. It becomes hard for a situation to go unnoticed since the community’s social values are greatly ignored. The detective investigating the human bones experiences similar social breakdown in his family. This makes it easy to get a real picture of the entire society (Holt & Reading, 23).
Works Cited
Arnaldur, Indriedason. Silence of the Grave. New York: Eda Publication, 2002. Print.
Holt, Anne & K. Reading. Blind Goddess. New York: Simon & Schuster Inc. 2012. Print.
Stieg, Larsson. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. London: MacLehose Press2008. Print.
Literature review refers to the evaluation of previous works of various scholars, including theories and major concepts. In academic research, both theoretical and conceptual review of literature is usually undertaken to establish the views, opinions, thoughts, and believes of various scholars and theorists.
Revisiting the works of previous scholars is based on the idea that knowledge is cumulative meaning that a researcher will never come up with something new, but instead he or she aspires to contribute or make suggestions regarding a certain field. Transnational organized crime is one of the issues that have generated a heated debate among scholars regarding its existence and possible solutions.
The end of the Cold War presented various challenges to scholars of international relations, especially concerning the issue of security. The emergence of global organized crime is a new challenge facing many states after the end of Cold War and the threats posed by nuclear energy.
Transnational organized crime is always perceived as non-traditional threat to national security, even though it has gained relevance in the study of international relations1. States have been forced to cooperate just because of the threats that transnational organized criminals pose2.
In fact, some scholars observe accurately that the trend of transnational crime is worrying. Crime was previously studied in the fields of sociology, criminology, law, and psychology, but the extent at which it affects foreign relations in the international system has attracted international relations scholars.
This article conducts a critical review of literature, both theoretical and conceptual, to establish the extent at which transnational organized crime affects foreign politics. The paper identifies globalization as one of the cause of transnational organized crime.
The global market and the ease with which individuals could access foreign markets, have given criminals an advantage to interfere with the economies and peace of various states. Studies show that transnational criminals have developed sophisticated techniques and tools, which are used to frustrate various states and other actors in the international system.
Some scholars observe that the use of sadism, terrorism, extortion, and fraud are some of the techniques that this category of criminals uses to execute its heinous acts. A further analysis of literature shows that transnational crime poses a great challenge to the nation-state.
Conceptual Review of Literature
Various scholars define crime differently, but some aspects are eminent in a number of definitions. It is clear that organized crime gang is made up of individuals who understand each other very well. In other words, it does not entail a group of persons created by chance for the instantaneous commission of a particular offense. Truong is one of the scholars who tried to define organized crime, as it relates to transnational organized crime.
He observed that organized crime has three major features that make it different from other forms of crime3. In particular, he discusses the features of criminals, who engage in human trafficking, which is one of the types of transnational organized crimes. One of the features of human trafficking crime is that it is a group project, whose major aim is to achieve certain objectives.
For instance, such criminals might engage in a project that produces false identification certificates and counterfeit money. In this regard, these criminals will have to acquire certain skills that will help them in accomplishing their mission. Some scholars refer this as artisan work, which is undertaken within a certain social group.
The second feature of organized crime is the organizational aspect, which refers to subornment, dishonesty and swindling. In many cases, organizational aspect of crime is found in labour and other related occupational fields.
Finally, the above scholar notes that organized crime is a collective sort of crime meaning that large multinational corporations, family-owned businesses, and business networks with networks perpetuate it across continents.
These organizations have strong links with the leadership of various countries whereby they are influential civil servants and powerful politicians support them. In some occasions, these organizations might be engaged in both legal and illegal activities, which poses a great challenge to policy makers as far as identifying their trade routes is concerned.
Bertone supported the works of Truong by suggesting some of the nature of global networks, which are responsible for the trafficking of women4. He observed that these networks have strong political and financial links that allow them to set up strong contacts between host countries and home countries. Moreover, these organizations are medium-sized networks whose major aim is to hijack women from one country only.
Surprisingly, these organizations do not hijack many women, but instead they simply abduct one or two women at a time to prevent any suspicion. Salt conducted a study, which established that many countries are yet to establish the exact number of people who are abducted within their state borders5.
Transnational organized criminals take advantage of this fact to smuggle women and children to various countries whereby they are usually taken through inhuman conditions, such as forcible rape, child labour, forced marriage and slavery. The study established further that countries rarely communicate regarding the presence of suspected citizens in their countries. This makes it difficult to deal with this menace.
Rosen conducted a study in 1998, which confirmed that the number of individuals entering Canada with the help of smugglers is too high6. Once in the country, such individuals claim they are refugees and they end up receiving certification since the study showed that 70 percent are usually successful.
A different study conducted by Taibly in Hungary proved that organized criminals are usually well coordinated by professionals, who are highly disciplined7.
Drug trafficking is the most lucrative business in the world, followed by human trafficking meaning that these category of criminals have financial capabilities that help them in realizing their dreams. Some studies focus on the relationship between women trafficking and social crime such as prostitution. Shannon is one of the scholars who have delved into this form of relationship8.
Her view is that women trafficking play an important role as far as the sex industry is concerned. The reviewed various sources of literature, including magazines and newspapers to determine the rate of women trafficking regionally. He review revealed that each region has its own from of women trafficking meaning that organized crime is a real issue in global politics.
A different study conducted by Caldwell, Galster, Kanics and Steinzor in 1999 confirmed the findings by Shannon. This study was commissioned by the Global Survival Network (GSN) to explore the main role of the Russian Mafia in smuggling unsuspecting female employees specifically for purposes of commercial sex.
The study found out that women have always been abducted from the former USSR to various parts of the world, including Asia, Europe, and the United States. In fact, the crime has been in the increase9. The above researchers interviewed various group of people, including Russian pimps, security agencies, and smugglers.
The findings of the study revealed that drug trafficking and abduction of women and children is always under the direct supervision of organized criminal groups, which have extensive connections with government officials and people with great influence in society.
Research conducted by O’Neill showed that transnational organized crime is not practiced in large-scale in the United States10. This shows that developing countries are the mainly affected. This does not mean that transnational organized crime does not take place in the United States.
In fact, owners of these illegal criminal groups are Americans, but they cannot practice it in their country because of the presence of developed institutions, such as the strong investigative agencies, strong police force, adequate resources to detect crime, and efficient judiciary.
In this regard, Richard commented that organized crime in the United States is not controlled by major crime syndicates, as is the case in other parts of the world, such as Russia and some parts of Africa.
This implies that countries with strong institutions tend to scare away transnational organized crime while those with weak institutions attract this type of crime. Official records from the Interpol shows no arrest of transnational criminals whatsoever in the United States.
Theoretical Review of Literature
Transnational crime has serious implications on a country’s economy, politics and social development. Before giving various theories that define the origin and the nature of transnational organized crime, some of the forms of global crime would be described briefly.
Drug trafficking, smuggling of weapons, trading in nuclear materials, forcible transfer of women and children, trafficking illegitimate aliens, carjacking and theft, smuggling body parts of various animals and machineries, money-laundering, evasion of taxes, and large-scale corruption, are some of the forms of organized transnational crime.
From the above list, it is true that globalization has played a critical role in facilitating global crime. For instance, the global production system raises demand for certain substances, which are produced in one country, but its consumption is high in a different country. Drugs are often produced in developing countries, but its consumers are in various developed countries.
When drug lords receive money, there is a high likelihood that they will launder this money. Since criminals would need people to help them in assembling body parts and re-selling them in foreign markets, the need for human trafficking arises. All these demand a network of highly trained individuals, with various cultural experiences.
Vock is one of the scholars who claim that transnational crime takes place to fulfil the labour needs. He attributes the rise of transnational organized crime to globalization meaning that theories of globalization can be used to explain the increasing cases of human trafficking, money laundering, drug trafficking, motor vehicle theft, and corruption11.
Taylor 145 presented a clear analytical framework regarding the emergence of transnational organized crime by suggesting that capitalism is to blame for the increasing cases of global crime12. In this regard, the world has experienced restructuring whereby people are shifting their capital or investments from places with expensive labour to places with cheap labour.
Moreover, labour management in developed and developing countries is changing, with part time employment increasingly embraced. In fact, some regions face serious problems regarding employment since the rates of unemployment are too high, which encourages individuals to engage in any form of work, as long as they get something to put in the table.
Apart from the issue of unemployment, the role of international organizations, such as World Bank and IMF is critical to the functioning of the state. The presence of powerful organizations in the global system has eroded the power of the state meaning that the state is losing sovereignty at an unprecedented rate.
Multinational organizations have displaced rural populations, which have affected the living standards of many people in villages. In some regions, these organizations have contributed in the reduction of wages while it has increased poverty levels in some regions. This increases the incentives to consumption while the funding of social programs have diminished. This gives rise to social crime, such as prostitution.
Conclusion
Review of Literature Shows that transnational organized crime is the new threat to various countries, both developed and developing. The threat posed by this form of crime is compared to the threats posed by the Cold War whereby nuclear energy was the major issue to a number of policy makers in the international system.
However, actors in the international system were able to sit down and resolve the nuclear energy issue since they were mutually assured of destruction. Transnational organized crime is different since states do not have specific techniques of handling it. Review of literature proves that women are the most vulnerable group since a number of transnational organizations target them.
Bibliography
Bertone, Andrea. “Sexual Trafficking in Women: International Political Economy and the Politics of Sex.” Gender Issues 18.1 (2000), 4-22.
Caldwell, Gillian, Galster, Steve, Kanics, Jyothi, and Steinzor, Nadia. Capitalizing on Transition Economies: The Role of the Russian Mafia in Trafficking Women for Forced Prostitution. Illegal Immigration and Commercial Sex. The New Slave Trade. London: Frank Cass Publishers, 1999.
O’Neill, Richard. International Trafficking in Women to the United States : A Contemporary Manifestation of Slavery and Organized Crime. Washington: Centre for the Study of Intelligence, 2000.
Rosen, Judith. The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918. London: John Hopkins University Press, 1982.
Salt, John. “Migration as a Business: The Case of Trafficking.” International Migration 35.4 (1997), 467-494.
Shannon, Sarah. “Prostitution and the Mafia: The Involvement of Organized Crime in the Global Economy.” Illegal Immigration and Commercial Sex 2.1 (1999), 119-144.
Taibly, Rebecca. “Organised Crime and People Smuggling/Trafficking to Australia.” Australian Institute of Criminology 208.2 (2001), 1-6.
Taylor, Ian. “Sex Trafficking and the Mainstream of Market Culture.” Crime, Law and Social Change 32.3 (1999), 257-278.
Truong, Thanh-Dam. “Human Trafficking and Organized Crime.” Institute of Social Studies, 2.339 (2001), 37-98
Van-Impe, Kristof. “People for Sale: The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Trafficking.” International Migration 38.3 (2000), 113-130.
Vock, Judith. “The Promised Land: a Study of Trafficking in Women from Central and Eastern Europe to the Netherlands.” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 8.2 (2000), 379-388.
Walkowitz, Judith. Prostitution and Victorian Society : Women, Class, and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Footnotes
1Judith Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
2Kristof Van-Impe, “People for Sale: The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Trafficking,” International Migration 38.3 (2000), 130.
3Thanh-Dam Truong, “Human Trafficking and Organized Crime,” Institute of Social Studies, 2.339 (2001), 98
4Andrea Bertone,”Sexual Trafficking in Women: International Political Economy and the Politics of Sex”, Gender Issues 18.1 (2000), 7.
5John Salt, “Migration as a Business: The Case of Trafficking,” International Migration 35.4 (1997), 467
6Judith Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (London: John Hopkins University Press, 1982).
7Rebecca Taibly, “Organised Crime and People Smuggling/Trafficking to Australia,” Australian Institute of Criminology 208.2 (2001), 6.
8Sarah Shannon, “Prostitution and the Mafia: The Involvement of Organized Crime in the Global Economy,” Illegal Immigration and Commercial Sex 2.1 (1999), 144.
9Gillian Caldwell, Steve Galster, Jyothi Kanics, and Nadia Steinzor, Capitalizing on Transition Economies : The Role of the Russian Mafia in Trafficking Women for Forced Prostitution. Illegal Immigration and Commercial Sex. The New Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass Publishers, 1999), 67.
10 Richard O’Neill, International Trafficking in Women to the United States: A Contemporary Manifestation of Slavery and Organized Crime (Washington: Centre for the Study of Intelligence, 2000), 18.
11Judith Vock, “The Promised Land: a Study of Trafficking in Women from Central and Eastern Europe to the Netherlands,” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 8.2 (2000), 388.
12Ian Taylor, “Sex Trafficking and the Mainstream of Market Culture,” Crime, Law and Social Change 32.3 (1999), 278.
Violation of the rules and regulations set to govern a certain region is called crime. Every crime is against the set laws but not every violation is a crime. Every crime calls for trial and conviction to ensure that people comply with the set rules and regulations. Crimes are of different types but many of them are observed to occur in adolescence and subside in early adulthood (Hayes & Tim, 2008). This theory though it’s old, it’s widely applied in criminology.
There are several reasons which try to explain as to why most offenses are experienced in adolescence and early adulthood. This essay is based on social learning theory as the cause of crime in the adolescence stage. This theory is based on the fact that young people are exposed to crimes by models, through reinforcement, and through beliefs that favor crimes.
Physical abilities which influence youths to crimes
Most crimes committed require physical abilities like body strength, energy, skills, and prowess for them to come out successfully. For criminals to protect themselves, be in apposition to follow up their contracts, choose and manage their counterparts, they also require physical abilities and skills. Some crimes are defined to call for more physical strengths than others thus, continuous engagement in crime leads to a way of life that is physically demanding and very risky. The crime becomes less successful when people with less physical abilities and energy get involved, especially in the cases where the competitors are young energetic people who are courageous. That is the reason why it’s argued that most offenses are done by adolescence and young adults.
The greatest percentage of adolescents lack interaction with adult institutions such as workgroups and family members (Hayes & Tim, 2008). These are the institutions from where they can receive the early correction of their developing bad behaviors. In any community, young people tend to learn from the previous or the events on progress. If offenders go unpunished from their offenses, the young people who are depending heavily on these examples will not fear doing the same offenses. Relationship among teenagers is very influential where the few who are already involved in crimes spoil the rest group. Teenagers also believe that getting involved in physically demanding activities like crime and the use of much energy will make their peers respect them.
Peer pressure
Moreover, the state of dependency among the youths protects them from the social and legal costs of the illegalities they engage themselves in (Akers, 2009). The cautiousness on the outcome of their behavior is limited by their stage of cognitive development. In addition, these youth have the physical power required to commit a crime. Some people assume that misbehaviors seen with teenagers are part of their development. Most young people at this stage get involved in drugs due to peer pressure, which in turn influences them to get involved in crimes like their fellow age mates.
The use of drugs calls for a need of some financial support which they cannot ask from their parents or guardian, and hence end up getting involved in crimes to gain extra money for supporting their increased needs. Youths are very active and much interested in watching crime movies, which they put into practice in the real life as a way of testing the outcome. This is also largely contributed by the need for discoveries among young people. It has also been noted that the possession of illegal objects like guns is mostly with the young generation, and they influence them much to get involved in crimes as they believe with them they have protection.
Crime reinforcement and unpunished criminals
In addition, in some cases within the communities, some committed offenses are likely to be reinforced and rarely punished. Some committed crimes end up receiving reinforcement of money, socially recognized, or some type of satisfaction. Once teenagers realize this, it also becomes their usual way of life. Some parents as well tend to reinforce crimes committed by their children to hide their embarrassment. Further, some youths live in a community with criminal models whom they copy from believing that they will as well become famous (Delisi, 2005).
Acquired knowledge about crimes
In teenagers, it’s the peak of youths to acquire new knowledge and skills in which they are in dire need to test their knowledge. The most tested knowledge is gained from novels, movies, and other forms of literature.
As they do this, they end up committing offenses knowingly or unknowingly (Siegal & Welsh, 2008). Some people in society who are supposed to be the role models of the young people in society set undesirable examples influencing them to be involved in crimes. As young people grow, they tend to adopt some behaviors from the people around them. If a teacher is a criminal, there is a high probability of a student becoming a criminal. Parents’ and guardians’ keenness on the behavior changes observed with a teenager is very crucial. These negative changes should be dealt with as early as possible to control them from becoming unbearable to society.
Bad role modeling
Some people tend to assume that these changes are normal during development. The parents’ disciplinary action is a good first stage of failure of undesirable behavior to a young person. Young persons have a diverse mind of joining diverse types of associations (Siegal, 2008). At this stage, they are not sure about decision-making. They tend to obey their peer groups than any other person. Here, it calls for the guardian or the parent to help the young person in making the right decision, especially in joining the associations which are of value to him as well as creating a relationship with morally upright people. For a parent or guardian to achieve this, they should also be admirable role models to their growing children.
When a young person commits an offense, and the parents outstand to defend him/her, the habit develops with the development of the teenager until he becomes a nuisance to the community to a point of facing a conviction. During the early adult stage, the person starts to realize that the habit is unhealthy to him and the whole community (Walsh & Beaver, 2008). At this stage, he can make wise decisions on his own on how to stop that habit as the consequences turn to be hard on him. This implies that the parents should be always against the odd behaviors observed instead of defending their teenagers.
Most young offenders are mainly involved in minor offenses or fights which develop into violent crimes if not corrected early enough. Research which was done in 1997 showed that only 25% of youth offenses were categorized as violent crimes but this percentage has tremendously increased with time due to lack of early corrections (Walsh & Beaver, 2008).
Neglected youth challenges
In every community, youths are faced with many challenges whereby, most of them are not able to solve as they need some financial assistance and other types of support that they cannot afford. Some communities have high personal security threats such that the burning issues concerning the youth and the children are not addressed. A community experiencing such a crisis, and with very few intervention support systems, imposes an enormous influence on the involvement of the youth in crimes.
Decrease in crimes in early adulthood
Research has shown that in early adulthood, there is a notable decrease in cases of criminal arrests due to the following reasons: at this level majority of the people have acquired reliable sources of material goods and entertainment, decent job, credit, and mature sex life (Gaines & Miller, 2008). In early adulthood, there is an age-graded rule whereby, in the external environment a person is expected to act maturely and responsibly, while in the internal environment one is looking forward to taking over the adult roles and setting a good example to the young siblings. Thirdly, in this stage, there is an issue of peer association whereby the idea of interaction of people of the same sex and same age is discouraged. Instead, these people are encouraged to interact with persons of the other sex with much knowledge and more maturity.
However, in the early adulthood stage, persons are independent, and in case of any legal or social costs for engagement in crimes, the victim is responsible for his deviant behavior. At the same time, the patterns of illegal occurrences change completely. As these people assume roles of the adults, the opportunities for offenses that are less risky like employee theft or gambling increase. This leads to these young adults getting involved with offenses that are more beneficial and less likely to lead to a conviction.
Informal social controls and full interaction with the society is increased by some factors like; joining the society soon after leaving high school, getting employed and started investing some funds in the society, getting married and celebrating the wedding ceremonies with the community, joining other learning institutions, and interacting with other people, among other activities. Moreover, in early adulthood, one changes his peer associations and way of life that leads to a decrease of opportunities for committing crimes. In addition, when there is an increment of the usual sanctions for law breakage, the potential legal sanctions also increase. The age curves of the age-crime relationship between females and males are very similar according to research done apart from the crime of prostitution (Allen, 2007).
Conclusion
In conclusion, when people are growing and becoming more mature, they develop their analytical skills, and the feelings of being self-centered and selfishness tend to decline. People start getting concerned about other people’s feelings, accepting social values of the community, enjoying social interactions, and start realizing the value of life and the roles to play in it (Allen, 2007). They start viewing their past youthful lifestyle as childish or foolish. When young people are about to enter adulthood, they find it wise to concentrate on making the society strong, as they expand their accessibility to work, acquire more education and skills, and high interest in getting settled develops.
Reference List
Akers, R.L. (2009). Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance. Transaction Publisher.
Allen, C. (2007). Crime, Drugs and Social Theory: A Phenomenological Approach. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Delisi, M. (2005). Career Criminals in Society. SAGE.
The well being of a state in measured not only in terms of economic prosperity but also the physical security which the state can provide to its citizens. The incidence of crime is a very good indicator of the overall development of a state. The State of Virginia, like any other state in the US, has its share of crime. Incidences of crime are usually tabulated in the order of severity; as murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny and motor vehicle theft. This essay examines the nature of crime in the state of Virginia and attempts to outline the causative factors as also possible remedial measures to reduce the crime rate. The essay makes extensive use of data tabulated by the US Disaster Center (quoting FBI uniform Crime Report), and the Virginia Crime Prevention Association (VCPA) websites.
The statistical data of Virginia crime rates for the period 1965 to 2006 published by the Disaster Center provides an insight into the pattern of crime for the state. The murder rate of 8.2 per 100,000 people in 1965 (Disaster Center, 2008), shows a higher than national average till 1974 after which it drops below the national average but maintains closely thereafter as is depicted in the VCPA graph below. Interestingly, in the same period forcible rape shows a consistent increase starting at a figure of 12 in 1965, jumping to double digits, but below 20 from 1964 to 1970. Thereon forcible rape increases significantly to an average above 23 till 1989 wherein it rises yet again into the over 30 mark till 1993. The rates for forcible rape show a decline thereafter but yet are consistently high in the mid 20 figure. However these rates are considerably lower than the national average.
According to the Disaster Center report both murder and rape show a declining trend in Virginia in 2007. The statistics for robbery however show marked spikes over the period 1965-2006. There is a gradual double digit increase starting with 39.9 in 1965 till 1971 wherein it suddenly jumps to triple digits till 1976 with a two year gap in double digits, the rate again picks up to triple digit figure through the 1980s right up to the year 2000 where it drops to double digit figures. This relatively higher incidence of robbery over the period 1970 to 2000 corresponds to lower job opportunities in the state and thus allows for causative interpretation.
Burglary also shows a similar rise and fall which mirrors the trends for robbery. The statistics for aggravated assaults show a consistent triple digit figure ranging from 167 in 1965 to a high of 196.8 in 1992, thereafter tapering off to 152 in 2006. Larceny too follows a similar trend which is slightly lower than the national average. Compared to the overall National Statistics for crime rates, Virginia’s ranking is in the mid 40th highest crime rate. Thus, overall, the state has had a lower crime rate than most of the other states in the US.
Regional Crime Trends in Virginia
Within the state, the distribution of crime showed a distinctive pattern. For the period 2002 to 2006, violent crime viz. murder, forcible rape, robbery and aggravated assault was the lowest in the Northern region and the highest in Hampton Roads. The Department of Criminal Justice Service Virginia, states that the “overall violent crime rate decreased by 2.4% statewide over the same period” (p. 2). However, the West Central region showed the largest percentage increase in violent crime. Property crime rates viz. burglary, larceny and motor vehicle theft also showed the highest increase in Hampton Roads while the Eastern region had the lowest rate.
Northern region scored consistently at being the second lowest. In drug arrests, Hampton Roads yet again registered the highest number of incidences while the Northern region registered the lowest score. The startling percentage increase of 95.1 % in the West Central region points to an overall trend for that region. Thus in the state of Virginia, the safest region points to be the Northern region, Hampton Roads being the most dangerous area to live in and the West Central region slowly but surely catching up with Hampton Roads in registering an increase in criminality. The reasons for criminal behavior in Virginia are many and thus an analysis of the causative factors is required. The Virginia Government website (2008) very clearly brings out the comparison between its regions as is depicted in the graphic below
Causative Factors
Crime occurs because of breakdown of social cohesion in neighborhoods. Criminal behavior is also learnt through association with anti-social elements. Yet other assert that lack of economic opportunity results in the non-realization of the ‘American Dream’ which in turn forces people to a life of crime to compensate for the lack of opportunity. In short, crime had a socio-economic dimension. Others say that socio-economic disparities cause ‘general strain’ which leads to criminal behavior.
The control theory posits that lack of self or social control results in criminal behavior. Developmental theorists opine that crime has developmental causes that progresses from before birth right through a criminals’ life where the environment plays an important role in determining whether the individual can escape from a life of crime or not. Some others take an integrated approach wherein the basic postulates of some of the theories are put together to explain that criminal behavior occurs in a sequential manner. Nonetheless, it can be safely surmised that the main causative factor for crime in the State of Virginia could be attributable to social disorganization and lack of sufficient socio-economic opportunities.
Crum (2003) in his study of Virginia crime analysis has found that “Often, individuals, especially in West Virginia, are employed but have very low paying jobs, causing economic strain and hardship, which could possibly lead to increased crime and deviance” (p. 32). There is a direct correlation between poor economic conditions and crime rates as the Virginia State Police statistics suggest that “property crime rates rose the year after the 2001 recession and then fell in 2003” (King, 2009, para 7). The Northern region’s low crime rate is attributable to lower unemployment figures than Hampton Roads. Yet others point out that crime rates in Virginia are highest in areas of low population densities than in areas of high population densities.
Remedial Measures
In the fast paced world with its competing demands for time is taking its toll on the traditional family as a cohesive social unit. Increasing coercive measures against teenagers and young adults is usually counterproductive. Therefore, it is better to employ more humane methods of law enforcement than just plain policing. In case of the younger adults and teenagers, “early interventions to divert individuals from offending have been found to be one of the most effective types of intervention overall” (Rubin, Rabinovich, & Hallsworth, 2006, p. 11).
By early intervention, the community, the Police and the social workers identify the vulnerable individuals who are most likely to take up a life of crime. Having identified such individuals, the community then puts into place measures to prevent those individuals from falling wayside by providing them education, jobs and other avenues to utilize their energies.
The concept of ‘Restorative Justice’ in which the offender, the victim, their families, the community and the police, all are involved in the rehabilitative process is yet another method available. Improving the health of disadvantaged children and providing social and economic stability to such families would help in reduce crime. Therefore, community work and community building alongside policing is the best way ahead. Holistic protection of neighborhoods by providing better street lighting, installing surveillance cameras and maintaining regular routine patrols also helps bringing down crime.
In conclusion it can be said that the state of Virginia fares better than most American states in the rates of crimes committed. Graphical analysis shows that the general pattern of crime rate in Virginia is similar to the national average albeit on a lower scale. Amongst the regions in Virginia, Hampton Roads is the most crime ridden while the Northern region is the least. This difference in crime rates could be because better job opportunities are available in the Northern region than in Hampton Roads. The basic causative factors are socio-economic and the Government of Virginia fully understands the importance of progressing developmental activities and job creation to reduce the overall state crime rates.
Works Cited
Crum, B. (2003). Social Disorganization Theory and Crime in West Virginia. Web.
Department of Criminal Justice Services. (n.d.). Regional Crime Trends in Virginia, 2002-2006. Web.
Disaster Center. (2008). Virginia Crime Rates 1960-2007. Web.
Government of Virginia. (2009). Crime. Web.
King, L. (2009). Statistics Point to Increase in Crime During Recessions. Web.
Rubin, J., Rabinovich, L., & Hallsworth, M. a. (2006). Intervention to Redice Antisocial Behaviour and Crime. Web.
Virginia Crime Prevention Association. (n.d.). Crime Trends in Virginia 1965-2006. Web.
Prevention of crime is a special kind of social control
One of the main functions of the state is to fight against crime and its eradication.
In criminology, crime prevention refers to a wide range of interrelated mentioned activities conducted by public authorities and the public in order to eliminate of and address the causes of its generators. However, to date there is no single view of the fact whether the notion of «prevention» Crime Prevention to the phenomenon.
Crime is directly related to the causes and conditions contributing to it. Crime Prevention is designed to provide appropriate effect on these causes and conditions, so that, on the one hand, prevent them, but on the other – to halt or reverse the impact of the crime of those who have not yet been able to solve.
Prevention of crime is a special kind of social control to ensure the security of a legally protected property and is the development and implementation of targeted actions to identify and eliminate the causes of crime, the conditions conducive to such an act, as well as the provision of preventive effects on those who are likely to wrongful conduct.
Crime prevention and family
Speaking about crime prevention it is worth saying that family is very important in this process. Everything begins from family. Many families meet the important problems in upbringing children. Especially these problems are obvious in transferring period: children – young people. Mostly it is connected with the pubertal period. At this age people experience some serious changes in their psychology and physical state.
The psychological and physical developments are very frequent and that is why young people are always anxious and it is very difficult for them to make the decisions. On the other hand young people at that age begin to feel that they need respect from the side of their parents and peers. They want their parents to conduct them as full-fledged persons. At the same time the interests of young people are not in the frames of their family any more, they meet new people and enter society independently. Taking into account everything that was mentioned above it is worth concluding that young people demand much attention from the side of their family at that time.
It is the very time when parents should have a great impact on their children in order to achieve success in the relationship between them. Parents should understand the demands of their children, their spiritual needs. The most successful variant of upbringing is establishing good, human and emotional relationship between generations. The members of family complete each other and need attention. Only if their feelings towards each other are sincere, the stable and good relationship is possible. (Washton, 1991)
Family is very important in the process of the relapse prevention among youth.
There are many socio-cultural factors that cause the drug addiction. The most noticeable factor is the communication with people who had some experience of drugs taking. Such people are real and serious danger for youth. Usually young people trust their friends who have experienced drugs taking and they believe that it is really as good as they are told about. Sometimes people do not believe that drugs are impossible to give up and young people do not consider themselves to be serious drug-takers (Tucke, 2001).
How to improve the situation
To prevent theft crimes people should not make their dwelling available for the burglars. Very of ten it is possible to see when people make their dwellings beautiful but now safe enough. I think that people can organize community responsible for patrolling the area. I think that it can be appropriate to organize neighborhood community and to look after neighbor’s house. Some people are passive and indifferent and they do not call police when they see something strange close to the house of their neighbor.
As for businessmen the can support the communities and sponsor some projects. And by the way it can be a good business to organize such a company for patrolling the area.
Government can make everything possible for permitting such communities and companies to appear. In addition it can act together with the criminal justice system, passing the appropriate laws and acts.
So, to prevent crime government should pay more attention to social work in order to define the characteristic features of criminals. Great attention should be paid to this problem at schools and colleges. It is very important to increase the fines for the traffic violations and to take some special measures like imprisonment to punish criminals for alcohol taking while driving.
Crime is a social phenomena, it is necessary to assume that a successful fight against it may be only when the approach to it will be complex, both in its study, and in the development of preventive measures. The fight against crime in a broad social plane (in Criminology is, first of all, connected with the idea of prevention of crime) is the use of economic, social, cultural, educational, and finally legal. In doing so, it is clear that the political atmosphere in the society is something that could wipe out all forms and methods of management company, to bring them to chaos and collapse, or, conversely, lead to stabilization of the public (and public) of the organism.
By the types of crime prevention include (Lab, 2007): a) development and improvement of economic relations, technological processes and production equipment – industrial, agricultural, that is inextricably linked to improving the standard of living and material well-being of people, b) increasing the level of culture in society, improve their education, hence, education, the establishment of moral beliefs, based on all that the best that humanity has accumulated in this field over the entire period of its development. These measures, of course, are not directly aimed at combating crime.
References
Lab Steven P. , Crime Prevention: Approaches, Practices and Evaluations, 6th Edition, LexisNexis / Anderson; Sixth Edition edition, 2007.
Sutton Adam , Cherney Adrian , White Rob , Crime Prevention: Principles, Perspectives and Practices, Cambridge University Press; 1 edition, 2008.
Champion Dean J. , Crime Prevention in America, Prentice Hall; 1 edition, 2006.
Tucker Jalie A. , Donovan Dennis M. , Marlatt G. Alan, Changing Addictive Behavior: Bridging Clinical and Public Health Strategies, The Guilford Press; New Ed edition (2001).
Washton Arnold M., Cocaine Addiction: treatment, recovery, and relapse prevention , W. W. Norton & Company, 1991.
Criminality in individuals of all cultural and economic backgrounds is traceable to a pint of trigger or beginning. Gender causes of criminal acts are often intense at early adulthood when individuals compete for marriage mates and realize their sexuality. In addition, certain challenges of upbringing, social class, neighborhood culture with regard to crime as well as peer groupings in many cases influence nature and intensity of crime.
Crime happens within social and economic situations in the life of individuals, criminal orientation has a socialization aspect in the sense individual attempts of crime appear in a gradual sequence, minor crime attempts precede major crime attempts. In the process of maturation in crime individuals could be intercepted and corrected (Francis et al, 2006). Counseling and other soft interventions could be employed to address less serious involvements as more restrictive approaches used to punish severe crime.
Criminal attempts among young males and adolescent youth are mainly motivated by material gain, particularly as a result of challenges of inferiority within neighborhoods. Since young male adults are challenged on many frontiers they have a tendency and willpower to overcome their circumstances, prove heroic and end up deviants (Messerschmidt, 1986).
Role modeling after criminal characters in the society and media promote crime. Adequate regulation of media is important particularly during times of heightened crime incidences as during holidays, in less secure residential zones and crime hot-spots. Moreover, social institutions as schools often are breeding grounds for negative influence through the curriculum content and extracurricular activities.
Challenges, intervention and the detrimental effects of criminality
The family unit is often an important controlling and regulating institution for the socialization and character formation of its members in many aspects. At the onset of criminal orientation, mentorship as well as guidance and counseling are adequate enough to achieve adequate corrective measures (William et al, 2003).
The influences in the media of representing certain criminal actions as heroic or advertisement of liquor with false impressions of humanity above real circumstances could be checked (Francis et al, 2006). Films as well as books of fiction embodying aggressive opinions and characterization are potential source of crime motivation. Socio-economic structure of the society also may promote crime due to cultural determinism.
Crimes particularly arising along gender causes are in the manners of biological causes, that is a woman would engage in crime to acquire food to feed the children, emotional instability during menstruation, of between spouses who feel abused of infidelity grounds from the partners (William et al, 2003). Marriage counseling would address such deviance. In addition, equitable macro-welfare schemes promote healthy living and minimize deviance.
Encounter with terror or physical abuse within the family may influence violence among growing up individuals (Walker, 2005). Moreover, socialization involves the development of self identity, expectations and goals in life. This is often a delicate process in the manner that overregulation may hinder proper development; on the other hand, little control may yield criminal orientation.
The grave challenges that arise in criminal actions are dependent on the gravity of the crime, authorities, law enforcement, social loss in terms of limited social opportunity, beheaded inter-personal relations and loss of time for gainful employment or for educational advancement among other losses (Walker, 2005). When one is put under arrest, there is often punishment with lead to loss of personal comfort. In addition, criminal attempts among young males and adolescent youth are mainly motivated by material gain, particularly as a result of challenges of inferiority within neighborhoods. Since young male adults are challenged.
Role modeling after criminal characters in the society and media enhance criminal orientation in the sense that persons with low self opinions and esteems fall victim of poor role modeling schemes to cope with perceived threats of domination in the competition for chances of association with members of the opposite sex. Such challenges coupled with peer pressure often lead to deviance and escalate to crime (Walker, 2005). Also, social institutions as schools often are breeding grounds for negative influence through the curriculum content and extracurricular activities. It is often experienced that students form associations with peers, some positive and others negative, yet they are important for personality development.
Intervention to curb or minimize negative effects of crime could be institutional or individual; otherwise intervention after criminal offence is often devastating as mob injustice, police shoot out that could be fatal or leading to loss of life. In addition, through the life process, criminality could emerge from various bases of personality development in infancy, social class levels, minority identities; economic power and gender among many other reasons and personal purposes, when analyzed give adequate information of relevant corrective intervention. Also genetic, environmental and experience promote criminal orientation because (Quenney, 2004).
Interventions to curb gender caused crimes
Social arrangements within families can adequately facilitate adequate prevention as well as corrective intervention in predominantly socially regulated families. In circumstances where family bonds are weak, options are open for legal or judicial correction (Messerschmidt, 1986). Moreover, public campaign against crime often yield correction in the manner that they raise levels of sensitivity and awareness of potential targets.
Church and religious organizations could discharge their full functions in society to lessen or discourage criminal tendency, also, a bold grip with deliquesce in society from such organizations tend to socialize the youth in appropriate social role schemes hence minimizing negative and unworthy behavior (Messerschmidt, 1986). Moreover, the structure of inequality and disadvantage in society could be addressed by national planning intervention as well as through adequate legislative intervention. Institutions of the government could be engaged to address specific areas with escalating heights of crime.
Conclusion
The various influences for criminal orientation that base on gender causations are containable within adequate societal arrangements and interventions. The family unit is often in the best position to intervene in the earliest opportunity to counter unacceptable criminal orientation. In addition, society often defines criminal actions as well as proscribes punishment and remedy. In such a context, parties as authorities and non-governmental organizations may have sectarian approaches to control crime (Messerschmidt, 1986).
The discussion here is rich in various potential crime causes. However, the theories relating to gender are incomplete as none presents a holistic explanation. It’s worth noting also that the reality of crime in a society is often hard to describe in macro-level terms (William et al, 2003). Human society and individuals can very hardly tarry to any averaging based on statistics. What exist in reality in terms of interrelations are often individual adaptation schemes amid competing interests and sanctions.
The individual trait differences analyses prove non-existence of criminal traits; rather the traits interact with environmental factors and circumstances yielding a person-situation predicament that leads to crime. Genetic factor influences are currently determinate in explaining criminal acts at least in theory. However, they provide little practical and empirical explanation on their own.
Colleges often are better suited to intervene in mild ways to correct criminal orientation. Moreover, crimes as drug peddling often involve young people as conduits (Francis et al, 2006). More mature criminals often also come around to share their spoil with young girls and prostitutes who cold give information to their hideouts.
The society in its construct however differentiated, often is adequately placed to manage crime because the members all come to some sort of social and economic interaction.
Intervention involving all stakeholders in a functional society could adequately address crime completely (Quenney, 2004). However, it is worth noting that often the society operates chaotically and hence miss the potential to coordinate to eliminate an evil. The chaotic structure is the sole basis of commerce and whose harmonization means the collapse of commerce and rise of crime.
References
Wiliam Bonger (2003). Theories of criminality sexual characteristics, contemporary perspectives and ideation. Anderson Publishing.
Francis T. Cullen and Robert Agnew (2006). Criminological theory Past to present essential reading, 3rd Edition, Roxbury Publishing Company. LA, California.
Walker T. Jeffery and Sean Robert (2005). Maddan Statistics in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Analysis and Interpretation. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Messerschmidt, J. W. (1986). Crime, Patriarchy and Capitalism: Toward a Feminist Socialist Criminology. NJ: Littlefield and Rowman Publishers.
Quenney R. Franc (2004). Contemporary theories of Deviance, Crime and Gender perspectives; schemes of social control. London: Hodder Arnold.
As incidents of crimes are increasing every day, law enforcement agencies and lawyers are using online networks to curtail crimes. For many years now, law enforcement agencies have been using the internet to solve crimes both within and without their boundaries. The purpose of my research is to highlight some of the uses of the internet in solving crime. Much crime occurs offline yet the law enforcing bodies can adequately use the internet to solve such crimes.
Information that appears on popular websites can help police in solving some complex crime issues faster than it was ever thought. With a click of a button, law enforcers can access millions of records with information relating to particular crimes and the crime scene, even without visiting the said area. According to many investigators, the use of the internet has made their job much easier because they can track the activities of would-be suspects without the need for any physical confrontation.
The Internet can be used to carry out crime mapping, this is a strategy used by law enforcement agencies to map and analyze incidents of crimes. It helps analysts of crime to locate crime hot spots and other crime patterns and trends. The Internet has also helped in tracking criminals across the country and around the world. By posting a photo or short clip of a movie of a crime scene on the internet, most internet users are able to get information about certain crimes and then report any suspect they come across, without putting their lives in danger. Further internet has helped to solve crime through fingerprint comparison; by accessing fingerprints databases on the internet police are able to compare known fingerprints from a suspect’s palm and questionable fingerprints to determine whether the two impressions are the same.
In mapping crime, law enforcers use geographical information system (GIS) to locate crime hot spots and other crime-related trends. GIS is a crime mapping application system that captures, stores, and displays information links of a location hence giving vital information on that particular location. Crime maps show where crimes have happened at any location and are then posted on the internet from where police can locate areas prone to crime by just a matter of clicking a button.
Crime record details are recorded on crime mapping websites from where different law enforcement agencies can understand the nature and prevalence of the crime. The discovery of computers has helped in crime mapping by making the accessibility of information easier. Using the GSI crime analysts can easily locate the scene of the crime (visualize crime). This helps police to identify where the crime has taken place and try to understand the pattern if any. By identifying crime hot spots (areas with high crimes occurrence) police can understand better the cause of the crime hence helping the police to devise strategies to help solve the problem.
Again by analyzing the geography of an area, law enforcers are in a position to allocate and send police to emergencies in the fastest and safest way possible. Crime mapping and analysis are used by crime analysts to help police to make decisions, formulate strategies as well as forecast crime trends. Increased use of GIS in crime mapping has made data on crime easily available, where most police agencies are now publishing data on crimes through the internet which has allowed police officers in different areas of the country to get up to date warrants and other records from other law enforcing officials across the nation.
For example; “In 2005, North Carolina law enforcers officials, succeeded in solving crime rates through adopting an integrated justice solution. JusticeXchange, a computerized system, offers police up-to-date access to records, warrants and any other information from other law enforcers across the country.” (Appraiss)
The Internet has provided people with a platform to share and transfer information and data this is because a growing number of people are now using the internet to transact business; legal or illegal By using the same internet, police are in the position to track suspects involved in illegal businesses thereby apprehending them for eventual prosecution. The use of the internet to track criminals is replacing the old methods of pinning photos of wanted criminals on notice boards or newspapers. Police have special websites where they can trace criminal hideouts including their activities; for example, lately, law enforcers have resorted to using websites such as Myspace and YouTube to catch criminals.
The law enforcers have got their own sides in these popular websites where they broadcast short video clips of crimes committed in a particular region, thereby increasing the possibilities of arresting the offenders. Again by posting footage of security cameras on the internet has helped in nabbing suspected cash-safe crackers. Such websites help crime investigators track gangs of criminals without calling to inquire on a particular crime.
For many decades law enforcement officials have used fingerprints identification around the globe to identify victims of crime as well as the suspected offenders. Traditionally fingerprints have been made through fingerprinting techniques. “The patterns formed by fingerprints are unique to each person and do not change over along time: they are never the same even for identical twins.” (Barnard) Since computers have replaced the manual filing of fingerprints records, law enforcement officials have developed fingerprints identification software and databases to hold fingerprints records of millions of criminal suspects and billions of civil (non-criminals) fingerprints records.
In the forensic science, fingerprints obtained from the crime scenes or on materials used as evidence from a crime, are used to identify suspects and victims. Having such unique qualities it is easier to use fingerprints to solve crimes. The system of fingerprint identification has been very important for crime analysts since the beginning of the 19th century. Now with fingerprints from crime scenes, crime analysts compare those prints with known prints to find out whether they have any similarities.
The interconnectivity nature of modern society has led to linking of fingerprints databases via internet for easy referencing. With the readily availability of internet, police are able to retrieve many data bases on civil fingerprints so as to make comparisons. A crime analyst in Chicago investigating a certain crime will not have to travel to get fingerprints records from the Intelligence center which would be cumbersome and time wasting; however by just click of a button he/she can get access to millions of fingerprints from the website of the intelligence center.
There is no doubt that the use of internet in crime solving has helped a lot in reducing crime rates. The interconnectivity nature of modern society has in deed eased information and data sharing around the globe. Through the use of most populous websites both international and local law enforcement agencies have succeeded in tracking and arresting criminals and then bringing them to justice.
In conclusion it is quite evident that the advent of the internet has heralded a new dimension in a faster and convenient way of solving crime. So much energy and money is saved by using the internet; unfortunately cases of cyber crime are evolving and increasing by the day.
Works Cited
Appraiss, 2008, North Carolina Law Enforcement Finds Success in Tracking Crime Suspects. Web.
Robert Courtney was a pharmacist who operated in Kansas City. He was widely known as “Research Medical Tower Pharmacy.” Robert, dressed in a lab coat, had a white table under which he mixed powders and creams to create diluted medications from scratch. Toxins were diluted and then mixed carefully to create saline solutions. The solutions were then offered to clients as cancer medication.
Patients came with their prescriptions, and Robert prepared their dosages. Some patients, such as Chelson, were convinced that they were overcoming cancer as they did not experience the side effects of the medication offered by Robert. Others noticed that the pharmacist was careless and at times gave them half-full syringes. About two months before his arrest, the pharmacist had a gross income of 48,000 dollars. In addition, he owned assets worth 18.7 million dollars (Draper, 2003).
The case
Lawsuitswere filed against Robert Courtney by patients and their loved ones after realizing that they were tricked into purchasing diluted solutions as medication. This medication did not heal them but only made their conditions worse. According to the law enforcement records, 4,200 patients were estimated to have been offered the adulterated medication by Courtney. Patients and their relatives and friends accused Robert during the sentencing, and he did not deny any of the statements. He just mumbled that he could not explain his actions.
In this case, stakeholders included the patients affected, their loved ones, and Robert. The people in the pharmaceutical field could not explain how Robert could sell his drugs. His case was a novel abomination that had never been heard before. He was sentenced to thirty years in prison (Draper, 2003).
In Robert’s case, he did not have an explanation for his actions. The rules of discovery were used, and information was obtained from the testimonies and documentation that was available. The use of an alternative dispute resolution would have enabled the grim-faced patients to understand why Robert knowingly gave them the wrong medication (Weiss, 1999). ADR would have also offered an alternative for patients to have several adjudications in which they would have determined the level of sentencing that best suited Robert.
Victim-offender sessions gave the offenders an opportunity to hear the victims’ story. That presented the offender a chance to understand the impact that the offence had on the victim. This also gave the community members a chance to deliberate on the effects of the crime and identify the underlying issues for them to promote healing. For instance, Robert would have been ordered to make restitution for patients who had developed adverse effects after taking the wrong medication. ADR does not limit itself to civil litigation but offers restorative justice in which the offenders and the victims are addressed. This would have been applicable to help those victims who had been traumatized by the turn of events (Dunnewold, 2009)
Business Regulation in the US
Robert Courtney’s case is a reflection of how the American Government has done too little in terms of business regulation. Many people had been harmed before the illegal activities of Robert were discovered. Possibly, other patients experienced premature deaths. Robert Courtney was not professionally trained, and his operations were illegal. When his illegal activities had been discovered, he was immediately accused. The patients initiated the discovery. Therefore, a greater damage would have occurred if that case relied solely on the government operations (Cheeseman, 2013).
Conclusion
From the activities that had happened before Robert Courtney was discovered, it is evident that a lot has to be done in business regulation. There should be a reliable system in which illegal operations can be discovered early before they advance to irreversible stages like the case of Robert Courtney.
References
Cheeseman, H.R. (2013). Business law: Legal environment, online commerce, business ethics, and international issues. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
One of the most important tenets of criminal justice is that the punishment given should be commensurate with the seriousness of the crime. In that regard, critics of the three-strikes law argue that it is unfair about the punishment of repeat criminals. On the other hand, opponents of the legislation argue that it is an effective deterrent against crime that offers justice to victims of serious crimes. The three-strikes law is legislation passed in 1994 under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act that provides for the mandatory life sentencing of an offender who has committed a serious felony and whose criminal record includes two crimes. The three-strikes law is not a fair and effective method for deterring crime because it promotes the unfair sentencing of criminals, unsuccessfully discourages crime, and overpopulates prisons.
The Unfair Sentencing of Criminals
The main reason for the enactment of the legislation was to send dangerous criminals to prison to improve the safety of people in communities. It was aimed at criminals who were at the greatest risk of committing serious crimes. However, in certain states, the law does not target only criminals who have committed serious felonies, but also those who commit misdemeanors (Neubauer & Fradella, 2017). For example, in the state of California, instances of mandatory life sentences for misdemeanors have been reported. According to statistics, 59% of offenders in prison are arrested for minor crimes (Neubauer & Fradella, 2017). It is unfair for an offender to be given a life sentence for a misdemeanor. The three-strikes legislation is also unreasonable because it does not allow for individual variability about the third-time crime (Cole, Smith, & DeJong, 2016). The standardized sentencing provided by the legislation does not treat third strikes individually but generally. The only requirement for the mandatory sentencing is for a criminal to be found guilty. Some offenders have been sentenced to more than 20 years in prison for possessing a small quantity of an illegal drug.
The law promotes injustice in cases that involve young criminals and victimless crimes. Young offenders who have been convicted of previous crimes involving misdemeanors are treated unjustly when they are given a life sentence for third strike incarceration (Neubauer & Fradella, 2017). In many cases, juvenile offenders engage in criminal activities because they are not mature enough to make responsible decisions. Factors such as domestic violence and physical abuse push them into a life of crime. The criminal justice system does not consider the circumstances under which young people commit certain crimes such as shoplifting, vandalism, and trespass (Kelly, 2015). In other cases, some convicted criminals are wrongfully incarcerated. They might be law-abiding citizens, but because of their previous criminal records, they are tried under the three-strikes law and given harsh sentences. It is unfair to give a life sentence to an individual for a misdemeanor simply because they have been previously convicted on two instances (Neubauer & Fradella, 2017). The law is unjust because it authorizes county prosecutors to decide the individuals who are eligible for a life sentence. Also, they contain a provision that allows minor crimes to trigger a third strike, and so, carry a life sentence or a minimum prison term of 25 years without parole (Cole et al., 2016). For example, Leandro Andrade was given a life sentence for stealing videotapes from Kmart. The verdict was harsh because parole would be given after 50 years.
Unsuccessful Deterrence against Crime
Government statistics and research studies have shown that the three-strikes legislation is not an effective method for deterring crime. For example, since the implementation of the law in California, statistics show that violent crime has increased significantly (Cole et al., 2016). A report released by the Centers on Juvenile and Criminal Justice revealed that the law was ineffective in deterring crime. The findings of the study suggested that crime rates were on a downward trend even before the three strikes law was enacted in 1994 (Kelly, 2015). The study was conducted by sociology professor Robert Nash Parker. The study titled “Why California’s ‘Three Strikes’ Fails as crime and Economic policy, and What to Do,” was published in the California Journal of Politics and Policy. California has the toughest three strikes law in the US. Offenders with prior records of serious felonies are given a minimum sentence of 25 years to life for the third strike (Kelly, 2015). The study included a survey that showed that violent crimes were reduced by a similar rate in all states regardless of whether they had the legislation or not (Kelly, 2015).
Proponents of the three-strikes legislation argue that the law deters crime because of the life sentence threat they offer especially to repeat offenders. However, studies have shown that prior arrests and convictions, as well as the life sentence threat, do not change the behavior of offenders (Cole et al., 2016). Criminals do not refrain from crime because of the fear of being caught (Kelly, 2015). The aforementioned study concluded that the reduction in violent crimes was caused by a decline in alcohol consumption. They argued that it is illogical to advocate for the continuance of the three-strikes legislation because it deters crime. They recommended the implementation of more stringent policies to curb alcohol consumption in California to lower the rates of violent crime (Kelly, 2015).
Overpopulation of Prisons
Statistics have shown that the rates of incarceration in the United States are very high relative to its population. The US accounts for 5% of the world’s population and 25% of the global prison population (Kelly, 2015). Crime rates have dropped in the US in the last two decades. However, the population of prisons has increased significantly. This increase can be attributed to the enactment of tough laws such as the three strikes that give harsh sentences for minor crimes (Welsh & Harris, 2016). The US prison system is overcrowded and expensive to run. The three-strikes legislation adds more prisoners to the system, regardless of the situation. Keeping a prisoner in jail for life is expensive, and states are spending large amounts of taxpayers’ money to fund the prison system even though some prisoners do not deserve to be in prison (Yezer, 2014). Many states are looking for ways to reduce their prison populations to lower the costs of housing life-sentence prisoners. Some are considering pursuing less costly alternative rehabilitation methods. The three-strikes law increases the prison population because it is ineffective at deterring crime.
The US spends about $70 billion on the prison system, which represents a forty percent increase in the last two decades (Yezer, 2014). This is proof enough that the enactment of the three-strikes law did not reduce crime. Another important factor that supports the argument that the law is ineffective is the rate of recidivism. According to the Bureau of Statistics, the rate of recidivism is as high as 43% (Neubauer & Fradella, 2017). For instance, in 2005, the rate of recidivism was 68percent. Increased cases of violence have been reported in jails as well as the proliferation of gangs. The justice system has focused its resources on locking up offenders rather than rehabilitating them to ensure that they do not turn back to crime after their release (Neubauer & Fradella, 2017).
Conclusion
The three-strikes law was enacted in 1994 under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act. The goal was to lower crime rates by discouraging habitual criminals from engaging in crime. However, research has shown that the legislation has been ineffective in the achievement of that goal. The prison population has grown tremendously and the decrease in crime observed has been attributed to a decrease in alcohol consumption. The legislation is unfair because some criminals who are incarcerated for misdemeanors may qualify for a life sentence under the three-strikes law. The justice system does not treat cases individually even though it should. The provisions of the legislation allow a misdemeanor to trigger a life sentence. The law does not deter crime because it does not compel repeat criminals to change their behavior because of its life-sentence threat and the fear of getting caught. Moreover, crime rates were on a downward trend before the laws were implemented.
References
Cole, G. F., Smith, C. E., & DeJong, C. (2016). Criminal justice in America (9th ed.). New York, NY: Cengage Learning.
Kelly, W. R. (2015). Criminal justice system at the crossroads: Transforming crime and punishment. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Neubauer, D. W., & Fradella, H. F. (2017). America’s courts and the criminal justice system (13th ed.). New York, NY: Cengage.
Welsh, W. N., & Harris, P. W. (2016). Criminal justice policy and planning: Planned change (5th ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Yezer, A. M. (2014). Economics of crime and enforcement. New York, NY: M. E.Sharpe.