Category: Crime

Introduction

A social theory is a correlation of principles in helping to understand social life. These theories are meant to be used as models to explain human behavior in relation to other forces. The frameworks in which the social theories are applied are founded on quantifiable social facts which can be tested scientifically.

It is the role of criminological theorists to collect data, build a hypothesis and eventually put them to test empirically. For a social theory to be valid, the hypothesis stipulated should be in line with research data. Innovative methods are sometimes used by criminal theorists to evaluate the validity of a social theory.

For instance criminologists could compare the effect of adding enforcement party in a particular field such as the National Hockey League. As the referees are increased in the field the number of penalties decreases. This could be compared to the crime sector where increasing the number of police decreases the crime rate in a given area (Siegel, 2009).

Disorganization theory

The theory deals with the surroundings in urban life in relation to rates of crime. The urban environment may be somewhat disorganized since the social entities such as schools, businesses and family setups are not discrete hence fail to function as required. Lack of jobs, inadequate schooling, poor housing, low earnings, and high number of illegitimate children characterize the state of social disorganization.

Those living under such conditions go through conflicts and desperation which leads to engagement in antisocial activities (Siegel, 2009). Gang violence results from such a set up where the rising cost of urban life dictates engagement in such activities as commercial prostitution.

Strain theory

According to Siegel, “strain theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals which people have and the means they can use to obtain them legally” (2009). For instance, many people aspire to acquire wealth, fame and power although their capabilities depends on class and those of lower class struggle to acquire their desires conventionally. As a result, they are filled with frustration, desperations and prejudice or what is described as strain.

They either become socially responsible by learning to live under their state or else could opt to engage in other socially unacceptable ways to acquire their desires e.g. through burglary, drug cartels or other violent activities just like in the disorganization theory (2009).

Cultural Deviance

This theory incorporates the strain theory as well as the social disorganization it points out that as a result of strain and societal segregation there is a particular culture that establishes for the low income earners in the disorganized setups. Therefore, specific aspects of this culture contradict with the ordinary social norms.

Criminal behavior accelerates in this neighborhood which is a way to conform to their practices and not a way to rebel from the societal norms. These practices are reflected into the upcoming generations through cultural transmissions (Siegel, 2009). In disorganized social setups, juveniles acquire criminal practices when they associate with gang members or even their older family members.

As a result, criminal traditions are retained in these social setups and even continue reinforcing them by mastering the art. The criminal traditions compete with the accepted social norms and outdo them thus the morally degraded practice is handed over from one generation to the next.

There is coherence in the practices in the disorganized neighborhoods and young children readily learn them as they interact socially thus high rates of gang violence. On the other hand, organized areas are characterized by convectional practices and are somehow insulated from external influence (Lillly et al, 2011).

Differential Association

The theory was proposed by Edwin Sutherland to point out the diffusion of delinquency. He stated that criminal activities are learnt in a social context. Individuals learn moral or immoral acts as they intimately interact with other individuals who belong to a particular group.

As learning occurs, there is transmission of immoral behaviors from the immoral persons and given the opportunity, an individual has a choice to act as such ( Winfree & Abadinsky, 2010). The theory emphasizes that those people conversant with the law are more likely to engage in criminal acts.

According to the theory, illegal behaviors are learnt in a similar way as learning of any other social behavior. Therefore criminal behavior expresses general requirements and principles hence, is wrong to conclude that criminal behavior such as gang violence results from general requirements and principles (Payne, 2005).

Techniques of Neutralization

According to Hagan, techniques of neutralization “refer to rationalizations or excuses that juveniles use to neutralize responsibility for deviant actions. In drift situations offenders can lessen their responsibility by exaggerating normal legal defenses (for example, shelf-defense or insanity) or by pointing to the subterranean values prevalent in the society” (2010).

They include; rejection of accountability e.g. where an offender appeals on family issues, economic constrains among others. The offender may also reject having done harm to someone for instance, by stating that taking drugs only harms him and others should not be concerned.

Another way of expressing techniques of neutralization is refusing to accept an offence since the assault was subjected to another criminal and thus was justified. It could also take the form where an offender condemns the legal system for instance by ascertaining that the judicial system is highly corrupt and is not worth to execute any judgment.

Finally, an offender may as well appeal to the judicial system claiming that he committed the crime to defend a gang or other people nearby (Hagan, 2010).

Social Bond Theory

The theory was put forward by Travis Hirschi and points out that delinquency occur if an individual’s bonds to a social entity deteriorate which declines the stake of the individual to conform. People conform to social norms because they fear that failure to do so may break the relationships with the society.

They thus are forced to conform not due to the legal inflictions that may arise but because they want to retain their image as required by the friends, peers, and family. The societal bonds comprise “attachment, commitment, involvement and belief” (Hagan, 2010).

Attachment is the bond towards significant institutions and other people. For instance, if an individual poorly relates to the family members, the character growth may be impaired and if there is poor relationship with a social institution such as a school, delinquency develops.

Commitment means the level of maintaining attention to the social-economic entity. If a person highly regards his position in the society or his career, there is a less likelihood for him being involved in crime.

Involvement encompasses being a contributor in rightful leisure and communal activities that consumes most of personal time thus, less chances to be involved in crime and therefore an individual preserves the personal image. Lastly, belief is the society’s ordinary practices stipulated by the law. These factors are dependent upon an individual’s exercise of freewill (Hagan, 2010).

Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)

The theory explains the origin of continued delinquent actions as the societal communications and encounters similar to social bond theory. Therefore, illegal engagements are stipulated by social spectators’ reaction as opposed to the ethical substance of the unlawful operation.

The society may label an individual negatively and thus the judicial system as well. The person labeled is stigmatized and the society responds negatively which accelerates the immoral behavior of the person. Publicly revealing an act and labeling it delinquent causes the person to proceed with the deeds since he internalizes the traits that others anticipate of him (Laura & Zilney, 2009).

For instance, a young boy is termed as delinquent because he is defined by others as such and not because he acted unlawfully. This means that an act becomes delinquent due to the fact that others view it as ethically incorrect (Siegel & Welsh, 2009).

References

Hagan, F.E. (2010). Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior.7 Ed. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Laura J. Z and Zilney L. A. (2009). Perverts and predators: the making of sexual offending laws. United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Lilly, R. J., Cullen F. T, and Ball R.A. (2011). Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences. 5 Ed. California: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Payne, K.B. (2005). Crime and elder abuse: an integrated perspective. 2 Ed. Illinois: Charles C Thomas Publisher.

Siegel, L. J. (2009). Criminology: Theories, Patterns and, Typologies.10 Ed. Belmont: Thomson Learning, Inc.

Siegel, L. J. and Welsh B. C. (2009). Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Practice, and Law. Belmont: Cengage Learning.

Winfree, L. T. Abadinsky, H. (2010). Understanding Crime: Essentials of Criminological Theory. 3 Ed. Belmont: Cengage Learning

Introduction

Crime can be said to exist for many reasons. Some argue it is a natural part of life that will occur under nearly any circumstances while others argue that it can be controlled or all but eliminated by employing certain structures within society (Hickey, 2007). While it is commonly advised to make a clear distinction between deviance and crime, the same underlying principle that deviance aids in affirming the standards and values of society hold true to crime in the practical sense for all practical purposes. Philosophically this is the equivalent of saying that without evil one would not recognize good, and while this is evident in the criminal world and the world of law, it only provides some explanation as to why crime actually exists on a tangible level. While crime does in fact seem to reaffirm values and may occasionally assist in social changes, it is not rational or logical to claim that this is actually why it exists. This is the reverse of cause-and-effect thinking, and thus faulty. Needs for change in social norms may cause crime, and while these may be recognized the claim cannot be extended that crime is there waiting to help us see what needs to change. Criminals do not exist as harbingers of change waiting to reveal the truths of social existence. Statistics may be analyzed in such a way that similar conclusions can be drawn, however again this is not evidence that crime actually exists to help with changes that need to be made. Claiming that it exists to show us the positive values are in fact positive is on the same order of faultiness with regards to logic.

Possible reasoning

Many people have been trying to explain crime and find the reasoning behind it, while many philosophers and other theorists offer various explanations as to why crimes are committed. American society is based on social control, as are many other societies in modern times. Laws exist and are enforced on many levels on a constant basis. Police, lawyers, judges, and many other people function for the sole purpose of maintaining a level of social control. Society decides what is criminal and what is not, while many acts which are considered crimes by society can be twisted to be seen as either justifiable or even a fair or proper course of action for philosophical ideals such as revenge or other issues of equality. While many scientists have attempted to find genetic differences in criminals, nothing has been found as of yet which offers a sound and thorough explanation which is applicable to all or even the majority of criminals. Most studies have focused more on the environmental effects of society to drive people to commit a crime, and while this provides insight into a high number of statistics, it does provide answers on a general or fundamental level (SH, 2008). Psychological profiling has been attempted on a wide scale only to find a large number of people who have been convicted of crimes are psychologically “normal.” Some suggest that while society shares a common view of what is and is not acceptable, people will always be testing the level in this respect for the same reasons a child tests the boundaries of his parent, for the simple sake of analysis and understanding while providing themselves with a maximum amount of freedom and personal gain (SH, 2008). This has not been proven to be true nor is likely to be able to be proven to be true, but is highly regarded in theory.

Conclusion

Ultimately, there is no universal and wholly accepted reason for why crime exists. The question is ultimately too general, and while moral norms are reaffirmed and social changes are incited in some cases, these were the end results of the crime and not the underlying causes. Crimes are likely committed for every and all reasons formulated by theorists and analysts. It would seem surprising if one specific answer was found for a subject so broad.

References

1. Hickey, T. (2007). Taking Sides: Clashing Views in Crime and Criminology. McGraw-Hill.
2. SH. (2008). Lecture 6: Crime and Deviance.

Introduction

The perception that drug use is associated with crime has reigned not only among sociology researchers but it has also been perpetuated by the media. In addition to social problems, drug use has been associated with harms that are suffered by users. Whereas there is truth in these views, an elaborate look into these views reveal that these associations are mainly a making (more so with specific drugs like heroin) as there is no direction of causality.

In essence the society, through the media and government policies, has come to criminalise drug users and therefore it has become de facto that drug users are criminals. This paper critically examines the views that criminalisation of drug use leads to greater social problems and harms to individuals. The central viewpoint is that it is not an absolute truth that drug use is not an obvious cause of crime.

Certain drugs such as heroin have been historically labelled and associated with crime and therefore concerns of crime associated heroin is deeply rooted in a historical belief that an evidential matter. Carnwath and Smith (2002) point out that there was a widespread use of heroin among male youths belonging to America’s lower class members who dwelt in cities during as the 20^th century set in.

Unfortunately, individuals who usually consumed heroin were already harbouring antisocial tendencies such as prostitution and gambling. On such grounds, it became very easy to create a community of de facto criminals. One of the ungrounded notions was that heroin use would influence men to rape yet the truth is that heroin use leads to low libido (Carnwath & Smith, 2002).

Historically, the association between heroin use and crime has been explained by psychiatrists citing heroin as an addictive substance that leads to impaired reasoning (Carnwath & Smith, 2002). Whereas such an explanation does not shed enough light into this relationship, modern reasoning that heroin and crime are related due to an economic reasoning has not been satisfactory either. This is more due to the fact that researchers fail to consider poly-drug use among criminals thus the contribution of heroin may be exaggerated.

When examining the relationship between drug use and crime, it is important to establish the direction of causality. This is one of the aspects that both researchers and the media fail to do. Stuart (2008) highlights that media as well as governments paint disproportionately the use of certain drugs as the cause of crimes.

For instance, stereotyping heroin users and crack cocaine consumers as risk individuals in terms of crime eventually perpetuates criminal tendencies among such communities since this group of people feel barred from the society.

Whereas this is an aspect of drug use leading to crime, Carnwath & Smith (2002) report that already formed criminals also tend to go for drugs such as heroin thus ruling out drug use as the absolute cause factor for criminal behaviour.

Even in cases where alcohol is well known to cause violence as cited by Winlow and Hall (2006), this relationship is weak since most alcohol users view that violence is an inevitable part of drinking and is its done as “part of the show” (p. 96).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is not easy to absolutely say that drug use leads to crime. There is failure to look at the many factors that may be involved in this relationship some of which include historical labelling of drug users as criminals and disproportional reporting by the media.

It is important to examine the direction of causality before making any conclusion on drug use and crime relationship and also think of crime (such as violence among alcohol users) as an accepted culture by those who drink.

Bibliography

Carnwarth, T. and Smith, I. (2002). Ripping and running: Drug use and crime. In Heroin
Century, London: Routledge.

Taylor, S. (2008). Outside the outsiders: Media representations of drug use. Probation
Journal, 55(4): 369-387.

Winlow, S. & Hall, S. (2006) Alcohol, violence and the drudgery of seeking pleasure. In
Violent Night: Urban Leisure and Contemporary Culture, Oxford, Berg Press, pp. 93-114.

Introduction

White collar crimes are increasingly rampant today and are getting more and more sophisticated each day. These are crimes that are committed by people in respectable occupations in the course of their work. Examples of such crimes are bribery, fraud, forgery, embezzlement, Ponzi schemes, insider trading, computer crime, medical crime, identity theft, counterfeiting, extortion, currency schemes, among others (Green 5).

This discussion will look at Bernie Madoff’s Ponzi scheme, whose revelation stunned many investors who had entrusted him with their savings. A Ponzi scheme is a white collar crime in which the perpetrator encourages people to invest in a business and promises high dividends within a short period of time. The perpetrator does not invest the money but pays dividends to the old investors with the new investors’ money.

The perpetrator lies to the investors that the dividends are the profits generated from their investment. The scheme ends when there are no longer sufficient funds from the new investors to pay the old ones. The perpetrator may also end the investment and take off with the money when he feels that he has amassed enough funds.

Discussion

Bernie Madoff is an American white collar fraudster who swindled a lot of money from many investors through his Ponzi scheme. He owned the firm Bernard L. Madoff Investment Securities LLC, which turned out to be a scam. He formerly worked as the NASDAQ stock market chairman and an investment advisor and stock broker. According to Sarna and Malik (147), Madoff’s Ponzi scheme was the “longest-running and most extensive” in history.

Until his arrest, Madoff was the chairman of his firm, Bernard L. Madoff Investment Securities LLC, which he founded in 1960. He was reported to the authorities by his sons when he confessed to them that the firm was a Ponzi scheme. The 2008 financial crisis had hit his firm hard and he had no more money to pay to the investors.

The estimated amount that he fleeced his investors is sixty five billion dollars. His victims were from all walks of life including celebrities, ordinary investors, banks and charitable trusts. Madoff pleaded guilty to his scandalous crimes in March 2009. The crimes included lying under oath, wire fraud, securities fraud, money laundering, mail fraud, making false statements, making false filings and theft from an employee benefit plan. He was thereafter sentenced to imprisonment.

Bernie Madoff easily deceived his victims for a number of reasons. Firstly, his role in helping to establish NASDAQ stock exchange and his tenure as its chairman elevated his repute. In addition, his victims trusted him because they were able to withdraw their dividends without any delay whenever they wanted to.

In 2000, Harry Markopolos made attempts to expose Madoff’s scheme when he suspected that it was a scam. He reported the matter to the Securities and Exchange Commission officials but no action was taken. He went back with the same claims in 2001, but no proper investigations were carried out. If investigations were done at this time, the Securities and Exchange Commission would have rooted out the Ponzi scheme before it defrauded more people of their hard earned savings (Kotz 61).

Madoff confessed that he never invested his clients’ money but banked it in his personal account and he simply paid them out of the account when they wanted to withdraw. He also said he tried several times to go back to legitimate business but it was not possible to settle the investors’ accounts, and therefore exposure of the scheme was inevitable when he was finally unable to pay the investors.

Madoff claimed that his investment had been legal since its inception, and that he started the Ponzi scheme in the 1990’s, a claim that the investigators doubted as all evidence showed that he started the illegitimate scheme in the 1970’s.

Madoff was arrested on December 11, 2008 where he was charged of committing fraudulent crimes. He paid a bond worth $10 million and was consequently confined under house arrest in his apartment, under strict surveillance. On March 12, 2009, Judge Denny Chin annulled his bail and had him kept in remand at the Metropolitan Correctional Center because he feared that Madoff might evade justice owing to his immense influence, age, and affluence.

Madoff’s attorney’s attempts to have his client released from jail until his sentencing, by filing a petition, did not succeed as the court rejected the appeal. The lawyer further sent a letter to the judge urging him to give Madoff a 12 years’ sentence since his lifespan was envisaged to be 13 years, a request that the judge turned down. Madoff was ordered to surrender his assets amounting to $170 million. His wife’s assets, worth $85 million were also ordered to be seized.

On June 29, 2009, Madoff got a prison sentence of 150 years, from Judge Denny Chin; although his lawyers were pushing for a shorter sentence citing his old age (he was seventy one years old at the time of the sentencing). This long sentence ensured that Madoff could not be confined in a minimum security prison.

After the sentence, Madoff asked for forgiveness from his victims, though he said he knew that his apology would not help them. Madoff’s firm has been liquidated under the direction of Irving Picard and the victims of the scam have started getting their money back. The recovered money is divided among all the investors though it is not likely for them to get all their money back.

According to Barlow and Decker (198), white collar and street crimes are similar in that they both cause harm, be it emotional, physical or financial, to the victims. However, they differ in a number of ways. White collar crimes involve the selling of lawful products through unlawful practices like misappropriating funds, bribery, among others.

On the other hand, street crime includes robbery, murder, assault, theft, among others. In addition to that, street crimes are of a violent nature while white collar crimes are not. The perpetrators of street crime are usually of a low socio-economic class while white collar crime perpetrators are employed professionals usually with a glowing career reputation.

Although white collar crimes are more costly, they are not as strictly handled as the street crimes. Some of the reasons include the fact that white collar crime perpetrators are wealthy and can therefore hire the finest lawyers for their cases. In addition, very few agencies are concerned with investigating white collar crime.

The society views white collar crimes as causing less harm than street crimes because the former are not violent. Perpetrators of street crime however use violence and brutal force, and sometimes even murder their victims.

Normally, street crime perpetrators are confined in maximum security prisons because they are considered a serious threat to the safety of the citizens, while their white collar counterparts end up in minimum security ones. In addition, the penalties differ, with those for white collar crimes being lighter than those of street crimes.

White collar perpetrators get light penalties such as fines, community service or probation, while street crime offenders get very harsh sentences. (Gonzales par 5). However, recently, white collar criminals are getting very severe sentences, like imprisonment for long periods of time. For instance, white collar perpetrator Bernie Madoff got a prison sentence of 150 years. Many felt that this was a well-deserved punishment since he fleeced many people and organizations of their life time savings.

Conclusion

White collar crime is a trend that is increasingly taking root in our society. It is a fairly hard crime to detect and this calls for investors to be exceedingly careful when investing their money, lest they lose it to blatant fraudsters. Signs to look out for in a Ponzi scheme include promises of high returns on a low investment, minimizing withdrawals with promises of even higher returns, and problems in paying proceeds to the investors when the investment slows down, among others.

Investors should be wary of investment schemes, especially ones that seem too good to be true. The above discussion has looked at the concept of white collar crime, and particularly at the Bernie Madoff’s case. Comparison has also been made between white collar and street crimes to establish whether these two crimes should be classified together or whether they are disparate.

Works Cited

Barlow, Hugh, and Decker Scott. Criminology and Public Policy: Putting Theory to Work. USA: Temple University Press, 2010. Print

Gonzales, Joe. “White Collar Crime – Guide to White Collar Crimes Law.” Hg.org, 1995. 12 Oct. 2011. <https://www.hg.org/white-collar-crime.html>

Green, Stuart. The Concept of White Collar Crime in Law and Legal Theory. Buffalo Criminal Law Review, Vol. 8, No. 1 (April 2004), pp. 1-34

Kotz, David. Investigation of Failure of the SEC to Uncover Bernard Madoff’s Ponzi scheme: Public Version. USA: DIANE Publishing, 2010. Print

Sarna, David, and Malik Andrew. History of Greed: Financial Fraud from Tulip Mania to Bernie Madoff. USA: John Wiley & Sons, 2010. Print

Introduction

Functionalism and Marxism school of thoughts often present conflicting views on the issue of crime and deviance. Marxism views crime and deviant behaviour as emanating from highly dysfunctional capitalistic societies while the functionalists view crime as positively impacting on the existing social system. These two theories approach crime as a broad social phenomenon that is embedded in existing social constructs.

This essay analyzes the ideas held by both Marxists and Functionalist perspectives to crime and deviance and further attempts to apply these concepts in explanation of crime in modern societies. Also, the essay seeks to explain why people commit crimes in reference to a social and political transition, poverty, globalization of crime and state bureaucracy in order to evaluate the most effective conceptual approach to the explanation of crime.

Marxist and Functionalist Perspective on Crime and Deviance

The functionalist theory originated from Emile Durkheim who viewed crime as an inherent and inevitable component in all societies (Stevens 1). Emile Durkheim emphasized the relationship between social structure and social problems and claimed that crime would continue to persist in society as long as the society was functioning normally. The functionalist view holds that crime serves several functions in society inclusive of; criminals acting as social agents of change, drawing attention to social ills persisting in society, labelling social norms among other functions (Vito et al. 145).

In contrast, Marxism views propose that crime results from persistent injustices in the social order which results in oppression and exploitation of the poor consequently triggering criminal activities in the society (Walsh & Hemmens 208). Marxism criminology emphasizes conflict among the socioeconomic classes which has led to the emergence of crime as an expression of the individual struggle against unjust social conditions. Therefore, while the Marxist perspective aims at unveiling the reasons as to why the criminal system is biased towards the ruling class, the functionalists’ perspective seeks to explain why crime is an integral part of a healthy functioning society.

Crime and Transition to Democracy

Political and social transformation is often associated with rising incidences of crime especially when it occurs rapidly causing sudden and unprecedented restructuring of social institutions. The transition to democracy heavily influences the rates of crime as the institutions of social control undergo changes. As a result, new opportunities for the commission of crimes open up leading to increased cases of crime in society.

There exists a very close relationship between politics and crime in South Africa. The rise in crime was especially evident in the 90s when the country was in the process of political transition. The country has further recorded dramatic increases in the number of organized crimes in the region especially in the new democratic order with the country being said to harbour more than four hundred and fifty criminal organizations.

South Africa in Transition

In his conflict theory, Karl Marx argued that class conflict was the major cause of crime in society. This theory stands in the case of South Africa, where during the colonial period when race domination was a major force in the society, apartheid offences were considered as crimes and those who engaged in the struggle justified their violent means as the only available weapon against the oppressive system. The struggle for equality stirred in the society which led to increased acquisition of weapons which were used in addressing other disputes not necessarily relating to political oppression. Consequently, violence in South Africa became widespread and was used to acquire both political and personal aims.

The functionalist perspective views crime as serving several functions in society, the case of South Africa is a clear demonstration of how crime draws attention to social ills prevailing in the society consequently leading to social change. The continuous struggle and demonstrations coupled with the use of violence led to the country’s independence in 1994 and the termination of apartheid.

Poverty and Crime

Views from Marxism holds economic disproportion as the key force that drives humanity where those endowed with resources continuously make use of those who own limited resources (using their power to influence society’s perception and definition of crime). The constant struggle for power and resources often results in crime which persists due to protection of the powerful and oppression of members of lower social status.

Since the capitalist societies promote interests of the powerful in society, its institutions serve the same purpose which explains why the criminal justice system continues to protect the rich by incriminating those who threaten their interests. This argument is valid in modern society where there is a considerable difference between the treatment of street criminals and corporate crime suspects. Stealing goods of less value is often treated more harshly than corporate fraud which may have caused a lot of losses.

The functionalist perspective holds that human beings are selfish by nature and they would use any means in order to achieve their objectives. However, Durkheim argues that such desires would be capped or controlled to avoid conflict of interests in society. The argument that crime is inevitable in the society may provide an explanation as to why the less fortunate engage in crime in order to draw attention to the existing social inequality. According to functionalists, each society has shared norms and values which defines it. Consequently, it can be argued that poor people have been socialized into crime as a means of liberating themselves from an undesirable social situation.

Globalization of Crime and State Bureaucracy

With advanced technology and improved communication means, a commission of a crime on an international level has been simplified. In addition, economic power and political influence have facilitated the emergence of organized transnational crime groups which threaten the stability of international institutions. Transnational organized crime groups enrich themselves through illicit trade and money laundering at the expense of other members of society. Their operations have served to undermine the security of international financial markets and competitiveness of legitimate business consequently impacting negatively on the overall welfare of the society.

The rigid bureaucratic nature of modern political systems has served to promote persistence of crime within societies. Bureaucrats develop a set of political inhibitors which protect international and other powerful criminals against the criminal justice system which is in their control. Therefore, institutions of social control are inadequately equipped to deal with crime and the bureaucratic nature of political administration discourages reforms consequently promoting injustices in society.

Conclusion

Crime and deviance have been explained through the broad perspectives of Marxism and functionalism. While the Marxist perspective views crime in terms of capitalist and class conflict, functionalists view crime as beneficial to society but acknowledge that high rates of crime may pose a threat to social order. Regardless of the perspective, one holds, crime is depicted as resulting from the conflict of interests between members of societies. Therefore, dealing with crime in society will require extensive coordination in goal acquisition.

Works Cited

Stevens, J. William. “Crime according to Marxism and Functionalism,” Helium Inc, 2008. Web.

Vito, Gennaro., Maahs, Jeffrey; & Holmes, Ronald. Criminology: Theory, Research and Policy. Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2006. Print.

Walsh, Anthony; & Hemmens, Craig. Introduction to criminology: A text/Reader. California: SAGE Publications, 2010. Print.

There is no society that has never experienced crime in its lifetime. For example, it is argued that just as the human body has some organs which tend to cause problems to people, the same case applies to societies. There are those people who always engage in activities that cause problems to other people who live within the same society.

Therefore, just as some organs in the body can be removed in order to improve the health of a person, the people who cause problems in the society can also be removed so that the society can be peaceful (Fitzgerald, 2010). Most of the tribes that are characterized by trust and close family ties also encounter similar challenges.

There are those people who disobey the traditions that are set by the society. Most civilized societies describe people who do things contrary to the expectations of other people as criminals. The government is a very important body that plays a very important role with respect to combating crime. It is therefore true that there can be no government if there is no crime (Alice, 2010).

People normally have different opinions on whether crime is healthy for any society (Susan, 2011). There are those people who describe their society as healthy while others regard it as unhealthy. This view depends on their opinion on crime. However, most people see their societies as healthy despite the fact that there are incidences of crime which happen inside those societies.

This indicates that some forms of crime are important for a society to grow. If there was no crime, there would be no need to govern people. A criminal is a person who needs to be punished, controlled and stopped because his actions bring undesirable effects to the society (Why Care, 2012).

In the modern society, people have become too much dependent on laws and regulations. People have developed the habit that they must be governed and regulated so that they can live in harmony with each other (Vito & Maahs, 2011).

For example, most of countries which do not have stable governments are characterized by various forms of violence. It is therefore important for such countries to have a stable government which would regulate the inhuman activities that people in such countries engage in (Why Care, 2012). Every culture has criminals and it is the duty of the people to make sure they eradicate all the criminal deeds observed in the area.

However, the fatal mistake that people make is to think that they have powers which enable them to differentiate between good and evil. This then makes them to think that it is their responsibility to punish others for the crimes committed. However, almost every person in every society has at one time engaged in a criminal activity.

This therefore means that before people judge others for committing criminal activities, they should also ensure that they completely refrain from criminal activities. This would make it easy for them to combat crime easily in the societies where they live (Zen, 2009). However, since not everybody is able to refrain from committing crime, crime has therefore been accepted as way of life in different societies.

The various measures that people adopt to reduce crime in their areas include electing a government that is committed to handle criminals, practice community policing, or having a group of people who are adequately trained to guard the society from any criminals who might attack the society (Susan, 2011). It is accepted that there is no society where crime does not exist. The people who engage in criminal activities are therefore said to inflict punishments upon themselves.

Despite the fact that crime is an acceptable reality in every society, people engage in activities aimed at regulating the criminal activities which criminals engage in. This is because, if criminals are allowed to continue in harmful activities without anybody intervening, there is likelihood that the good people in the society would suffer huge losses.

To minimize the losses that people encounter as a result of criminal activities therefore, it becomes important for governments and the people to invest resources and time in order to ensure that criminal activities are easily manageable (Vito & Maahs, 2011).

The different crimes that criminals commit include murder, robbery, rape, and drug dealings. All these crimes inflict huge losses to the victims (Viviene & Cree, 2010). It therefore becomes important to have a body such as the government which would regulate all the activities of criminals. It is the responsibility of the government to take care of its population. It is supposed to ensure that there is peaceful coexistence among the people in the country (Susan, 2011).

To do this, the government ensures that the security personnel such as the police and the army are hired and given relevant training in order to ensure that criminal activities are brought down as much as possible within a country (Vito & Maahs, 2011). The government therefore invests a lot of funds and time in training and equipping the police and the army with the relevant tools so that they can tackle criminal activities easily and effectively.

Any criminal activity is normal in every society (Zen, 2009). This statement serves as a guide to many people by helping them understand that crime is present everywhere and people should therefore adopt all the measures possible to ensure that bring down all crime incidences significantly. This would enable the members of every society to live in peaceful coexistence with each other.

References

Alice, C. (2010). Interesting Perspective- Crime is Normal. Web.

Fitzgerald, M. (2010). Crime and Society: Readings in History and Theory. New York: Routledge.

Susan, E. F. (2011). Is it a Waste Time for Government to Spend Money on Criminals? Web.

Vito, G. F., & Maahs, J. R. (2011). Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy. London: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Viviene, C., & Cree, E. (2010). Sociology for Social Workers and Probation Officers. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Why Care. (2012). What are the Causes of Crime. Web.

Zen, K. L. (2009). Why is Crime Healthy for Society? Web.

Introduction

Youth crime has become a major issue of concern worldwide because most youths have been indulging in crimes at very high rates. This has raised the need to take some steps in an effort to either minimize or avoid the involvement of youths in criminal activities. Youth crime also referred to as juvenile delinquency entails some abnormality in the youths’ behaviour in regard to societal or even legal expectations.

There are many factors that are considered to facilitate indulgence in crime by the youths for instance poor up bringing, poverty and unemployment, lack of education and peer pressure among others. This research paper will look into the various aspects that are associated with youth crime for example the causes, the delinquent behaviours involved, and the preventive measures undertaken to handle the delinquencies.

Causes of Youth Crime

There is no distinct factor that can be pin pointed as the root cause of youth crime. This is because youths engage in criminal activities as a result of the different situations that they face in life. The situations could be as a result of either social, economic, cultural or even family problems.

Different economic, social and cultural conditions in different countries causes the difference in the causes although some common causes can be drawn since all hail from family relationships, the social environment and the economic situation surrounding the youths.

The relationships that exist in the families of the youths could facilitate the indulgence in criminal activities for example when the parents are involved in crime, when there is poor parental guidance and supervision, in case of neglect and isolation or harsh treatment by parents hence the development of defiant behaviour, where there exist family conflicts and the youths feel overburdened, ineffective or lack of communication between the parents and the children hence lack of forum for discussing the problems that the youths could be having, disrespect and irresponsible behaviour among family members that may make the youths take it as a normality, family break-ups and violence among others.

An economic condition on the other hand entails aspects like the political situations surrounding the youths, poverty and unemployment among other aspects (Western, Lynch and Oquilvie 45). The political situation in a nation may also lead to indulgence in crime by the youths for example in instances where there is political instability, the youths may tend to look for means through which to secure a better future hence engaging in criminal activities in search of a livelihood.

Lack of employment opportunities for the youths is also a major contributing factor towards delinquency. Some of the youths have got education but lack employment chances making them hopeless and susceptible to anything that may come their way, crime being one of them as they try to survive and establish a source of living.

Poverty and inequality also contributes to criminal activities. This is because no one is ready to accept living in poor conditions especially where others have better living conditions. As the youths tend to move away from the poverty situations they find themselves engaging in criminal ventures in an effort to make life favourable and comfortable.

The social conditions that may facilitate the indulgence in criminal activities by the youths include inequalities in terms of services provision and power sharing, poor or lack of leadership in the societies hence loss of focus among the youths, discrimination among the youths, peer pressure and influence of the media for instance where the media portrays violence and crime to be prestigious making the youths to emulate people involved in crime among others. It is therefore evident that to prevent crime, the above named causes should be dealt with from the roots (McCord et al 25).

Consequences of Youth Crime

There are numerous consequences that are associated with youth crime. The crimes affect not only those undertaking it but also the society at large. This is because of the uncertainty linked with the criminal activities which leads to tension and anxiety among the society members as they don’t know what may happen to them.

The crime may also be dangerous to the youths themselves for instance the abuse of drugs and other substances may lead to deterioration of their health, they may also be physically injured in the event of perpetrating the criminal activities and more so, they may get themselves behind bars facing legal sentences once they are convicted for the crimes committed hence suffering from lack of freedom and harsh treatment (Elliot, Huizinga, and Menard 29).

Preventive Measures to Be Taken In Regard to Youth Crime

Since the problem of youth crime is real and in existence, there is need to establish some measures aimed at reducing or avoiding the chances of engaging in crimes by the youths. A good approach is however the identification of the root causes of the crimes and dealing with them appropriately.

The measures include reduction of inequality and poverty levels among communities. This could be achieved through aspects like effective taxation that ensures that the well-up people are able to support the less fortunate through the taxes hence reducing the inequality. Poverty can also be reduced through provision of employment opportunities and increasing the minimum earnings.

This will in the long run reduce the chances of the youths’ indulgence in crime as they will be involved in more productive activities in the economy. Reduction of the availability of drugs and other substances is also a recommended step as it reduces the number of youths who can access them hence avoiding their abuse (Blyth and Solomon 2).

Another effective method that could be applied is the youth awareness programmes for instance on the importance of education and general positive living. Education should also be made affordable to the majority including the poor as education enhances an individual’s well being in terms of decision making and making choices as well as increasing the possibilities of securing job opportunities hence have a stable source of earning.

There should also be efforts to reinforce the law enforcement strategies with an aim of reducing chances of crime as the youths caught committing crimes are sentenced hence serving as examples to the others who may think of indulging in crime. Corruption is a contributing force towards crime execution of since the offenders feel free to commit the crimes without minding the consequences as they know they can bribe the law enforcers and get away with it.

Reduction of the corruption will in return result to reduction of crime rates as the youths will be held responsible for their criminal activities and hence they will tend to avoid it. These preventive measures among others will help reduce crime rates through dealing with the root causes of the crimes (Muhammad 9).

Conclusion

It is evident that youth crime is a problem in most countries as young people are increasingly getting involved in criminal activities. The problem however lies in the establishment of the main causes of crime youth but once this is clear, the problem can be dealt with appropriately through prevention of its crimes rather than waiting for its occurrence and intervening since this is much more tasking and entails aspects like rehabilitation which can be avoided through prevention.

Works Cited

Blyth, Maggie and Solomon, Enver. Prevention and Youth Crime: Is Early Intervention Working? United Kingdom: The Policy Press, 2009.

Elliot, S. Delbert, Huizinga, David and Menard, Scott. Multiple Problem Youth: Delinquency, Substance Use and Mental Health Problems. Springer: New York, 2009.

McCord, Joan et al. Juvenile Crime, Juvenile Justice. USA: National Academies Press, 2001.

Muhammad, Ali. “Youth Crime: Causes and Remedies”. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA), Paper No. 17223, 2008. Web.

Western, Stuart John, Lynch, Mark and Oquilvie, Emma. Understanding Youth Crime: An Australian Study. USA: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2003.

Annotated Bibliography

The following are the additional sources to be included in the annotated bibliography.

Blyth, Maggie and Solomon, Enver. Prevention and Youth Crime: Is Early Intervention Working? United Kingdom: The Policy Press, 2009.

This book is very essential in this study as it gives an insight to the prevention of youth crime. It specifically touches on the importance of prevention rather than cure in regard to any given problem and in this case the authors give the benefits accrued to the prevention process as opposed to the cure. It focuses on the need for early intervention programmes that should be put in place in an effort to preventing the young children and the youths from engaging in criminal activities.

It is a book that incorporates contributions from various experts in their effort to examine critically the government policy in relation to early intervention programmes, which are directed towards supporting families and preventing young children and youths from being involved in crime. It generally looks into the effectiveness of early intervention as a measure towards preventing youth crime.

McCord, Joan et al. Juvenile Crime, Juvenile Justice. USA: National Academies Press, 2001.

This book has combined efforts of different authors to bring about an understanding of why the young people decide to turn into delinquent acts. The book specifically looks into the patterns of crimes undertaken by children and youth offenders. It gives a detailed insight into the contributing factors for instance parental care, peer pressure and how the society influences this.

Apart from the reasons for indulgence of the youths in crime, the book highlights some of the solutions to youth crime for instance the interventions to be implemented in the juvenile justice system, the part played by law enforcers and other preventive measures.

Muhammad, Ali. “Youth Crime: Causes and Remedies”. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA), Paper No. 17223, 2008. Web.

This is a very informative research paper as it covers a wide range of aspects in regard to the topic of study, Youth Crime. It gives in depth details in relation to the factors that may facilitate the youths’ indulgence to various criminal activities and the consequences associated with the involvement of the youths in criminal activities including those faced by the offenders themselves and the society at large.

Apart from the causes and effects of youth crime, the author recognizes the fact that the ordeal of crime is in existence and more so it is in the rise and therefore outlines in details the appropriate measures that should be adhered to in an effort to preventing and avoiding the engagement of the youths in criminal activities emphasizing that dealing with the root causes is very crucial in preventing youth crime.

Scott, S. Elizabeth and Steinberg, Laurence. Adolescent Development and the Regulation of Youth Crime. The Future of children, volume 18, Number 2, fall 2008, pp. 15 – 33.

This journal article explores the changes that have taken place in the conception of the law over the past years. The authors shows of how the youth offenders were initially treated, the same way as adults, which is not right as the youths are quite different from the adults for instance in terms of the offences they commit and the punishment they can stand.

The laws to be adopted for instance emphasizes on the application of aspects like rehabilitation as corrective measures as opposed to punishment which is employed in case of the adult offenders. It calls for attention to the application of the juvenile justice system to the delinquents as opposed to subjections to the adult courts.

Western, Stuart John, Lynch, Mark and Oquilvie, Emma. Understanding Youth Crime: An Australian Study. USA: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2003.

The authors in this book give some good and educative information that can assist us in understanding the general overview of the aspect of youth crime. Although the case study is in the Australian population, it gives the idea of the relationship between the youths and crime. According to this book, the youths are in their transitional process from childhood to adulthood and they are susceptible to numerous troubles including criminal activities.

The book focuses on an Australian study that was carried out to determine the major social factors that are deemed to have some impacts on the general lives of young people. The study was conducted on 1,300 youths which is a total representative sample and from this a general overview is drawn which enriches our understanding of youth criminality.

Drugs have always been associated with violent crime. The link between drugs and violent crime can take place in three ways: crime committed by drug users, crime connected with the production and distribution of drugs, or violent crime directly associated with the attempt to enforce drug prohibition (Friedman 1). Drug interdiction refers to the efforts taken by the government to interrupt the flow of drugs into and within the country.

At the international level, the United States Coast Guard personnel are entrusted with the task of drug interdiction, by countering the smugglers at sea and preventing illegal drug shipments into the United States. Through drug interdiction, the destructive influence of drug consumption is reduced and the potential funding for terrorism through drug supply is also disrupted. Thesis: Drug interdiction helps to reduce drug-related crime by reducing the flow of drugs into the country and by disrupting the flow of funds into the hands of the terrorists.

Drugs are harmful to society because of their direct link to violent crime. To check violent crime, the huge illicit drug market in the United States needs to be checked. The checking of the illicit drug market can be done by reducing the demand for illegal drugs, reducing the import of illegal drugs, and reducing the local production and distribution of illegal drugs. While reducing the demand for illegal drugs is not within the purview of drug interdiction, international drug interdiction helps to check illegal drugs by reducing the flow of illegal drugs into the country and domestic drug interdiction helps to check illegal drugs by stopping their distribution.

Domestic interdiction, investigation, or interception programs refer to the interception of illegal contraband within the confines of the US. It targets the interception of drugs before the sale on the street (Steffen & Candelaria 2). Domestic interdiction directly reduced the drugs available to the users. Thus by reducing the drugs available to the users, drug interdiction serves to reduce drug-related crime indirectly. The fact that domestic interdiction is effective is shown by the fact that to date more than 300 domestic drug interdiction groups exist in the US and are growing due to the demand for counterdrug efforts in a variety of settings (Steffen & Candelaria 3).

International drug interdiction takes a variety of forms – from careful customs inspection to waging war against producing nations. International and national interdiction efforts are conducted by a variety of agencies such as the United States Coast Guard, United States Customs, Service, and the Drug Enforcement Administration (Steffen and Candelaria 1). The Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard in December 2007 announced a record year for cocaine seizures with 355, 755 pounds seized, worth more than $4.7 billion (USCG 1).

In September 2007, the Coast Guard and its partners interdicted a vessel loaded with 3,600 gallons of cocaine dissolved in diesel fuel, a technique used by smugglers to avoid detection (USCG 1). In August, Coast Guard, Navy, and Customs and Border Protection crews interdicted and boarded a self-propelled, semi-submersible vessel loaded with an estimated $352 million of cocaine (USCG 1).

The Coast Guard made its largest maritime cocaine seizure when it intercepted the Panamanian vessel Gatun carrying more than 33,500 pounds of the narcotic -or approximately 20 tons – in March 2007 (USCG 1). All of these achievements only prove that drug interdiction is very effective in checking the flow of drugs into the country and through reduced flow, there is likely to be reduced consumption and hence reduced crime.

Every year, 400-800 metric tons of cocaine, or approximately 90% of the cocaine en route the United States, enters the six million square miles maritime transit zone between the drug-producing countries of South America and the United States (Expectmore.gov 1). The Drug Interdiction Program works to stem this cocaine flow. Research shows that cocaine is directly related to violent behavior (Giannini et al 67). Thus, by stemming the flow of cocaine, drug interdiction efforts help in reducing drug-related violent crime.

There is a connection between international drug trafficking and terrorism and terrorism by definition is a violent activity. The degree to which profits from the drug trade are directed to finance terrorist activities is of paramount concern to our Nation and the DEA (Hutchinson 1). Drug interdiction, by preventing the drug trade also helps to dismantle the formidable sophisticated terrorist and drug trafficking organizations (Hutchinson 1). This dismantling further serves in reducing drug-related violent crime.

Drug interdiction, by checking the flow of drugs into the country not only reduces the number of drugs available to the consumer but also halts the financing of terrorist organizations that are funded through the drug trade. Cocaine, the drug found to induce violent behavior in people who consume it, is the most widely seized drug interdiction effort. Thus, it is true to say that drug interdiction efforts help to reduce drug-related crime both by checking the number of drugs available to the consumer and by checking the growth of terrorism.

Works Cited

Giannini, A.J.; Miller N.S; Loiselle R H; and Turner C E (1993). Cocaine-associated violence and relationship to route of administration. J Subst Abuse Treat. 10(1):67-9.

Friedman, David (2008). Drugs, Violence and Economics. Web.

USCG (United States Coast Guard) (2007). Coast Guard Announces Record Drug Seizures. Press Release. Web.

Steffen, S. George and Candelaria, M. Samuel (2002). Drug Interdiction: Partnerships, Legal Principles, and Investigative Methodologies for Law Enforcement. CRC Press.

Hutchinson, Asa (2001). DEA Congressional Testimony.

Expectmore. (2008). Detailed Information on the Coast Guard: Drug Interdiction Assessment. Web.

Deviance and crime are two very important social problems faced by humanity today. Deviance generally refers to behavior or behaviors which go against what is acceptable by the community. It is action in ways not considered to be normal by the larger society. This is in relevance to the norms established by the society under consideration.

Consequently, what may be considered as an act of deviance in one society may not be so in a different society. Crime on the other hand is utter disobedience to the written laws. It is however true that the written laws are largely influenced by the society’s set of norms. There are different explanations as to why people engage in deviance or crime in the society. This paper looks at the functionalist approach to the explanation of the causes of deviance and crime.

The theory was developed by Durkheim who noticed that traditional societies were better bound by common norms as opposed to the modern societies a condition which he termed as anomie. This being the case, people are at greater liberty to pursue their own interests as opposed to collective interest. Some level of deviance is however healthy as it leads to better adaptation of the society.

The functionalist approach argues that too much individualism leads to increased deviance and crime. This is because a large portion of the society wishes to behave against the established norms as they serve their own interests. Individualism is a selfish approach towards every aspect of life.

The individual is only interested in furthering their selfish interests and often, this approach is in conflict with what is socially acceptable. An example is a case where an adult deprives his/her children of the required necessities of life despite them having them adequately. In such a case, the individual is engaged in deviance as a result of extreme selfishness resulting from individualism.

Secondly, Robert Merton developed the theory by explaining the causes of deviance and crime as a result of strain. Strain here is defined as a condition witnessed within societies whose members cannot access adequate legit channels which enable the achievement of socially defined goals.

This factor is seen as an adequate incentive towards the pursuit of alternative means including deviance and crime. An example of a case where strain causes individuals to be deviant and engage in crime is a case a poor parent faces the challenge of providing for his/her family. The aim of providing for the family is definitely socially defined and acceptable however, they are unable to achieve it in ways which are socially acceptable as they lack the requisite resources and opportunities.

Again, under the functionalist approach deviance and crime are compared to a safety channel. An example is the case of prostitution where the sexual services are availed without significant threat to the concerned person’s marriage. In addition, deviance is seen as being functional due to the fact that it offers the persons charged with the responsibility of managing it with economic and other opportunities.

These views explain the rationale behind the assertion that areas with higher inequality in terms of income and opportunities experience much higher rates of crime and deviance in relation to other societies with high levels of equality. Indeed such trends have been observed across the world.

Introduction

The late 20th century has been characterized by unprecedented changes which have been made possible by novel technological advancements witnessed in this period. However, these great advancements have also made it possible for crime to become more prevalent and sophisticated as criminals utilize technology to engage in their mischief. Crime fighters have therefore had to make use of advances in all fields to combat criminals.

One tool which is proving to be of great use in crime fighting is DNA analysis. The power of DNA analysis to make significant contributions to the criminal investigation task is becoming more apparent and with this, it can be plausibly deduced that DNA analysis will play an even bigger role in crime fighting in the future.

However for DNA profiling to be used successfully, there has to be a DNA database where tissue samples, genetic information and personal data is stored indefinitely. This brings about the real fear that this information may be misused therefore leading to an infringement on the rights afforded to the individual.

This paper shall research on DNA analysis in a bid to show that this technology is primarily a very important crime-fighting tool and that while fears of invasion of privacy are real, they pale in comparison to the great benefits to be reaped from exploiting DNA analysis.

DNA Analysis: the Ultimate Crime Fighter

DNA databases function by first of all storing DNA information in computerized system. Genetic material lifted from a crime scene is then matched against the profiles which exist in the databank therefore producing a “cold hit” (Polonsky 1332). Unidentified samples are also stored for future use.

In essence, DNA databanking is the computerized storage of private information for an indefinite period of time. The move by most countries to utilize DNA databases has been undoubtedly encouraged by the success of Britain’s systems of biologically tracking offenders which has given Britain law enforcers an edge over criminals when fighting crime (Polonsky 1335).

At onset of DNA analysis, DNA profiling was solely used to confirm the identity of an individual who was already been held as a suspect on a crime. However, the population and eventual use of offender DNA databases has revolutionalized crime solving.

With the help of these databases, very small amounts of DNA recovered from a crime scene can be used to link otherwise faceless suspects to a crime by cross referencing the crime scene sample to the samples held in the database. Having convicted offenders in the DNA database is necessary to maximize the crime-solving potential of DNA and for this reason, the government should invest more on increasing the scope of DNA databases.

A contentious issue with regard to DNA analysis has been the practice of using voluntary DNA samples to link the donor to some unsolved crime. This has been seen by opponents of DNA analysis as an abuse of the confidentiality afforded to the volunteer.

While the confidentiality of an individual should be respected, the confidentiality can be disregarded if a person perpetrates a crime (Staley 6). Crime fighters propose that it would be absurd to avoid arresting a criminal since the DNA sample that links him/her to the crime was obtained without his consent.

In crime fighting, the credibility of evidence given by an eyewitness may be diminished with time as a result of natural factors such as fading memories. This means that when solving old cases, the reliance of eye witnesses’ accounts may be challenged. Ashcroft, Danies and Hart declare that DNA evidence helps overcome such limitations since DNA analysis remains reliable decades after the crime was committed (3). DNA analysis is therefore the most relevant tool in dealing with crimes that were committed in the far past.

Arguably the most important role played by criminal justice system is deterrence. This is because the most desirable function of punishments should be to deter would be wrong doers thus leading to a harmonic society. In an ideal environment, punishments should never have to be executed but their mere presence should cause all to abide to the rules and regulations in place therefore peacefully coexist.

DNA analysis can be a great deterrence tool if DNA testing is made universal. Proponents of mandatory DNA testing asset that it would lead to great deterrence from crime for all members of the community since the risk of getting caught by the police would be greatly increased as a result of the universal DNA databanks (Rosen 44).

DNA: An Infringement on Privacy

There exist fears that DNA analysis could constitute an invasion of privacy. These are not baseless fears for as Rosen confirms, the danger with DNA databases is that they provide an “inescapable means of identification, categorization and profiling” (39).

What this means is that DNA provides genetic information unique to a person that has the potential of revealing to a third party “a person’s predisposition to illnesses or behaviours without the person’s knowledge” (Rosen 39). With this in mind, it is evident that the fears that the people who are opposed to DNA databases are very well founded

Arguably one of the most controversial issues as with regard to the science of DNA analysis is the DNA “dragnet” tactic which involves police officers obtaining DNA samples from a specific group of people in an attempt to solve a crime. Dragnets are based on a reasonable suspicion that each member of the sample group might indeed be involved in the crime in question.

Polonsky documents that this so call “voluntary” taking of DNA samples causes great mistrust from the selected group who feel pressured by the police to give their samples so as to exonerate themselves from the crime in question (1332). This negates the “voluntary” basis on which the samples are taken and is seen by many as an infringement of the individuals civil rights.

Our society is built on the foundation of democracy and equal and fair treatment of all. As such, acts such as discrimination and racial profiling are seen as undesirable. However, some utilization of DNA analysis leads to this ills as well as invading the privacy of a person and his near relations.

This method of utilizing DNA to assist in crime fighting is called familial DNA searches. Dempsey and Forst highlight that Familial searches are based on the assumption that close relatives of criminals are more likely than others to break the law (501). This categorization of relatives to a criminal lead to the invasion of their privacy for unsubstantiated reasons.

Discussion

Most of the fears that arise from DNA analysis are with regard to the privacy protection of the databanks which house the DNA. While in some cases these fears are justified, a leading figure in DNA fingerprinting in the USA declares that DNA databases are more highly regulated and protected than any other kind of databanks in the world (Rosen 42).

While there is always the risk that unscrupulous people might retrieve a person’s DNA report and use it for malicious purposes, the probability of this happening are marginal and as such should not be used to shoot down this very effective method of fighting crime.

Another issue raised by opponents of DNA analysis is that it results in the taking of DNA from innocent people. This is an inevitable reality in any investigative process for as Dempsey and Forst asset, ‘investigations always yield talking to and suspecting people who turn out not to be guilty” (501). All police investigation efforts lead to the investigation of many suspects and persons of interest and it is unavoidable that most of these suspects will be innocent.

Conclusion

The survival of any civilization hinges on the establishment of laws and codes of conduct and the subsequent obeying of the same by the society’s members. Crime therefore threatens our civilization since it results in a disregard for this law and codes of conduct. It is therefore a matter of uttermost importance to ensure that crime is curbed through all available means.

This paper set out to demonstrate that DNA analysis offers a versatile tool for fighting crime and therefore ensuring the success of our civilization. As has been demonstrated in this paper, DNA can both implicate and eliminate a suspect from a crime. This makes DNA analysis a powerful tool that should be exploited even further so as to ensure that the justice system works effectively for the good of the entire society.

Works Cited

Ashcroft, John Daniels, Deborah and & Hart, Serah. Using DNA to Solve Cold Cases. National Institute of Justice, 2002.

Dempsey, John and Forst, Linda. An Introduction to Policing. Cengage Learning, 2009.

Polonsky, Sasha. “Banking” on Law Enforcement: Advocating a New Balancing Test for DNA Storage After. Washington University Law Quarterly. Vol. 83, 2005.

Rosen, Christine. Liberty, Privacy, and DNA Databases. The New Atlantis, A Journal of Technology & Society, 37, 2003.

Staley, Kristina. The Police National DNA Database: Balancing Crime Detection, Human Rights and Privacy. Derbyshire: The Mill House, 2005. Print.