Category: Crime

A file extension, also known as a file ending or a name extension, is the letter or combination of letters that follow the period in a full file title. The file extension assists a computer system, such as Windows and macOS, in determining which software on the system is connected with the file. File extensions frequently, but not always, reflect the file format, or file type, of the item. The extension of any document can be changed, but this does not transform the file to another form or alter anything about the document other than this component of its name.

A file header may be used to identify many different sorts of files. A file header is a signature placed at the start of a file that tells the computer system and other applications what to do with the information that precedes it. The file header will be used by many electronic discovery programs to validate file kinds. The prevalent concern is that if a custodian modifies a file’s suffix or the file is not titled using a software’s normal naming scheme, the file would be lost throughout the digital finding process. File headers are particularly significant during a computer forensic investigation because they allow individuals to identify the information of lost files, user activity records, registry keys, and other pertinent evidence.

The difference between these aspects is that the file header is the internal part of how the file is perceived by the device, and the file extension is an external indicator for the user that leads to the file header. For investigations, the file header will be more profitable and reliable as it stores more information that can be useful.

PNG, which stands for Portable Network Graphics, is spelled either as the symbols P-N-G or like the word ping. It is a lossless picture format with bitmapped images. One of the finest features of the PNG format is that it allows for translucent pictures, which is useful in many situations (Hadi, 2016). A website designer, for instance, may wish to include a logo on their webpage that does not obscure the backdrop. Visibility is especially handy for adding images to a web page that must function in both light and dark modes.

JPEG, which stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, is a digital picture compressing standard that is widely used on the Internet and in digital photography. To obtain greater compressing, the JPEG standard employs a lossy sacrifice. In the file extension used by IBM-compatible computers, JPEG is also shortened as JPG; a JPEG image is depicted in the photo.

MOV is a well-known video file type created by Apple. It was created to work with the QuickTime application. MOV files include video, sound, captions, timecodes, and other sorts of material. It is suitable with both Mac and Windows versions of QuickTimePlayer. MOV files require much more system memory on a system since they are very elevated, making the whole process.

AVI (Audio Video Interleave) is compatible with almost all web browsers on Windows, Mac, and Linux PCs. AVI, which was created by Microsoft, provides the greatest clarity but also has big file volumes. It is enabled by YouTube and functions great for watching television. The most prevalent video file type is MP4. Apple’s recommended codec, MP4, is also compatible with the majority of other gadgets. It stores video, audio, and text files using the MPEG-4 encoding process; however, it has a lesser resolution than some others. MP4 is a good format for movies shared on YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

A file system saves and arranges data on some media, often one or more hard disks, in order for them to be quickly accessed. The majority of file systems in use today store files in a tree form. There is only one root node at the top of the tree. There are files and folders under the root of the tree. Each domain can include files and subdomains, which can contain other items and directory structure, and so on, possibly indefinitely.

A file path is a precise description of where a file is located on a disk. It is critical to document the exact file path of evidence or contraband file. This would be analogous to recording the location of a baggie of drugs at a crime scene. A file path specifies the precise location of a data source within the disk and folder in which it is stored. An investigation must establish the particular file path utilized to locate information on the machine. This is due to the fact that the file path provides the specific location of the file required, as well as how the file was discovered in the first instance.

Typically, file system entities are folders or files. These items are well-known to everyone. Some storage devices, however, enable the concept of symbolic links. A symlink or a weak link is another name for a symbolic link. A symbolical hyperlink is a particular file that acts as a pointer to another file. Symbolic links are mostly transparent to programs, and their activities are immediately forwarded to the link’s destination. The file or location to which the link is pointing is referred to as the link’s target. When a symbolic link is destroyed or changed, just the link itself is removed or changed its name, not the destination of the link.

In practice, most storage devices make extensive use of symbol connections. A poorly established symbolic link might sometimes result in a circular connection. When the target of a link links back to the originating connection, this is referred to as a circular reference. It is possible that the cyclic connection is oblique: location points to directory b, which points to folder c, which has a subfolder linking back to domain a. When software is recursively walking directories, circular connections can cause disaster. This case, though, has been considered and will not cause your application to cycle indefinitely.

File systems define naming rules, such as the highest number of letters in a name, which symbols can be used, and, in certain platforms, the length of the correct file extension. File types are not the specific instance in many file systems (Olivier, 2016). Including the file itself, standard file store metadata that contains details such as the file’s size, properties, placement, and precedence in the directories. Metadata may also indicate unoccupied chunks of usable capacity on a disk and the amount of space accessible.

In theory, properties are the parameters of a computer object. For instance, users could right-click points mentioned to reveal their characteristics. Font size, font type, and text color are examples of font or text attribute: file location, file size, file creation date, file modified date, and file access date. The timestamp associated with modification is important because it can prove that an investigator did not tamper with or otherwise modify any data files (Yuan, 2020). Accessed timestamps merely reflect when the file was last viewed without any changes being made to it.

References

Hadi, A. (2016). Reviewing and evaluating existing file carving techniques for jpeg files. In the 2016 Cybersecurity and Cyberforensics Conference (CCC). IEEE. 55-59.

Olivier, P., Boukhobza, J., Senn, E., & Ouarnoughi, H. (2016). A methodology for estimating performance and power consumption of embedded flash file systems. ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS), 15(4), 1-25.

Yuan, J., Aoki, T., & Guo, X. (2020). Comprehensive robustness evaluation of file systems with model checking. In 2020 IEEE 20th International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security (QRS). IEEE. 99-110.

In the era of the global free online space, many people are able to violate Internet resources. Feelings of hidden identity and impunity have the potential to push immoral people into online incivility, harassment, and blackmail (Muraski). Modern technological conditions make it possible to track the location of an attacker and quickly neutralize him. However, Internet users should still actively engage in self-study to protect themselves and their online space. There are various sites and programs with all the helpful information for that.

One such site is Working to Halt Online Abuse, which has been helping Internet users since 1977. The site contains a wealth of information on online harassment and how to deal with it legally. One of the valuable appendices of the site is a comprehensive list of cyberstalking laws (and related ones) for each state. Site administrators point out that the page has laws protecting people of all ages. It is a great help for adult users, as most laws only protect children under the age of 18. If the problem concerns a child, the site provides a link to the Kid/Teen Division page, which is created for precise cases regarding children, adolescents, and parents. In addition, the site contains a list of professional lawyers and their contacts for victims from different states. If the list does not have a lawyer for the state, the site provides a link to Additional Law-Related Resources (WHO@: Working to Hault Online Abuse). This resource is useful as a theoretical basis to educate users about online safety. It also provides a clear legal exposition of cybercrime and offers contacts to get instant professional help.

Some cases go beyond verbal abuse and already involve blackmail or money deception. The Scambusters website was created specifically to educate users about online security. The resource includes a comprehensive summary of news from the online world and comments from victims. Users can freely choose the precise category of fraud and engage in self-education. Categories include various topics and cases on phones, credit cards, ID cards, Spyware, identity theft, and many other useful subgroups (Scambusters). This website helps inform users about a considerable number of cases and thus allows them to exercise caution to avoid cybercrime. There is also an opportunity to share your experiences to help other potential victims on the Internet.

References

Muraski, M.K.A. J. Investigating High-Tech Crime, Vitalsource for Kaplan University. [Purdue University Global Bookshelf]. Web.

WHO@: Working to Hault Online Abuse. (n.d.). Web.

Scambusters. (n.d.). Web.

Introduction

History

Prior to the 1700s all through the 1800s implementation of constitutional governments in Western Europe, penalties were administered arbitrarily, based on the impulses of local nobles and monarch to whom they confer the power to administer punishment.

Therefore very little balanced categories of penalties was applied, such that capital punishment was applicable for any crime, ranging from extreme treason and murder to averagely minor theft; as embedded in a certain adage “one might just as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb” (Hudson, 1996, p. 19).

Definition

As punishment is term used to signify anything painful; for instance a “punishing exercise program ’’ or a “punishing work schedule .’’ punishment is also used in the context of teachers or parents disciplining a child. Nevertheless, in this paper I will examine punishment from the perspective of a crime committed.

According to Flew (1954 cited in Bean 1981, p. 5) punishment from the perspective of a sanction administered for a criminal offense, comprise of five elements including:

• It has to inflict an unpleasantness to the victim;
• It has to be imposed for a genuine or supposed offense;
• It has to be imposed on a genuine or supposed offender;
• It has to be the action of personal agencies but not a natural outcome of an offensive action;
• It has to be imposed by an institution or authority whose laws has been violated.

Any act outside this requirement disqualifies the act from being a punishment and it essentially pass as a hostile act. Correspondingly, a direct act by an individual without any special power does not appropriately qualify as a punishment, but rather as a hostility or retaliation.

Forms of punishment

A swing in penalty theory has occurred over a period of time and this implicates a change in the rationale of punishment because of range of reasons such as social campaigns, public policy, and politics. Subsequently, the initial concern on deterrence as the major justification for punishment paved way to a consideration on rehabilitation and reform. Consequently, this led to a refocus to punishment determined by a perception of just desert and retribution.

Effects of Deterrence

Individuals are essentially deterred from committing an offense when they have an aversion to the likely outcomes of such actions. Although penologists consider penalties as indeed a deterrent, it is challenging to establish whether the mode of punishment or its severity determines whether a specific penalty is efficient.

Various questions have been posed concerning the moral credibility of deterrence. These critiques argue that this mode of punishment is impractical by virtue of being infeasible, and when deterrence verdicts are not helpful, punishment from deterrence is morally improper (Walker, 1991).

To utilitarian theorist including Bentham, the rationale behind a punishment is that the harm it impedes exceeds the harm imposed on the criminal by punishing (Hudson, 1996). Based on this viewpoint, unless penalty deters more crime, it basically augments the entirety of human suffering.

Alternatively, utilitarian justify punishment by considering the associated benefits or outcomes. In this argument, utilitarian philosophy regards only the optimistic and the pessimistic repercussions resulting from an act as morally important (Ten 1987).

Based on study by Beylevel (1979, cited in Hudson 1996, p. 23) there is no scientific basis predicting the effects of an overall deterrence policy that excludes an impractical disruption of human privileges, will impact positively on the crime prevalence. Nevertheless, it has been proven in certain circumstances that specific legal sanctions have accomplished deterrent outcomes.

Such outcomes are not, nevertheless, cannot be projected outside the circumstances that were analyzed. With the current level of intelligence, executing an official deterrence policy can be denoted to a political resolution to pacify public outlook.

Retribution

Retribution is a perception that upholds punishment on the basis that it serves the offender right. Systems of retribution have existed since time immemorial, with the popular Biblical lex talionis, such as “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, and life for a life” (Hudson 1996: 38).

Rubtributionist suppose a moral connection between punishment and offense, and view penalty as matter of accountability (Bean 1981). Retribution is society based, in the sense that the society develops a set of laws which the retributivist must accept regardless of what they may be.

Various explanations have been proposed to support retribution, such as the impression that is more or less a payment of debt on the side of the offender to the society (Walker 1991). Further, he observes that aforementioned notion perhaps confuses the society and the offended on the grounds that offenders are not perceived as accountable for compensation of the victims; in fact if at all the society is resituated, it is because of violation of its peace.

Censure which is another component of retribution means holding a person accountable for their actions and entails communicating to the perpetrator that they deliberately harmed a person and the society disapprove such misconduct (Hirsch 1994). The society expects the offender to show remorse or concern to the victim. In addition, the censure sanction via criminal law offers third parties the rationale for avoiding offense; deterrent consequence.

Theorist like Duff (cited in Walker, 1991), appreciate the benefit of punishment from the perspective of the offender, wherein it restores him or her to the society just like the way penance do the church communion.

Another philosopher called Nozick (cited in walker 1991, p. 81) argues that punishment is communication from those who are presumed morally upright to a person whose conduct express some elements of improper and non-normative standards. Rules, as a replica of transactions concerning promises, develop system of normative actions, such as “penalizing rules” which define the measures to be undertaken against the violators of the se rules (Garfinkel in Walker 1991: 84–85).

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation involves analysis of the criminal and the offense, alongside consideration of the offender’s social background and the penalty. In addition, rehabilitation theories recognizes the chances of additional challenges arising during the verdict or treatment of the criminal , which may be related with the crime and which may necessitate the offender to undergo certain treatment or be confined for a period of time (Bean 1981).

According to Ten (1987), utilitarian theories argues that penalty should rehabilitative or reformative impact on the criminal. The criminal is regarded reformed since the outcome of the punishment involves a transformation in the offender’s principles such he or she desist from committing more offenses, having realized depth of its inappropriateness.

Such transformation can be isolated from basically refraining from committing offenses because of fear of its consequences; to imply deterrence and not rehabilitation or reformation by punishment.

Supporters of rehabilitation in the context of punishment claim that punishment should be adjusted to meet the offender’s needs instead of corresponding to the crime.

This notion is based on believe that criminals should be rehabilitated so that they don’t repeat the crime, and the society should be held accountable for the treatment of the offender. Rehabilitation theory considers offense as the indicator of a social problem and views the goal of rehabilitation as resolving the problem. Essentially, the rehabilitative viewpoint refutes any relation between punishment and guilt (Bean, 1981).

Conclusion

Although punishment may be aimed at compensating the victim of an offense, some crimes cannot be completely settled. In addition, punishment sometimes may not guarantee that the offender cannot turn back to crime. This indicates that further studies should be conducted to develop more efficient system of punishment to help curb down crime rates and achieve full compensation for all offenses.

Reference List

Bean, P. 1981. Punishment: A Philosophical and Criminological Inquiry. Oxford, England: Martin Robertson.

Hudson, B. 1996. Understanding Justice: An Introduction to Ideas, Perspectives and Controversies in Modern Penal Theory.

Ten, C. L. 1987. Crime, Guilt, and Punishment: A Philosophical Introduction. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.

Andrew von Hirsch, A. 1994. “Censure and Proportionality.” Pp. 112–132 in A Reader on Punishment, edited by Antony Duff and David Garland. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Walker, N. 1991. Why Punish? Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Introduction

Racism and ethnicity are one of the social evils that pose a big danger to the society. These are the main factors that have been contributing to crime in the contemporary world. Racial discrimination in America has a significant implication on crime in the region. Most of the racism in America has been between the whites against the blacks and vice versa. There are a number of incidences that has resulted into crime in the United States.

Discussion

In many cases, most criminal activities in the United States are characterized by racism. Racism has resulted in a number of crimes, which has threatened security and peaceful co-existence among the people. There are a number of opposing issues concerning racism and disparity that has led to complication in the discussion of the issue of racism in the Criminal Justice System. For instance, there are economic differences among the people that have led to crime in the United States.

It is possible to have people from different race on low income group and also on the high income groups. The larger the differences between the poor and the rich, the high are the chances of crime. We also have differences in terms of biological heredity, psychological and other factors that may influence ones tendency to engage in crimes.

Racial differences have also led to crime in the United States. This can be explained through the discrimination that the vice has cultivated among the people. For instance, the idea that members of a certain group like the African Americans are more likely to commit a certain crime can lead to difficulties in fighting the vice. Similarly, the fact that the reason for doing so is psychological can also lead to serious difficulties.

This is because they tend to propose the inability of the public policy to solve these problems. This is unlike the social explanations where an individual can change through the public policy. From previous statistics, the results showed that the rate of arrests for the African Americans were higher than those in the other Americans (Anonymous, 2011).

There are several historical incidences that can clearly illustrate the issue of racism in America. One of this was the racism against African Americans through the institution of slavery. During this period, African Americans were enslaved and treated like property (Randall, 1998). This incident led to undermining and persistent racism against Africans.

Another incident in the history that can be used to demonstrate racism in America took place after the Mexican- American War in 1948 (Greenhaus and Parasuraman, 1990). During the period, Zoot Suit Riots clearly demonstrated the racism against Latinos. The Latin Americans were usually composed of people from different ethnic and racial backgrounds. This made them more prone to racism.

Recently, the issue of racism has raised major concerns in the study of the criminal justice. In America, there are a significant difference between the number of the black Americans and the white Americans arrested and prosecuted for various crimes. This has raised concerns on the criminal justice practices.

There are a number of areas that differ in terms of races, a thing that may lead to differences in the criminal justice. One of these differences is the level of unemployment. Through racial discrimination, there is a significant difference in the level of unemployment in different racial groups. When the level of unemployment is high, the level of poverty is also high and therefore there are high chances of committing crimes. For instance, unemployed person may engage in stealing due to lack of livelihood.

Race may also lead to differences in political orientation. This leads to differences in the views among the people from different races. In some cases, some members from a certain group may feel that they are not properly represented. In such a situation, differing views may lead people to engage in criminal activities.

The issue of the race and crime can easily be understood through the analysis of the criminal etiology or the breaking of law. Breaking of the law can either be explained from individual or social perspectives. From the individual perspective, the crime is caused by the characteristics that an individual possess. These include heredity defects, intelligence, and body type among others (Heaven and Hudson, 2011). On the other hand, crime is seen to be caused by social or psychological reasons.

In my opinion, I believe that racism is of great importance in the criminal justice. This is because it has helped in explaining the patterns of crime in the society. Most of the criminal activities in the United States are rooted in the issues related to race. As already noted, previous statistics have revealed that certain groups of people in America are more likely to commit crime than others.

It is therefore necessary to study in terms of race differences. People from a certain race may have varying social psychological differences. This can significantly influence the conduct of individuals. For instance, there are some tendencies that are common in a particular racial group but not prevalent in others.

The concept of race has a significant implication on my future career as a police officer. To begin with, this may affect me through prejudice. As already seen, the past record has clearly revealed that there is more proportionate cases of criminals arrested and prosecuted from one racial group than the other (Lafree and Russell, 1993).

For instance, the past data has revealed that there are more cases of the African Americans engaged in crime. This may lead to a temptation of prejudice or bias in the process of executing duties. Due to intensification of the issue of racism in the society, I may also face the problem of undermining others. The citizens from other racial groups may be tempted to think that I am biased towards my race.

Another way through which race can affect my future profession is through career advancement. In most cases, racism has been integrated in the work place. For instance, the senior managers are tempted to promote only those employees from their racial group. Racism may therefore affect me in my career as a police officer.

Conclusion

In summary, race and ethnicity has a significant implication on America’s criminal justice system. Racial differences have significantly affected the crime patterns among the people. For instance, there are more reported cases of criminals from a certain group arrested and prosecuted in court. This can be explained from both the personal and the social perspective. Individual’s personal differences can increase the possibility of engaging in a certain form of crime. Social and psychological factors can also increase the chances of engaging in crime.

Reference List

Anonymous. (2011). Race and Ethnicity – Race in U.S. Legal History, Native Americans, Black Americans and Crime, Policing and Minorities. Web.

Greenhaus, J. and Parasuraman, S. (1990). Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Azcademy of Management Journal. Vol. 1, pp. 64-86.

Heaven, O. and Hudson, B. (2011). ‘Race’, Ethnicity and Crime. Web.

Lafree, G. and Russell, K.K. (1993). The Argument for Studying Race and Crime. Journal of Criminal Justice Education. 4, 273-289.

Randall, K. (1998). Race, Crime, and the Law. New York: Vintage Books.

Ruth D.Peterson and Lauren J. Krivo. Divergent Social Worlds: Neighborhood Crime and the Racial-Spatial Divide New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2010.

Ruth and Lauren organized the book around the concept of racial spatial divide. The book is presented in a manner that links racial inequality in terms of social and economic conditions and power to unequal residential locations and segregated settlements across ethnic lines and ratio groups.

The authors present the racial spatial divide in a hierarchical structure where whites are the most advantaged, occupy the most powerful and prestigious positions in government and live in the best neighborhoods while Americans of African descents are the most disadvantaged and only occupy disadvantaged and less powerful positions in the US government.

Other ethnic groups such as Asians and Latinos occupy positions between the black Americans and the white Americans. According to the book, poverty and other social-economic inequalities are strongly associated with certain races and the more they are concentrated in a certain race then the more violent tendencies associated with people of that particular race.

A major theoretical contribution of the book is with regards to the integration of various theoretical perspectives with borrowings from fields such as criminology, racial and ethnic divides and urban sociology.

The theoretical framework advanced by the authors uses residential segregation as the connection between social position in terms of racial background and the differences in crime levels among various communities. The authors have explained the complicated issues surrounding social and institutional inequalities that favour the white residential areas compared to the residential areas of other lower races like Latinos and African Americans.

They have, therefore, made it clear that segregation is the reason why social worlds of people in the US are very different and depend on neighborhood colour. The authors have also made it clear that racial segregation and associated disadvantages are the reasons why neighborhood crime is associated with certain races or ethnic groups.

Ruth and Lauren carried out an empirical study that sought to investigate how the levels of neighborhood crime vary across different racial communities and ethnic groups for a sample set of cities across the US. They used multilevel Poisson distributions to record the occurrences of crime across various ethnic groups. The authors investigated the extent to which differences in social inequalities and racial segregation among various communities influence the levels of crime in these neighborhoods.

Some of the variables used to predict crime rates were residential instability, disadvantages, immigration of residents, and city characteristics such as segregation and percentage manufacturing. There were significant correlational relations among the study variables. They also investigated how inequality in the character of surrounding settlements contributes to ethnic differences in the levels of crime.

In terms of linking racial segregation, neighborhood and crime prevalence, the authors have clearly shown that there is a significant relationship.

The book has presented a clear view of the nature of the American racial spatial divide and how the social injustices and disadvantages experienced by some communities lead to the prevalence of neighborhood crime and other forms of violence in those neighborhoods.

It is, therefore important for the government to develop policies aimed at managing this racial spatial divide in order to curb violence and crime in such neighborhoods. A good example of such could be the upgrading the housing system in African American neighborhoods to reach the standards of white neighborhoods.

Introduction

The world is reeling with crime from people of all lifestyles. Crime takes a variety of perspectives, but the bottom line is that the criminal justice systems of nations all over the world are staggering under the weight of staggering crime rates.

Crime has been part of humanity since time immemorial; however, this aspect does not make it desirable by any means, as it does not form part of the virtues that societies inculcate in the young generation on its way to adulthood (Moehling and Piehl 750). In the past, scholars have studied crime from different angles to establish its tenets coupled with whether it can be stereotypically linked to a particular group of people such as a race, community, or clan.

Debates have raged on for many decades with protagonists linking groups of people to crime and antagonists discrediting such links. In this respect, in 1901, the Boston Sunday Globe posed the following question, “Is the Italian more prone to violent crime than any other race?” and several individuals of Italian origin responded to the question. This essay sets out to examine the arguments of two individuals, viz. Rev. Fr. Abaldus Da Rieti and Dr. Joseph Santosuosso to find out who among them made a valid point.

Rev. Fr. Abaldus Da Rieti Vs Dr. Joseph Santosuosso

The history of associating criminal activities with a particular race dates back to the 19^th century. During this period, the European continent was well on its development path. This aspect implies that the societies that existed within cities and rural localities of the European nations were already well organized and the idea of civilization was not farfetched. Violent crime must have been part of these societies for purposes of property defense through weapons to the extent of killing potential thieves (Calvanese and Colosimo 157).

Rev. Fr. Abadus Da Rieti’s position on the question that was posed stems from a logical argument, which is systematically elaborated to make one to understand ‘the Italian’ based on the author’s own understanding of the question. He divided and sub-divided the native Italians on their respective ancestral origins. He described the general characteristics of the sub-divisions of the Italians generally portraying them as law abiding and useful citizens (Da Rieti 30).

He even went ahead to point out the geographical locations of the various subdivisions of the Italian race. Rev. Fr. Da Rieti goes to great depths to describe the true Italian countenance in a manner that clearly helps the reader to visualize a true Italian (Da Rieti 30). From this move, it is clear that all this pain is taken to alienate the ‘true Italian’ from the blame of having a predisposition to violent crime.

He aims at achieving this goal by creating an atmosphere in which the reader can develop a feeling that indeed the committer of violent crime is not the true Italian. From the argument, one can deduce that the committer of violent crime is a half cast from Italians and non-Italians or simply the non-Italian inhabitants of Italy. The defensive position taken by Rev. Fr. Rieti becomes more evident when he further defends the non-true Italian by finding a scapegoat in liquor (Da Rieti et al. 30).

According to his line of thought, the liquor taken by these descendants of non-true Italians stock is the motivating factor behind all violent criminal activities they engage in during their lifetime. According to Rev. Fr. Rieti, the liquor casts an evil effect on these people, which explains why they engage in violent acts.

On the other hand, Dr. Joseph Santosuosso takes a different perspective on this matter. He begins by criticizing the question’s ambiguity in pointing out what it exactly implies when it links Italians to violent crime.

He strikes a delicate balance between defending the Italians from what appears to him as a scathing attack on the character of Italians and portraying the Italian as a victim of circumstances who cannot be expressly blamed for the crimes s/he commits (Da Rieti et al. 30). It might be a little confusing trying to come up with a distinct position from Dr. Santosuosso’s argument. However, by scrutinizing Santosuosso, it is apparent that he subscribes to the principle of none harm, do none harm, and much less let another person do the same.

He refutes the idea of portraying Italians as murders, as according to him, that is the impression given by the question (Da Rieti et al. 30). He paints a beautiful picture of the Italians and their progenitors to make a point that they are a blameless populace and attributes this beauty to the emotions of the Italians.

According to Dr. Santosuosso, long before he wrote the article, Italians found many emotional outlets in the many noble activities they engaged in. However, around the time of writing the article, Italians found no outlets to release their pent-up emotions. He attributes this phenomenon to several frustrations that Italians faced in Italy, viz. poverty, limited room for bargaining, and poor socio-economic conditions (Da Rieti et al. 30).

However, he is quick to point out that even though he argued to the effect that some conditions were underlying Italian propagated crime, the rates were not extraordinary. He admits that Italians were responsible for some violent crimes, but only to the extents that were comparable with other races.

He also went ahead and gave an explanation for what he thought could be the cause. The word vendetta, which is associated with violent vengeance among Italian families, may paint a history of violent crime, but perhaps this aspect could just be due to the lack of nouns for the same activities in other races. Scrutiny of the history of other races may as well reveal vengeance to the extents that may surpass the levels at which the Italians practiced it.

These two men cautiously studied the Italians’ way of life in order to come up with the responses they wrote to the question that was posed. The approaches were different, but they both made a point concerning their positions on the matter.

Rev. Fr. Da Rieti’s overall position was that particular groups of people claim to be Italians, but they are not true Italians who are responsible for violent crime among the Italian circles (Da Rieti et al. 30). To propagate such an idea is tantamount to exempting the entire Italian race from any criminal doing and squarely placing blame on one group of which according to Rev. Fr. Rieti, is non-Italian.

This view is the main point of argument propagated by this individual yet it clearly does not add up. The position taken by Dr. Santosuosso is more sensible. He does not get into the details of the Italian people and their bloodlines, but he treats them as Italians for that is how the question does. The gist of his argument is that Italians, just like any other race, are by no means entirely angelic in character (Da Rieti et al. 30).

He acknowledges that a society without crime is remotely conceivable, as supported by the following excerpt: “Regardless of the facts of a rural dwellers nativity, racial characteristics, language, and customs, be they American, German, French, or Italian, the country inhabitant tends to react the same way as regards crime in the rural economy” (Ross 203).

The study of crime over the years has brought people to the understanding that criminal activity is motivated by certain underlying factors. In this line of argument, Rev. Fr. Da Rieti asserts that the few non-true Italians engage in violent crime under the influence of liquor.

Based on this argument, the final position he takes is that, if the multitude of kitchen barrooms in their settlements could be eliminated, crime would be greatly reduced (Da Rieti et al. 30). This argument fully attributes any violent criminal activity to drunkenness. However, this form of thinking cannot be true in a society as causative factors behind crime always vary for people have a variety of personalities and so they will react differently to different stimuli.

Dr. Santosuosso once again points that the crimes that have reportedly been committed by Italians are due to the frustrations that they faced without proper channels of releasing their pent-up emotions (Da Rieti et al. 30). He goes ahead to explain that this phenomenon would be the case with many other people if placed under the same circumstances.

Conclusion

These two individuals both take a defensive position in favor of the Italian race. However, Dr. Santosuosso is keen to point out that his arguments are not hinged on the fact that he is of Italian origin, but are based on a personal understanding of the Italian race and his beliefs. Clearly, the Italian race has been unfairly accused of being a violent race from the arguments of the two individuals. Crime is part of society and it occurs within any race as long as there are ambient conditions.

Works Cited

Calvanese, Ernesto, and Chiara Colosimo. “Kind men’s violence. Quo vadis” Italian Journal of Criminology 2.1 (2007): 157-183. Print.

Da Rieti, Badaracco, Giuseppe De Marco, Joseph Santosuosso, and George Scigliano. “Is the Italian more prone to violent crime than any other race?” The Boston Sunday Globe 4 Aug.1901: 30. Print.

Moehling, Carolyn, and Anne Piehl. “Immigration, Crime, and Incarceration in Early Twentieth-Century America.” Demography 46.4 (2009): 739-763. Print.

Ross, Harold. “Crime and the Native Born Sons of European Immigrants.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 28.2 (1937): 200-07. Print.

Introduction

This article deals with such concepts as legitimacy, state crime, hegemony and civil society. Ward and Green (2000) try to define the concepts and provide specific examples to illustrate their arguments. Notably, the authors consider the concepts on different levels. Thus, they focus on the civil society within countries and consider the global civil society. The researchers also try to explain how state crime occurs. It is necessary to add that Ward and Green (2000) employ criminological framework to analyze the concepts in question.

Data

The authors consider a number of definitions and frameworks provided by renowned researchers. Ward and Green (2000) also consider particular examples of such countries as Turkey, Chile, sub-Saharan countries. The authors also analyze the role of such international organizations as EU and WTO.

Findings

In the first place, the researchers define the state. They note that a conventional view on the society is still up-to-date as societies are entities that exercise power, can use force to defend this power and have right to levy certain taxes. Ward and Green (2000) also consider the concept of legitimacy and claim that this concept involves shared beliefs.

Though, the researchers also stress that the concept of legitimacy is closely connected with the question of degree. Hence, shared beliefs are often shared by several groups within a country. In many countries, these shared beliefs are not shared by all members of the society.

This leads to certain legitimacy deficit. Thus, the legitimacy deficit is “a discrepancy” between legitimate goals and “what can be achieved within the rules” (Ward & Green, 2000, p. 78). The authors note that the concept of legitimacy is closely connected with the concept of the civil society. The civil society is constituted by people as well as organizations (religious institutions, mass media, etc.) that share similar values and set certain goals. Ward and Green (2000) stress that a strong civil society limits state crime.

This is also associated with the concept of hegemony. Hegemony is “the ability of a ruling group” to maintain its legitimacy by justifying its practices and developing certain values (Ward & Green, 2000, p. 80). The researchers note that several types of hegemony exist and focus on ‘clientelistic’ societies where hegemony often leads to corruption and numerous violations. The ruling elites provide certain material benefits for the ruling group and secure its hegemony.

Applications

The researchers also claim that global hegemony also persists. Such organizations as the UN, the EU, the WB, the WTO, and the IMF play a significant role in securing global hegemony.

Though, Ward and Green (2000) also emphasize that global organizations often focus on such values as diminishing tortures and murders, access to education, participation in political processes, etc. At the same time, these organizations also pursue certain economic goals and justify or keep unnoticed certain state crimes due to their interests (access to oil and other natural resources, strategic alliances, etc.).

Finally, the authors note that global hegemony still affects countries and can make ruling groups reduce state crime. Shaming and labeling along with certain sanctions can be effective tools to diminish state crime if a country longs for being represented in international organizations. Therefore, the global civil society is able to spread universal values and secure basic human rights. The authors also note that understanding of the nature of hegemony, civil societies and state crime can help develop tools for diminishing state crime.

Conclusions

Ward and Green (2000) conclude that criminology provides the necessary framework for analysis of such concepts as hegemony, civil society and state crime. The researchers also note that analysis of these concepts and correlation between them can help understand the nature of state crime.

Response

This article provides valuable insights into the nature of state crime. The contemporary society can be characterized by numerous crimes and violations. Therefore, it is essential to understand the reasons for these crimes and diminish state crime. The authors provide analysis of a number of concepts and explain major peculiarities of contemporary societies. Hence, the definition of hegemony is very precise.

I agree with the authors and believe that hegemony involves sharing certain believes. I also believe that ruling groups tend to justify certain violations as they are capable of providing material benefits for certain groups in the society. I also agree that international institutions are able to affect governments. I also believe that these institutions also violate rights and keep some violations ‘unnoticed’ when they pursue their interests.

Nonetheless, I do not agree with the statement that shaming and labeling can be effective. Even though some governments strive to be represented in certain international institutions, they will continue violating people’s rights. I think only strict sanctions can force governments to stop inappropriate policies. It is also necessary to note that the article does not contain an answer to an important question. It is still unclear how understanding of state crime dynamic can diminish it and lead to development of the global civil society.

Reference List

Ward, T., & Green, P. (2000). Legitimacy, civil society, and state crime. Social Justice, 27(4), 76-93.

Introduction

It should be stressed that the same concept or idea could be confirmed successfully by diametrically opposing points of view. Finding the truth depends on how thoroughly and critically the situation is examined. The basis of civic virtue lies in the ability to convincingly present one’s point of view, especially in cases when the truth might be contradictory. This paper will consider a situation when a best friend confides that he or she committed a violent crime against a known criminal. One argument is that the confidante should go to the police and report this information, for no one is above the law. Another reasoning is that one might argue that this information should be concealed since the person’s best friend is involved in it, thus, it is inappropriate to reveal the truth, law notwithstanding. The purpose of this paper is to investigate two opposing sides of an issue.

One Side

It is worth noting that a person hiding the fact of a committed crime becomes a criminal himself or herself. In the law, as well as in the moral life of society, it is considered that concealment, non-disclosure, and connivance are the types of implications to the crime. Initially, it can be assumed that concealment does not have a common criminal nature with the violation (Al Qudah 9). As stated by Jackson, it is difficult to “accurately and defensibly capture the different ways that individuals contribute to wrongdoing” (879). However, failure to provide information to the police, along with other circumstances, is causally linked to the committed crime and can lead to repeated misconduct. Thus, if a person does not contact the authorities about the fact of crime commitment, he or she becomes an accomplice to it and must bear the appropriate punishment for it.

In addition, determining criminal liability plays a crucial role in combating law violations. The preventive value of this type of liability is not fulfilled in the severity of punishment but in its inevitability. It is not important that a crucial punishment is imposed for a crime, but it is the fact that no criminal case remains undisclosed (Braswell et al. 187). Disclosure of misconduct is one of the most important conditions for a successful fight against crime and serves as a guarantor of the inevitability of punishment for breaking the law. Concealing a crime is a socially dangerous act, which seriously harms the fight against law violation and prevents the effective functioning of the justice system (Wrigley and Priaulx 171). Thus, by turning to the police, the person will fulfill his or her civic duty and will contribute to a more harmonious life of society in which there is no place for crime and impunity.

Opposite Side

Concealing the information about the crime can be possible if its nature is adverse and dual. For instance, if the committed crime is directly linked to severe consequences for the friend’s family and the punishment does not cover the loss or damage. Law cannot consider all the possible aspects of crime and sometimes it is explainable that people might want to revenge (Wrigley and Priaulx 171). As stated by Al Qudah “much of the controversy surrounding the discussion of the moral foundations of criminalization and the imposition of criminal liability relates to the question as to whether certain types of behaviours should be criminalized because of ‘individual intuition’ of their immorality” (8). For example, if the perpetrator was a pedophile-rapist and the victim was the friend’s child, it might be understandable that the parent might resort to lynching and some people will find it natural. This approach is referred to such cases when no severe actions were made towards the known criminal (such as killing or adverse effects to health), but the crime did take place. This is a controversial context, and a person might choose to have passive civil position. That is to say, he or she intentionally chooses to remain silent as the crime involves such complex ethical concerns that are beyond individual’s reasoning.

Further on, in some cases, the best friend is equal to a family member and the ethics suggests that a person is not obliged to reveal certain information about family members. From the legal point of view, if the person is not technically related to the individual, he or she shall not be considered a family member. Nevertheless, moral reasoning, ethics, and morale lie beyond legal provisions (Braswell et al. 189). For some people, a friend might be much more a family than his or her parents were. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that someone might consider the best friend a family member and he or she will be reluctant to disclose any information to the police relying on the idea that no person has to testify against family members. Thus, it is not always possible to decide whether particular conduct of a person was proper or not (Jackson 880).

Conclusion

It can be concluded that adherence to law is the basic principle of secure society life. Nevertheless, it cannot review all the possible situations since human relationships are complex. Thus, many issues can emerge, which will influence the way the situation is perceived and should be evaluated. In the situation discussed throughout the paper, it is impossible to affirm unequivocally which of the two ways is correct due to the fact that the context is unclear. Nevertheless, it can be stated that committing a crime is impermissible. If everyone with no exclusions follows the law and the basic ethical postulates, there will be no need to weigh the facts in favor of a specific argument since no crime will be committed in the first place.

Works Cited

Al Qudah, Mouaid. “The Moral Foundations of Criminal Liability.” Intellectual Property Rights, vol. 2, no. 3, 2014. Web.

Braswell, Michael, et al. Justice, Crime, and Ethics. Routledge, 2014.

Jackson, M. (2016). “The Attribution of Responsibility and Modes of Liability in International Criminal Law.” Leiden Journal of International Law, vol. 29, no. 3, 2016. Web.

Wrigley, Anthony, and Nicky Priaulx. Ethics, Law and Society. Ashgate Publishing, 2013.

Introduction

Literature review is a necessary process that allows researchers to be aware of research that has been conducted in their area of interest (Webster and Watson, 2002). It thus avoids unnecessary repetition of research. Additionally it allows the researchers to integrate the work of other researchers into their own. By conducting literature review researchers can be familiar with methods that work and challenges that are unique in their areas of study.

Topic and context of study

The review covers the topic of drug misuse and its impact on crime. Best, et al. (2001), conducted a research on the polydrug users who reported for treatment. The focus of the study was on crime and expenditure. According to Best, et al. (2001), the aim of the study was to find out if there is a correlation between treatment for drug use using methadone and crime. It also aimed to find out if crime is related to crime that seeks to support drug habit. There have been numerous studies conducted to access the effectiveness of drug treatment.

There has also been much research done to find out if drug treatment that substitute Opiate are beneficial. The study concentrates on the interaction of replacement of opiates and benefit in reducing crime. Crime is one of the consequences and cause of crime. The study is necessary in order to understand if the treatment of replacing opiates is indeed helpful.

One was of measuring this is in the levels of crime committed by those on opiates and those on methadone treatment. If the research finds that the treatment does not help in reducing crime attributed to drug misuse, then it would follow that new treatment options should be tried.

Study of this nature is important to the study of drugs in general because it provides additional knowledge on drug use. In the study by Best, et al. the knowledge gained is specific about the motivation for drug use and motivation for crime for drug users. It also helps in the evaluation of some treatment options and their effectiveness and pinpointing why the methods fail.

The literature review conducted by Best et. Al (2001), was related to their subject of study. One of the study they reviewed was conducted by Ball and Ross in 1991. This study examined methadone maintenance treatment and its effectiveness (Ball and Ross, 1991). This was an important review since the topics are closely related. It provided the research with insights into relevant information that would facilitate their research.

Type of review

Best, et al. Literature review was integrative. According to Friedman (2006), this is because it concentrated on finding out what was known about the topic at the beginning of their study. The review traces relevant studies that have been conducted and their findings. The review also looked at the concentration of most of the research done on the topic which has been based on several hypotheses.

The research sought to test the hypotheses and gain more knowledge which may present a more fitting hypothesis. The literature used also justifies the way Best, et. al conducted their own research. According to Levy and Ellis (2006), a review informs a researchers methodology, approach and validity of the research.

Breath of Review

The literature review by Best, et. Al (2001), has breath of review sufficient for its study. Since their topic of study is quite narrow they have taken literature that sufficient for their research (Shaw, 1995). The literature review is thus not very broad. A literature review needs to be broad enough to cover necessary content of the research. By using sufficient literature review Best, et al. (2001), demonstrate how their research builds into what has been done before. Best, et al. (2001), target literature that has specifically addressed their topic.

Depth of Review

The literature review used has slightly more depth since it is narrow. According to levy and Ellis (2006), a literature review should be deep enough to offer grounds for synthesis and analysis. Best, et al. conducted a literature review that is not very deep. This is possibility due to the scope of their study which is not big. However the review is enough to direct to relevant conclusions, methods and significance of previous studies while indicating the importance of previous studies to the one being undertaken (Friedman, 2006; Levy and Ellis, 2006).

Methodology

The method used in the research by Best, et al. was appropriate for their research. This is because the tools they used were appropriate and have been tested in corresponding researches (Best, et al., 2001). In previous researches interviews have been effective in providing reliable information. This proved to be of importance to the research as interviews could also be used in the research without compromising the outcome. Additionally the researchers became aware of several challenged.

For one the researchers realized that to get genuine answers from the interviewees they would have to give them a separate background to their treatment center. This would allow the interviewees to separate the work of the researchers from their daily experiences at the center and feel more free. The researchers thus moved the interviews from the regular center room.

In addition the researchers realized that they needed to reassure the interviewees of confidentiality. This was based on the nature of the questions asked during th interview. The interviewees were self reporting and needed to be reassured that whatever was discussed during the interviews was confidential. That allowed the self reporting to be genuine and honest.

An alternative method that may have been used is questionnaire. This is because the interview questions could be administered in that way and is more cost effective and easier to analyze (Survey Systems, 2007-10)

Contribution of research and its conclusions

The research reached the conclusion that there is no significance in the committing of crime by those who are on opiates and those who are receiving methadone treatment. This is of importance to field of knowledge as it reveals that methadone may not be having as much benefit as it is intended to. The treatment with methadone is aimed at helping individual seeking treatment to stop drug misuse and to help society as well. However if it is not achieving this purpose this research gives cause to reevaluate the need of the treatment.

Conclusion

The research conducted by Best, et al. has made important contribution to the field of study on drug misuse. It had a sufficient literature review. The research also used an effective methodology and reached valid conclusions based on its findings. It has contributed to knowledge and provided areas into which other research can be conducted in future.

References

Best, D. et al., 2001. Crime and expenditure amongst polydrug misusers seeking treatment. British Journal of Criminology, 41 (1), pp. 119-126.

Friedman, L. W., 2006. Writing the literature survey paper. (Online). Web.

Levy, Y. and Ellis, T. J., 2006. A systems approach to conduct an effective literature review in support of information systems research. Information Science Journal, 9 (6), pp. 181-126.

Shaw, J., 1995. A Schema approach to the formal literature review in engineering thesis. System, 23 (3), pp 325-335.

Survey Systems., 2007-10. Survey design. Web. Available at https://www.surveysystem.com/sdesign.htm .

Webster, J. and Watson, R. T., 2002. Analysing the past to prepare for the future: writing a literature review. Journal of Management Information System, 26 (2), pp. 13-23.

Rape can be defined as sex that one does not agree to. This includes forceful penetration of a body part or object into the vagina, rectum, or mouth without consent. Being raped by someone that you know or a stranger is considered rape if there was no consent. Date rape is defined as forceful sexual contact with an unwilling partner that is either preceded by some social contact/interaction of foreplay. This normally occurs within social relationships. Date rape can be between bosses, a friend of friends, friends, coworkers, or even delivery guys, other terms used to refer to date rape include sleep rape, contact rape, or acquaintance rape. This is because the rapist is usually known to the victim; this may include people like acquaintances, people who are dating, friends, or people who are romantically involved. Date rape normally happens/occurs within the social construct. Mostly both parties are under the influence of either alcohol or other drugs. This normally impairs the reasoning of the rapist and at the same time, it impairs the defense of the victim. Date rape usually involves some coercion which can take different forms which include physical, emotional, or verbal coercion.

No one has the right to force another person to have sex, whether they are in an existing relationship or not. When people talk and think about rape, they always assume that it can only happen if it is done by strangers. But unfortunately, studies have shown that half of all the people who are raped know the rapist. Even if these people know each other well or even if they were intimate or have had sex before, no one has the right to force anyone into having sex against his or her will. So date rape and stranger rape should be classified as the same. This is because rape is not an act of love but rather it involves a lot of violence and aggression. Rape is always the fault of the rapist but never the victim. This is the reason why most rape victims do not report date rapes because they tend to feel that it is their fault. They feel like they let it happen. But this is not the case. This is because no one owes anyone sex even if the two people are dating or in an intimate relationship. Sex should be something that the two people agree about. A healthy relationship is based on love and respect and a person who respects his/her partner will never force or rather pressurize him/her to have sex. If this happens, then it should be treated as a crime because it deprives the victim of both emotional and physical autonomy and privacy and is not an agreement between the two parties.

Date rape should be treated as a crime just like stranger rape. This is because it has the same consequences as stranger rape. In both situations, the victim is left traumatized and has a lot of mixed feelings that affect her. These include feelings like guilt, confusion, shame, denial, lack of trust, shock, fear, helplessness, and self-doubt. Rape messes up the self-esteem of the victim be it a date or stranger rape. Just because one has been raped by a person who is known to him/her, this does not reduce the pain and trauma associated with rape. In both situations, that is, date and stranger rape the violation of the victim’s right has occurred. The victim suffers just as much in the date rape. They both live very deep and lasting emotional scars.

Both date and stranger rape is an act of violation of a victim’s rights and respect. Therefore any act which denies a person his/her rights should be treated as a crime. This is because if a person has not given his/her consent, then it means that the rapist is acting against the will of the victim. This action affects the lives of the victims. The victim is unable to accept what has happened due to the fear of guilt and responsibility. The long-term effect of date rape is that it makes the victim doubt her/his judgment about people. People should honor and respect other’s decisions and wishes. Just as the stranger is forcing him on the victim so is the date or acquaintance, thus both of them should be regarded and treated as similar crimes. The law is in place to protect the rights of its citizens and a person who says no to something, the no given by the victim should be taken as so.

I think date rape should be regarded and treated as the same crime as stranger rape. This is because they both violate a person’s right to chose. The choices that are made at that particular time are made by the rapist. The victim is left feeling vulnerable and not able to make any choices. Studies conducted indicate that date rape is one of the common forms of rape. That is 1 out of 4 girls are expected to be victims of rape or attempted rape before the age of 25, whereas 3 out of 5 women are being raped before age 18. So if date rape is not regarded and treated as a crime, then most of the criminals/rapists will not be punished for their crimes. This is because date rape accounts for 78% of rape cases. If therapists are not convicted then it means the society will have a good number of sex offenders and most of the victims will remain unprotected. This means then that date rape will be taken as the norm. It should be made clear that even if physical violence is not used; other forms of coercion to obtain sex are also considered as rape. Date rape is just as traumatic as any other form of rape. People tend to take sexual coercion in dating or social situations as normal or as acceptable behavior. But this is not the case and the legal and judicial system should put up measures to protect and help the victims of date rape.

References

Leslie, Francis. Date Rape: Feminism, Philosophy and the Law. London: Penn State Press, 1996.