Category: Crime

Introduction

Campus Safety and security must be among the primary matters which colleges and universities should prioritize. Schools need to invest in security to proactively prevent the occurrence of any crimes or incidents, as well as give the residents a sense of protection. The following discussion will include a comparison of crime statistics between two distinct in structure and resident number facilities  Hampton University and the College of William and Mary (W&M).

Main text

The two chosen universities are different in their capacities, where Hamptons University is two times smaller than W&M College; however, such disparity provides an impressive image of how the size can influence the number of certain crimes committed. Both campuses report having permanent guards on the premises offering full service and providing comprehensive law enforcement and security. Hamptons University accounts for 43 official department positions, compared to 36 in W&M (The Hampton University, n.d., The College of William and Mary, n.d.). Both higher-education facilities are highly focused on maintaining a safe academic environment.

In terms of crime rates, the two universities display different patterns. The highest number of offenses in both facilities concerns liquor law violations. Moreover, both colleges have identical frequencies of burglary and property theft crimes, according to the recent statistics, even though they have a significant size difference (Hampton University, 2019; William & Mary, 2019). Concerning patter can be noticed in William & Mary, where recent years have demonstrated numerous cases of sexual offenses. Even though every year exhibits a slight decrease, five reported rape claims were filed in 2018, whereas Hampton University had one in the same year (Hampton University, 2019; William & Mary, 2019). Such information allows us to conclude that W&M college fails to arrest potential sex offenders, whereas both facilities struggle with burglary and liquor law violations.

Conclusion

To summarize, Hampton University and the College of William and Mary put increased focus on on-campus security, however, account for multiple severe criminal offenses including rape, burglary, and liquor law violations. Despite the difference in size, the annual reports show a similar pattern across both facilities, including property theft rates and housebreaking. The overall conclusion is that both educational amenities must put more effort into investigating and preventing the most prevalent and threatening crimes in their territories

References

The College of William and Mary. (n.d.). Staff Directory. William & Mary. Web. 

Hampton University. (n.d.). About HUPD. Web.

Hampton University. 2019 Annual Security Report (ASR). Web.

William & Mary. 2019 annual campus security and fire safety report [PDF document]. Web.

Definition and Description

An action is qualified as a crime if it offends the strong, well-defined states (sentiments) of the collective consciousness (DiCristina, 2016 p.318). A felony is a deliberate act of omission or commission of actions that contravene morals or the states of collective consciousness (DiCristina, 2016). Robbery is an excellent example of a criminal act. Robbery is any theft achieved by the use of force, threats, or violence against a person or their property. There are four distinguishing elements of a robbery: (i) the deprivation of property, (ii) the deprivation is permanent, (iii) the use of intimidation and/or violence, and (iv) the presence of the property owner or somebody else. For instance, when a hooded gunman enters a store points a gun at the cashier, and demands the cashier to empty the cash box into a bag before making away with the loot is a robbery. Robbers occur in three tiers  beginners, professionals, and desperation (opportunist) robbers (Kroese & Staring, 1994). For beginners and professionals, robbery is a rational lifelong choice, often beginning from petty crimes whereas, for opportunists, robbery is an avenue to satisfy discontentment (Kroese & Staring, 1994). Beginners and professionals take robbery as a lifelong activity while desperation robbers view it as a one-time event to solve their discontentment. Nonetheless, the motivation behind the robbery commission varies amongst the three groups.

Theoretical Analysis

The anomie-depravation-action (ADA) theory would be an appropriate framework to explain the criminal behavior of robbers. The assumption of human nature made in constructing the ADA model is that deprivation drives people to act to eliminate the demands it creates. Whether the perpetrator is a beginner, professional, or opportunist, what they have in common is that they have suffered deprivation. A second assumption is that deprivation arises from anomie only. Despite some literature showing proof of biological factors such as psychophysiology, brain, and genetics (Ling, Umbach, & Raine, 2019), ADA uses deprivation to elucidate the incentive to rob. It is rational, therefore, to assume the deprivation comes from the offenders environment  the anomie. In his work, The Division of Labor, Durkheim postulated anomie as an abnormal [anomic] form of the division of labor as cited in DiCristina (2016) p.312. When there is no adequate regulation on the relationships between the components of society, there exists an anomic division of labor. The well-defined states of collective consciousness represent the criminal laws that govern the relationships between society members (DiCristina, 2016). The underregulated interactions in society create the opportunity to commit the felony of robbery.

ADA avoids the argument in differential association theory that crime is a learned behavior instead of a biological precipitate (Maloku, 2020). ADA disregards whether the robber learned their behavior or was born one. The core of ADA is that criminal behavior has a motivation. The motivation here is the reward gained as the perpetrator seeks to eliminate a deprivation created by anomie in a society that is inadequately governed through collective consciousness because of the anomies existence. The action of the offender completes the framework because if the depraved individual does not act, then there is no crime.

Implications for Public Policy

In terms of policy, what matters is not the efficacy of punishment, rehabilitation, longer prison terms, or more police officers in the streets to correct criminal behavior. As the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2018) posit, the best cure for crime is proactive policing, the main tool of which is predictive policing. This tool uses geospatial prediction with software-generated maps and analytics to predict the time, location, and even the nature of a crime likely to occur. Provided that the anomie and deprivation are present in society, individuals will be driven to acts of crime. Proactive policing is better than active one because it does not only resolve past crimes it also uses previous criminal data, trends, and activities to predict the probability of crime incidences. Embracing proactive policies emphasizes more on preventing criminal activity than on how well to punish a wrongdoer.

References

1. DiCristina, B. (2016). Durkheims theory of anomie and crime: A clarification and elaboration. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 49(3), 311-331. doi: 10.1177/0004865815585391
2. Kroese, G., & Staring, R. (1994). Commercial robbers and decision making (Dutch Penal Law and Policy Notes 10). The Hague, Netherlands: WODC.
3. Ling, S., Umbach, R., & Raine, A. (2019). Biological explanations of criminal behavior. Psychology, Crime & Law, 25(6), 626-640. doi: 10.1080/1068316x.2019.1572753
4. Maloku, A. (2020). Theory of differential association. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 9(1), 170. Web.
5. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018). Proactive policing: Effects on crime and communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Web.

Information Gathering

Uniform Crime Reports are a collection of crime reports collected by law agencies within the country and submitted to the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI). The main focus of UCR is the index crimes and they provide the basis of information gathering. These index crimes are forwarded to the FBI by law agencies from all jurisdictions within the country every month. The index crimes may either have been reported to law enforcement agencies or they may have been discovered by police officers. The number of cases investigated and cleared is also reported to the FBI. The FBI then summarizes and compiles all the forwarded data and publishes the crime statistics to the public.

Index Offences

There are 8 index offenses which are further subdivided into two categories, Violent and property.

Violent:

1. Murder
2. Rape
3. Robbery
4. Aggravated assault

Property:

1. Larceny
2. Burglary
3. Motor vehicle theft
4. Arson

Advantages and Disadvantages of UCR

The UCR Program has provided several advantages both to the general public and to law enforcement agencies and they include:

• It can be used by people in deciding business investment decisions. A place where index crimes are low suggests that it is safe hence a good place to situate a business.
• The police in an area can gauge their performance i.e. if a new method to combat crime is instituted its progress can be measured by studying the UCR index.
• Uniform Crime Reports also inform the people on specific crimes prevalent in an area. This allows them to take specific measures to rectify the situation and also to request specific services from both the law enforcement agencies and their politicians.

The UCR program has also had several criticisms. Throughout the period it has been operational, it has been found lacking in some areas which include:

• The accuracy of UCR reports is not reliable. This is because police records are voluntarily submitted to the FBI and a lot of crimes go unreported concerning robbery crimes and in some cases rape crimes.
• Data is collected only from police offices and as such it is not uniform. Each state has its own definition of a crime and the level with which an act is a crime and as such, certain acts may be viewed as a crime in one state and not in another.

Total Index Crimes 2005

In 2005, a total of 11,565,499 index crimes were reported in the country. The number of violent crimes was 1,390,745 while property crimes reported were 10,174, 754.

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

Information Gathering

Data to be used in constructing the crime index for NCVS is gathered using surveys on random households. A total of about 77,000 households are interviewed each year about the frequency of victimization and the effects of victimization they have been through. NCVS mainly deals with the 8 index crimes used in UCR. After every 6 months, all members above the age of 12 are interviewed in the selected households and the household remains in the survey sample for a period of 3 years.

Type of information provided by NCVS

The survey provides various data about the index crimes. It samples the total number of crimes that one has been a victim of within the past 6 months. Also included are the aspects of the crime such as the nature of the crime, effect on the victim, Whether the crime was reported, if alcohol drugs or weapons were used by the offender, relationship between the offender and the victim, the characteristics of the criminal, results of the victimization, certain demographic information e.g. race of the victim and the offender, amount and kind of property lost and self-protective actions taken by the victim.

Crimes committed in 2005

In 2005 NCVS estimated that about 23 million property and violent crimes were committed against U.S. citizens aged 12 and above. The number of violent crimes committed was given as 5.2 million while the number of property crimes was about 18 million.

Crime reporting trends

From the comparison of the two reports it can be seen that while property crimes compiled are relatively close, the number of violent crimes stated by each varies widely. The crime that differed more was rape whereby NCVS reported a value of 188,960 while UCR reported a value of 94,347 showing more than half of rape cases were not reported. Larceny/theft crimes were also not reported as much since NCVS reported a value of 13,605,590 while UCR gave a value of 6,783,447. The most reported crime was motor vehicle theft. The number quoted by UCR (1,235,859) is greater than that given by NCVS (978,120) for motor vehicle theft.

Characteristics of a victim of aggravated assault

There are several characteristics most victims of aggravated assault share. Most young children who are victims of assault tend to share the same tendencies as their offenders mainly anti-social behavior and impulsive tendencies. According to NCVS, African Americans are more likely to be victims of aggravated assaults (twice as likely as the white population). The victims of aggravated assault are mainly between the ages of 12 to 25, those between 16 to 25 accounts for 50% of all aggravated assaults. The victims of aggravated assault are mainly male and NCVS also notes that are likely not to be married.

UCR and NCVS statistics about crime trends

Since 1960 crime has been on an upward trend. In 1960 UCR reported a total of 3.38 million crimes while in 2005 this figure had risen to 11.5 million. UCR data also shows a steady decline in the total number of crimes from the period 2005 to 2008. The figure given for 2008 is 11.1 million, 400,000 lower than that in 2005. The increase in crime since 1960 can be attributed to various factors. First is the rise in poverty levels in the country, due to the increasing number of poor people in this country, the number of criminals has been constantly growing. The second possible reason is the affluence that the country has been experiencing. Due to affluence, criminals have more targets to go after thus an increase in crime. The degradation of moral order and family problems can also be a cause for the increase in crime during this period. The reduction in crime levels can be attributed to better policing and stringent punishment for offenders. Most criminals acting in the year 2005 are now in jail and this can be attributed to the decrease in crime levels.

There is also a seasonal pattern to crimes. UCR and NCVS have showed us that aggression crimes increase during the summer while property crimes are usually high late in the year (September to December). The rise of aggression crimes can be attributed to increased interactions during the summer while property crimes mainly increase during the holiday periods due to increased opportunities.

Repeat Victimization

Shermans hotspots of crime findings

A hotspot can be described as a small geographical unit where crime is very common. It is a point where crime is concentrated and where many crimes usually of a predatory nature are repeatedly occurring. According to Sherman, hotspots arise because people tend to cluster into small nodes of activities (389). This allows offenders to select and target their victims easily thus favoring the given point as their base of attack. Crimes that are usually constrained in a hotspot include robbery, car theft, rape and domestic violence. Hotspots include places like intersections, parks, bus depots, etc. Sherman hotspots tend to look mostly on the place where a crime is repeatedly occurring than the offender.

The control of hotspots may offer a very effective way of reducing crime in a given area. Hotspots are chronic and stubborn, they attract more people and police efforts to curb them are usually in vain. Knowledge of hotspots may enable the general public to avoid these places and to collaborate with law enforcement agencies to clean out these sites.

Reasons for repeat victimization

There are two primary reasons why repeat victimization occurs. The first reason is referred to as the boost explanation. This refers to the role of repeat offenders in crimes being committed. The second reason is referred to as flag explanation. This refers to the attractiveness of victims to certain offenders or the vulnerability of victims to a particular crime. In the flag explanation, victims include corner properties prone to theft, taxi drivers prone to victimization (robbery or car theft), etc. In the boost explanation, specific offenders may have intimate details about their victims and due to their initial success, they are attempted to carry out the attack repeatedly.

Crimes likely to be of repeat victimization

According to the international victims survey, crimes mainly connected with repeat victimization include:

• Sexual assault  46% repeat offenses
• Assault (Domestic, general)  41% repeat offenses
• Robbery  27% repeat offenses
• Vandalism to the vehicle  -25% repeat offenses
• Theft from vehicle  21% repeat offenses
• Car theft  20% repeat offenses
• Burglary  17% repeat offenses

Domestic assault both physical and sexual is the most common cause of repeat victimization.

Effect of time frame on repeat victimization

All repeat offenses share the same characteristic in that they usually occur quickly. In most cases the offense is repeated within one week of the initial attack. This early phase where re-victimization mainly occurs does not last long however and the risk of re-victimization usually declines rapidly to the point where it is equal to those who have never experienced victimization. When considering burglary, 60% of repeat offenses occur within the first month and by the second month this figure drops to 10%.

Recent research has introduced the notion of the bounce effect. This is where re-victimization occurs after the risk has been in the declining phase. This is mainly attributed to the offender taking some time off since he perceives the victim to be on high alert after the first attack. The time between two repeat offenses varies with the type of crime with domestic violence having the shortest period between attacks (15% occur within a day).

Cost of crime in dollars

The cost of crime is the total amount of money lost or spent in connection to a given crime (Miller 186). It is that amount of money that an individual and the general society have to part with, due to the situation brought about by a crime. It incorporates the cost of lost quality of life due to death and monetary value of non-fatal attacks and psychological injuries. The cost involved to both victims and the society includes:

• Medical costs  these are the cost incurred during treatment of a victim after a crime due to bodily harm
• Mental health costs  These are the cost incurred in dealing with post-traumatic stress and other psychological injuries
• Victim Services  Most states have founded sites to care for victims e.g. shelters for battered women.
• Emergency response cost  Cost incurred by police and ambulance services.
• Productivity losses  This involves the money lost due to murders and also the workdays lost due to injuries of an attack.
• Loss of quality of life  This involves the amount of money lost due to extra measures taken for security and the estimated amount a jury verdict would pay for pain, suffering and lost quality of life (Miller 189).

Second Insult to crime victims

Second insult describes the situation whereby victims of crime are subjected to more victimization by the authorities. This occurs mostly when law enforcement agencies having encountered many crimes; fail to understand that victimization is rare for most people. A victim being vulnerable after a crime is prone to many emotions and without the understanding of the authorities feels dejected, desperate, angry and confused as to why everyone is rude.

Criminal Justice System

Services/programs available to crime victims

The law has granted victims of crime various rights that aim to protect them. They include proper treatment by the authorities, the right to be heard, the right to press charges and the right to information about the particular case. Over the years, several programs have been instituted to help victims of crime. They include:

• Office for Victims of Crime
• Office of Justice Program Crime Victims Services
• The Crime Victim Assistance Program
• Crime Victims Compensation Program
• Victims of Crime Act (VOCA)

Services required from Prosecutors

• Must act in a fair and impartial manner
• Must ensure all evidence relating to a crime is collected and presented to the court in a timely manner
• Must make a good faith effort to notify a victim of any plea agreement recommendation
• Ensure the guilty are brought to justice and the innocent not unjustly sentenced.
• Must ensure the victims rights are upheld in any case and have the right to inform the court of any objections the victims might so pose.

Which unmet needs for services do victims want the most?

According to the Office for Victims of Crime, there is an obligation (moral and legal) to respond to victims by our justice system that has not been effectively carried out over the course of history. This is one of the most unmet needs that victims require. The justice system should also provide swift justice while at the same time easing the suffering of the victims. Victims also require the following things:

• Safety: Protection from offenders and re-victimization
• Access: opportunity to participate in the justice system process
• Information: Written and verbal information on the justice system and victims services is available in a friendly and concise way
• Support: Assistance programs to help cope with the event and also assist in understanding the justice system
• Voice: Victims need to be empowered to speak during their cases so that they can influence the laid out agency and system-wide policies.

Examples of emergency services, financial assistance, information, and referrals to community programs to be provided by the police, courts, and corrections

• Office for Victims of Crime
• Office of Justice Program Crime Victims Services
• The Crime Victim Assistance Program
• Crime Victims Compensation Program
• Victims of Crime Act (VOCA)
• Federal Victims and Witness Protection Act
• Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act
• Abuse victims Hotline
• Tragedy Assistance Program for Survivors
• Victim Services 2000
• FBI Office for Victim Assistance
• Outpost for Hope

Among these listed services and programs, the Office for Victims of crime has been of the greatest assistance to victims nationwide. It aims at reaching victims wherever they are, helping victims adapt and get through the crime, helping victims to understand and participate in the justice system, and also providing a safe environment for victims. The other two programs that are helpful are the abuse victim hotline and the FBI Office of Victims Assistance. The victims hotline helps those who may be ashamed to come public but are still in need to talk to someone. A lot of victims out there suffer alone without anyone to talk to since they are afraid of public opinion. The FBI office for victims assistance helps in helping those involved in federal cases and at times collaborates with the protection program to ensure victims of crime being investigated by the FBI are constantly informed on how the case is going and are also kept safe during this period.

Works Cited

Sherman W. Lawrence, Gatrin, R. and Buerger, M. Hotspots of Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Places. Criminology 27 (1989): 27-55. Print

Miller R. Ted Victim Costs of Violent Crime and Resulting Injuries. Health Affairs 8.2(1993): 186-196. Print

Introduction

Every state in the United States and the world experience some sort of crime at one time or another. Texans experience crimes that come in different forms. To correctly assess and measure the trends of crime, Texas takes part in the Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR) which enables the indexing of crime by primary analysis.

The Crime Index

The crime index is a statistical summary tool that is used by the Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR) to map crime variations and trends. All the crimes in this group are regarded as dangerous either because of how frequently they are committed or because of the nature of the crime; therefore, they are a challenge to the law enforcement agencies in Texas.

Crimes in the Crime index can further be categorized as being either violent or property crimes. Violent crimes include forceful rape, murder, manslaughter, assault, and robbery among others. Property crimes include theft of the motor vehicle, larceny-theft, and burglary among others.

Crime Analysis in Texas

Crime trends are analyzed in two different methods: There is crime volume method and crime rates method.

Crime volume is done by basically comparing the number of crimes from year to year. These can be reported crimes, crimes committed, or studied crimes.

For crime rates, crime studies are compiled in such a manner to compensate for the geographical diversity of the state of Texas. The crime rates method puts into consideration the number of people affected by the crime and the population density. This report generally reports crimes per 100,000 Texans.

Crime volume in Texas

In the year 2008, An estimated 1,107,024 offenses were reported and recorded in Texas. This was a 2.3% increase compared to the year 2007 figures. Besides that, a total of 6,003 Arson cases were reported which represented a drop of 8.3% from the year 2007.

Crime Volumes in Texas between 1994 and 2008

Crimes by volume index

Violent Crime Data

Property crime Data

Total accumulated Crimes comparison (2007  2008)

Crime rates in Texas  2008

In 2008, the estimated crime rate in Texas, which has a population of 23,904,380 was 4631.1 crimes for every 100,000 Texans. This figure compared to the 2007 figures show an increase compared to the 2007 figures by a rate of 0.7%.

Annual Texas Crime Trends  2008

From the graph below, it is easy to note that the peak month of crime in 2008 in the state of Texas was July, with a recorded offense numbering up to 100,000. February recorded the lowest levels of criminal activity for the whole year as per the graph below.

Monthly Texas crime index

Types of Crimes

The analysis of general crime types in Texas can be easily grouped into the two categories we discussed earlier, that is crimes against persons, commonly referred to as violent crimes and property crimes. In comparing the two crime types for the year 2008, we will see that 89% of the crimes were property crimes while the rest 11% were violent crimes.

Violent crimes

Violent crimes involve personal confrontations between the crime perpetrator or perpetrators and the crime victim. Violent crimes are considered more severe than property crimes.

In 2008, a total of 122,192 violent crimes were committed, increasing by 0.4% compared to 2007. The crime rate for violent crimes was 511.2 crimes for every 100,000 people; this was a decrease of 1.2% compared to 2007.

Violent Crime Index for the past 10 years in Texas

Property Crimes

The estimated number of property crimes in the year 2008 was 984,832. This shows us an increase by 2.6% from the 2007 statistics. The Property crime rate for 2008 was 4,119.9 property crimes per 100,000 people, a 0.9% increase compared to 2007 figures.

Most of the property crimes were larceny-theft, accounting for 65% of all the property crimes, followed by burglary at 23% and theft of motor vehicles at 10%.

Property Value

The commission of crime index for 2008 found that property worth more than $2 billion was stolen in Texas. Only goods worth $550 were recovered by the Texas state police.

Arson

Arson crimes increased by 6.0% in 2008 compared with 2007 cases. The destruction of property as a result of arson crimes in 2008 was estimated at over $128 million.

Arson cases comparison in 2007 and 2007

Accumulated figures for Texas most requested arrests

Texas law enforcement officers assaulted or killed in the year 2008

In 2008, three officers of the law were feloniously killed in the line of duty as a result of criminal activity. A total of nine officers were killed during the year in accidents that relate to their duty. In 2007, 4,396 officers were assaulted but the number rose by 17.9 percent in 2008 to 5,184.

Hate Crime

Hate crime, according to the Texas crime act is a crime that is motivated by hatred and prejudice. This can be caused by prejudice based on sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, religion, and race.

Bias Motivation

Most reported crimes in Texas in 2008 were racial.

The second most reported bias was sexually followed by religion then the disability.

Frequency of crime occurrence in Texas

This is an estimate of the frequency in which crime is committed in Texas for both property crime and violent crime.

Violent crimes

According to the Justice Research & Statistics Association, murder is committed in Texas after every 5 hours and 49 minutes. A citizen is raped every one hour while robbery occurs every fifteen minutes. Aggravated assault takes place every 7 minutes.

Property crimes

A motor vehicle is stolen or vandalized every six minutes in Texas; a burglary occurs every two minutes and larceny cases take place after every fifty seconds. Combining all the figures will show that crimes take place in Texas every 29 seconds.

Injuries

The efficiency of the reporting officer mainly determines the extent of the injuries that victims of violence sustain. All injuries sustained in a crime are noted at the time of crime reporting and recording. However, the information that will later be noted on medical examination, whether the victim suffered more severe injuries or less than those recorded by the recording officer, this information will not be inserted in the complainants violence report.

Most reported cases in Texas in 2008 involving injuries were minor, accounting for 54 percent of all the cases. 42 percent of these cases were domestic, that is to say, they occurred on the family level. Of these, a total of 4 percent of all injuries were serious.

Reported lacerations in Texas accounted for 32 percent of all the injuries that resulted from violent crime. 11 percent of the cases reported later was that the injured victims had broken bones while 28 percent of the injuries reported possible internal injuries.

Weapons

The most widespread weapons that were used in the year 2008 to commit a crime in violent cases was forceful physical use of hands, fists, and feet, accounting for 78 percent of all the violent incidents in Texas.

9 percent of the reported violence cases involved the use of threats and intimidation, a crime that Texas law enforcement considers very serious. Other weapons that were used to commit violent crimes were firearms, accounting for 3 percent of the weapons used, knives and other cutting instruments (2 Percent), blunt objects (2 percent), and other weapons amounting to 5 Percent for all the cases. Other weapons, in this case, included poison, motor vehicles, fire, explosives, drugs, unknown weapons, and other miscellaneous weapons.

Case clearances

According to the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR), an offense can be cleared only after the law enforcement officers have positively identified the offender, gathered sufficient evidence to press charges and the suspected is taken into custody. The law is a jigsaw and sometimes, many suspects can be arrested in an attempt to clear one offense or at times one offender taken into custody can help clear many offenses on record. When an element that is beyond the control of the law enforcement officers prevents the pressing of charges of an offender or there exists no offender, the law enforcement may exceptionally clear a crime.

In 2008, 17 percent of all cases reported were cleared either by arrest or by other means. 40 percent of the reported violent crimes were cleared while 14 percent of the property crimes were cleared. It is easier to clear a violent crime because often, the offender confronts the victim and it is, therefore, easy to identify and arrest the perpetrator since they can be easily identified.

In the same year 2008, 14 percent of all cases solved represented; involved minors under the age of 18, meaning that 10 percent of all violent crimes and 16 percent of property crimes involved minors below the age of 18.

Conclusion

There is a need to implement serious self-defense and personal security strategies in the state to protect its citizens and their loved ones from becoming victims of such dreaded crimes.

Crimes are more recorded in urban centers and towns more compared to rural areas in Texas and the whole US in general. This is because of many factors including population density, the economic crunch, and decay in moral behavior in the United States.

As time goes by it will be witnessed that the numbers of crimes against people with disabilities will increase after viewing the trends in crime against them. As much as this can be treated as any other hate case, the rates at which the cases are increasing are alarming and need urgent attention. The state of Texas and the United States of America administration as a whole must try to come up with proper ways that will help in curbing these crimes and make the life of the American people safe.

Crime facts in Texas for 2008 at a glance

• An estimated 1,107,024 offenses were indexed in Texas State in 2008. 17 percent of these cases were cleared.
• The rate of crime in Texas in 2008 reached an index of 4,631.1 per every 100,000 Texans.
• In 2008, the law enforcement officers in Texas arrested 1,172,501 suspects. Out of these, 12 percent were aged 16 years and below.
• Property valued at 1,990,851,950 was stolen in the Texas state in 2008 and out of these, only $550 worth of property was recovered.
• Larceny-theft accounted for 59 percent of all crimes committed. The clearance rate for this crime in 2008 was 16 Percent.
• In all the murders reported in the year, 68 percent involved the use of firearms. All other weapons used in murder account for the remaining 32 percent.
• An estimated 73,570 crimes were aggravated assaults. These crimes were committed using fists, hands, and feet.
• Of all burglaries reported in the year 2008, 67 percent were residential. This means that residential burglaries are very common in Texas.
• A total of 94,026 motor vehicles were stolen, resulting in a loss of $859,745,598 in the year 2008.

References

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White-Collar Crime is a form of nonviolent crime committed by an individual of high social status or respectable position, and it is usually motivated financially. White-Collar Crime requires three conditions to be categorized as such. The offender needs to commit a crime during his or her job, his or her occupation plays an essential role in conducting the crime, and the profession is legitimate (Payne, 2017). These types of criminal activities are treated differently because an offenders high social class shapes the overall perception. The respectability of the class creates cognitive dissonance because people might not expect such behavior from these types of individuals.

There are both racial and class-based influences that allow one group to suffer fewer consequences than another. According to Mauer, laws, such as three strikes, disproportionately subjugate more minority groups due to the latter having more likelihood of having past criminal records (Mauer, 2004). In addition, sentencing is harsher for criminals with no influence compared to the ones who can have a political impact. Therefore, the linking factors are sentencing disparities based on race and political dynamics, which translate to class differences.

Media also plays a central role in promoting stereotyping because violent crimes are more visual than a crime, such as a stolen car (Mauer, 2004). For example, mass media presents a less nuanced view on the issue, where their location makes it more likely that minorities will be associated with the defendant.

Therefore, the main concern regarding intersection data is the lack of proper representation of the sample, where a minority group can be put under the spotlight without fair justification. Quantitative models of intersection do not factor in all the forces affecting the given disproportion.

References

Mauer, M. (2004). Race, class, and the development of criminal justice policy. Review of Policy Research, 21(1), 79-92.

Payne, B. K. (2017). White-collar crime: The essentials. Sage.

The given paper will primarily focus on property crime rates in Fayetteville, North Carolina. The national trends indicate that there is a gradual decrease in property crime rates in the United States. It is also true in the case of the selected city and state, where the decline is present. However, North Carolina still remains as one of the high-crime regions of the country. The majority of victims and offenders are White, but taking into account low report rates and high victimization of people of color, it is evident that African Americans and Hispanics might be more vulnerable to the crime.

The study addresses the rise of online property crime rates, which indicates that the overall decrease in the offline area is partially due to shifting to cyberspace. Property theft in cyberspace is increasing, which shows the opposite trend compared to property crime data from national statistics (Tcherni et al., 2015). The clearance rate and overall reporting measures are difficult to identify because, in most cases, the victims might not be aware that some form of sensitive information was stolen (Tcherni et al., 2015). Cybercrime often transcends state boundaries and is cross-border, and for cyber criminals operating on a global scale, there are no borders between states.

Cybercrime has international roots, and without international cooperation, exchange of information, assistance in identifying the source of an attack, and countering these attacks, it is impossible to fight cybercrime. Thus, it is important to understand that in order to counteract crimes committed using modern information technologies, the state should constantly improve the security of information systems and develop modern information technologies (Tcherni et al., 2015). It is necessary to improve legislation in the field of information crimes, develop competitive means of cybersecurity, expand international cooperation in the field of safe use of information resources.

The given report mainly addresses the national statistics of property crime in the United States. In 2019, there were about 6,925,677 property-related crimes, which is a decline of 4.1% compared to the data from the previous two years (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020a). The majority of these crimes are larceny-thefts, which include pickpocketing, shoplifting, and motor theft. In general, the situations in which property crimes are committed do not differ from the everyday ones faced every day. However, whatever the method of theft is, the role of the victim in the mechanism of committing a property crime deserves special attention. This is a type of increased human ability, due to a number of spiritual and physical qualities, under certain objective circumstances, become a target for criminal encroachments. The mechanism for committing a property crime consists of a number of basic blocks (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020a). This includes the identity of the perpetrator, the identity of the victim, and the situations of the crime as a link determined by the typical worldview of the subject and the object of criminal encroachment.

The UCR report focuses on the clearance rate statistics in the United States. In the case of property crimes, the rate is estimated to be 17.2%, which is significantly lower compared to violent crime rates of 45.5% (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020b). Clearance, in its most general form, is the knowledge of objective reality, that is, events that took place in the past. Each event, including a crime, due to its relationship with the environment, necessarily leaves its traces or imprints of the event in this situation.

The very concept of clearance is not defined in the criminal procedural legislation, however, within its meaning, it can be defined as a stage in the criminal process. In the course of disclosure, the bodies of inquiry and preliminary investigation carry out the actions provided for by the criminal procedure law, and decisions are made. The main purpose is to collect and verify evidence and quickly and completely solve crimes. In addition, it is important to include the factor of attracting the perpetrators as accused. In the course of the investigation and achievement of clearance, measures are taken to prevent and suppress crimes, to clarify and eliminate the causes and conditions conducive to the commission of a crime (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020b). In addition, efforts are important to ensure compensation for material damage caused by the crime. As follows from this statement, the investigation of a crime is part of the evidence in the criminal process.

The reference includes a table of all crime rates in the state of North Carolina, which is also categorized by cities. The property crime rate in Fayetteville is 9201, among which the larceny-thefts account for 6942 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020c). All this leads to an understanding of property crimes as a phenomenon that covers a wider range of acts. In principle, in the environment of property encroachments, a group of unlawful acts arises and develops, which are subsequently integrated into economic crimes. The concept of property crimes proceeds from the fact that a person committing a crime in this area grossly violated the subjective rights of citizens to things, where the subject of such encroachments was someone elses movable property in the sense of a physical thing.

However, it is not limited to the given concept, and subsequently from the property sphere of the person as objects subject to protection, where property rights and property, in general, can be distinguished. Thus, when the ownership of property began to be understood not only as a fact but also as a right, and the concept of property includes not only the possession of objects of the material world but also subjective rights. Criminal liability in North Carolina is designed to differentiate depending on whether the owner lost his property or all other powers.

The report is primarily based on the victimization statistics in the United States in 2019. The main offenders are White people who commit half of all crimes, whereas the victims are also mostly White at 62% (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020d). The overall victimization rate for property crimes revolves around 101.4 per 1000 households, and the burglary rate is equal to 11.7 per 1000 households (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020d). However, these estimates might not be accurate because the report rate for victimizations is the lowest among White people, and the total police reporting rate is 41% (U.S. Department of Justice, 2020d). In other words, people of color are more likely to become victims, and they are also less likely to report the crimes, which means that there are more property crimes occurring.

The better way to collect data can be conducted by increasing surveillance in African American neighborhoods. The peculiarity is due to the motivational sphere and the type of the persons criminal reaction to other peoples property, based on the stable characteristics of the activity. In addition, more than different types of crime, a victim-logical role is expressed in the formation of a specific favorable situation in the commission of a crime.

References

Tcherni, M., Davies, A., Lopes, G., & Lizotte, A. (2015). The dark figure of online property crime: Is cyberspace hiding a crime wave? Justice Quarterly, 33(5), 890-911.

U.S. Department of Justice. (2020a). Property crime. UCR. Web.

U.S. Department of Justice. (2020b). Offenses cleared. UCR. Web.

U.S. Department of Justice. (2020c). North Carolina. UCR. Web.

U.S. Department of Justice. (2020d). Criminal victimization. Web.

Abstract page

Rape laws have sought to control the sexual appetites and conduct of people through institutionalized means like marriages and other forms of consensual sexual relations. While the act of rape in itself is a heinous and reprehensible form of violence in modern society, it would not be right to suggest that rape is a physical act.

Rather it is the domination of one force over the other. There are definitely different theories about rape that could be applied in empirical situations, but it needs to consider many aspects in individual cases. The first theory that is being taken up is that from a feminist point of view, rape is perhaps an expression of the patriarchal social system which we follow. This system makes the male gender all-powerful, in his relation with other women and also with other men.

The next theory is that of Social constructs of rape that could emanate from the fact that when violence is socially condoned or exonerated, especially in the higher strata, it tends to branch off into other forms of socially undesirable offshoots. Rape definitely could be seen as one form of such social violence, It would be best to argue that it is indeed a combination of both psychological and social factors that are responsible for the current state of affairs in this area.

Both the theory that deals with human aspects and individual characteristics, including genetic, environmental, and behavioral aspects are important as is the socio-cultural scenario and landscape that favors or even encourages such deviant conduct.

Introduction

The criminal behavior that is being chosen for this paper is that of rape or forcible sexual conduct. This crime is the act of forcible sexual union with another person, against the victims will, volition and consent. In other words, rape could constitute a sexual penetration of another person, without the victims permission or consent. In todays society, rape is considered a serious crime that could even attract the death penalty, and often, Rape is found to be rated serious independently of any factors (Acock & Ireland, 1983, para.1).

Over the years, through social development and enactment of stringent laws that forbid the ravage of another person through forcible means, rape laws have sought to control sexual appetites and conduct of people through institutionalized means like marriages and other forms of consensual sexual relations. While the act of rape in itself is a heinous and reprehensible form of violence in modern society, it would not be right to suggest that rape is a physical act.

More so, it is seen as an act that perpetuates the power of the perpetrator over the victim, the enforcement of powers that the subjugator has over the victim, and not the mere physical sex act, through which dominance is established.

Research studies have established beyond reasonable doubt that there are both psychological and non-psychological theories for the occurrences of rape in American society. Through this paper, it is sought to consider rape in the context of American society, what are the psychological and non-psychological theories that motivate raping including date rapes, serial rapists, marital rapes, and what are the most compelling reasons for this kind of sexual deviation in the modern world.

Later, these theories would be applied in the actual context and how these theories would fit in the sexual crimes. Finally, it would also be necessary to consider which of the two theories does the best job of explaining involvement in rape cases and situations

That being said, it is now necessary to identify the psychological factors from the non-psychological ones. The psychological factors delve into the mind of the rapist, his mental state of mind, and psychic framework, before, during and after the perpetration of the crime. Was the rape crime revenge against a particular victim or against society as a whole?

The psychological aspects would also need to consider pent up sexual frustrations and inadequacies that finally give vent through the sexual act of rape. Other researchers have even attributed rape, not only in terms of violent behavior but also as confirmation and manifestation of ones persons authority and dominance over another, owing anothers body for pleasure and sexual enjoyment.

Description of the crime or act of delinquency you have selected for your analysis (be specific in your description)

Most of the modern criminal laws in the United States of America are based on English common law. The act of rape denotes violation of the body and spirit (being unconsensual) of the victim. However, mere words, or rhetoric cannot establish the truth in rape cases. In order to be established beyond reasonable doubt, the victim must be able to prove the following existed:

1. An act of physical and mental violation of the person had indeed taken place
2. It was performed without consent or choice, by the perpetrator(s).
3. As a consequence of this, the victim suffered injuries and trauma.

To guard against false accusations, a corroboration rule was added to the requirements. The corroboration of rape need to be confirmed through some kind of irrefutability evidence like he presence of seminal fluid or bruises sustained by the victim during scuffles or evidence or testimony borne by witnesses. Based on the English Model, US Courts had also accepted the death penalty for sexual offences, which later was reduced to life imprisonment. However, with increased rape incidences, some states have even adopted the death penalty for second conviction of rape.

Perhaps one of the major aspects in rape is the degree of coercion and brutal force used by the stronger adversary, thus creating a situation wherein the victim had no other alternative, except to be ravished and die. In quite a few cases, especially date rapes, the victims cannot prove, or deny, that they had not let them on and actually contributed through words and actions to the perpetration of the crime. This is more pronounced when drugs, alcohol and sedation is also involved.

The question of what transpires under the effects of heavy drinking, drug taking or sedation, either by one or both parties may well be outside the purview of court proceedings or inquiry. Besides, in the case of marital rape, it could be seen as the basest forms of rape that could take placeMarital rape is so destructive because it betrays the fundamental basis of the marital relationship, because it questions every understanding you have not only of your partner and the marriage, but of yourself.

You end up feeling betrayed, humiliated and, above all, very confused (Marital rape, n.d, para.5). There are definitely different theories about rape that could be applied in empirical situations, but it needs to consider many aspects in individual cases. It would be far fetched to generalise on delicate aspects of rape, especially in terms of its planning, whether pre-mediated or not, relationship or otherwise between the parties to it, incriminating and circumstantial factors, including precipitating conduct and its after effects.

In the US context, there are many myths surrounding rape, which may or may not be relevant. But the basic premise that needs to be considered is that preventive aspects of rape are more relevant. There also needs to be social awareness of the various aspects governing it, and ways and means by which this evil could be contained.Tong offers a similar conclusion about where to begin: in our schools, our churches, and in our homes.

If our children can transcend the patterns of male sexual aggression and female sexual submission that have held us captive for so long, then rape need no longer be the pervasive problem that is it today (Rape myth and the dispositionist impulse, n.d, p.118). It is now necessary to consider the psychological and non psychological context of rape in order to have a better understanding of how each underpins the other, and which of these could have a stronger impact in actual rape situations.

Description and application of the psychological theory you have selected

The theory is what I would like to enjoin first. This is that from a feminist point of view, rape is perhaps an expression of the patriarchal society system which we follow. This system makes the male gender all powerful, in his relation with other women and also with other men. Thus in a male dominated society, where women have unequal powers and perhaps even lesser participation in the criminal justice system, it is quite possible that rape perpetrators may be released scot free, and may even have to serve a lighter sentence.

The punishment does not commensurate with the crime, does not provide justice to the victims and their families, nor, in any way acts as social deterrence. The psychological theory stems from the age concept that men are stronger, bolder and worldlier conscious than women, and this has endured the passage of time and changing moral values. Again, another aspect is that many of the rape cases are not pursued or tried by the police or the law enforcement authorities.

Again, the fact that there may be little convincing, or no evidence against the suspect perpetrator may also go against the victims complaint. This theory suggests that there needs to be major reforms in rape laws that could provide commensurating rights to females to purse their cases in non male courts that could provide a greater degree of justice than what is available in a male dominated and controlled criminal justice society.

In most cases, the myths surrounding victims is that they have been unwittingly a part of the rape due to their dressing style and seductive behavior that could have instigated the perpetrator to misbelieve that the prey actually wished to have sex with the other person. Circumstantial evidence may also be clinching in this aspect. The need for the plaintiff counsel would not only be in terms of proving the case, but also in terms of proving the innocence of the rape victim.

Coming to the next aspect, a plethora of mental buildups could cause persons to commit sexual offences, including nursing grudges against society in general. Indeed, an act of rape need not be a physical act; it could be interpreted as a persons overwhelming desire to harm society or the societal strata of which everybody is a part. The innate desires of the perpetrator could range from perversion (stimulated by pornography), social malcontency and even social inadequacies and fractured family life. It could also be due to the harboring of childhood psychic injuries, or ill-treatment at the hands of women.

A person who has had a harrowing and sorrowful would carry these traumas in his psyche over time, leading to deep rooted mental maladjustments that could explain social deviant conduct, like rape and other sexual assaults. The vast majority of rapes are committed by men against women, but male-on-male rape and female sexual aggression against men have also been recognized during recent years, as reflected in changes in legal definitions as well as in research attention (Hrahe, 2010, p.217).

Description and application of the non-psychological theory you have selected

The non psychological theory is in terms of the fact that society, to a very large extent is to be blamed for the increasing degrees of proliferation of rape in this country. The Social constructs of rape could emanate from the fact that when violence is socially condoned or exonerated, especially in the higher stratas, it tends to branch off into other forms of socially undesirable offshoots.

Rape definitely could be seen as one form of social violence, and carried on a mass scale, is a major social scourge that needs to be arrested and controlled. The law enforcement authorities are only one part of the story. Citizens themselves need to guard against such social evils, and take necessary pre-emptive and pro active measures that could effectively address such concerns. Citizens Action Committees and social reform agencies need to devote time and efforts in gaining popular support for anti rape laws and the safeguarding of people interests.

The theory that seems plausible is that lack of integrity and weaker regulatory social norms are some of the major ills that has inflicted social evils like rape and non consensual sexual conduct. In all candidness, the socio cultural dividing line between rape and consensual sex is indeed blur, especially, when circumstantial evidence are lacking and the general consensus are conflicting. A lady of the street could hardly bring an action of rape, no matter how damning the evidence in her favor.

Thus, beside the psychological aspects, the social and socio cultural aspects are also influential and abiding. Social stability, the lack of progressive reforms in this direction, social indifference and an onerous and tedious legal process are enough deterrents for constructive reforms in this critical are of human living and welfare.

Analysis (state which theory does the best job of explaining the crime type)

It would be best to argue that it is indeed a combination of both psychological and social factors that are responsible for the current state of affairs in this area. Both the theory that deals with human aspects and individual characteristics, including genetic, environmental and behavioral aspects are important as is the socio cultural scenario and landscape that favors or even encourages such deviant conduct. For the perpetrators it is a form of entertainment and pleasure outlet, watching the victims squirm and suffer for the rest of their lives.

Yet the law enforcement and legislation falls short of dealing with this problem in its right perspective. There is indeed the dire necessity to translate policies and practices into actions, more so in the changing and more challenging criminal scenarios that are in store in the future of this country.

Summary and conclusion

Rape is indeed a heinous and reprehensible crime, during which unsolicited sexual license is created unilaterally. While there are many theories that try to explain rape and its perpetration, including the feminist and male chauvinistic notions, there is need to consider rape not in isolation with personality characteristics.

Societal landscapes and restrictions do place strictures of sexual conduct which, along with repressed negative emotions, does manifest in rape and forced sexual transgressions. The other theory that has been examined is that of societal mores and, perhaps a recalcitrant legal system which provides little succor for victims. On the other hand, society itself has encourage such wrongdoing by condoning violence and anti-social behavior.

The need for sound reforms and its inexonerable enforcement has not come too late. Citizens forums and action committees for one could provide the needed inputs to strike early and prevent sexual misconduct and deviance. Besides, major deterrence need to established that could offer greater protection for potential hapless victims of perhaps a social and legal system that could do with strong and enforceable laws that could guard the lives and welfare of the innocent people of this country against the evil machinations of criminal designs.

Reference List

Acock, A. C., & Ireland, N. K. (1983). Attribution of blame in rape cases: The impact of norm violation gender and sex- role attitude. Springer Link. Web.

Hrahe, B. (2010). Rape prevention. Science Direct, p.217. Web.

Marital rape. (n.d.). Hidden Hurt. Web.

Rape myth and the dispositionist impulse. (n.d.). Shen Dissertation, p.118. Web.

A hate crime is a type of crime motivated by discriminatory behavior towards particular social groups representatives. In 1968, Congress first passed the law on giving specific penalties to those who committed hate crimes (The United States Department of Justice, 2019). Reese describes the negative aspects of this law in his article. He explains it poses a potential risk to democratic notions of the country as it restricts human freedom. Despite this, the hate crime law ensures equality and safety for all, regardless of their differences, which is one of the critical factors of democracy.

On the one hand, the author of the article is right about the role of freedom of speech in the countrys administration that promotes liberty. Reese mentions the First Amendment, which covers the aspect of freedom of people to convey their thoughts without the government penalizing them (Reese, 2006). Freedom of speech is believed to be the foundation of a democratic country. As a result, hate crime philosophy contradicts the amendment and becomes a potential threat to democracy. The author proposes that totalitarianism will emerge in the state where people are jailed because of their words that are perceived as offensive by the government. He further illustrates historical situations in the Soviet Union, Germany, and Canada as examples of totalitarian states in the past, which introduced hate speech laws that restricted their peoples human rights to share their opinions and express themselves openly (Reese, 2016). Thus, the hate crime law can endanger the freedom of the population leading to a dictatorship rule.

On the other hand, the author of the article does not consider the benefits of hate crime jurisdiction, such as the providence of equality and tolerance for all regardless of ethnicity, sex, religion, or gender identity. Reese solely focuses on the influence of the law on freedom of speech. The crimes degree depends on the criminals motive, and it should always be taken into account. If a criminals purpose is not considered during the trial, the punishments fairness becomes questionable. For instance, the murders committed due to self-defense and the premeditated plan are different in severity. Similarly, crimes that are bias-motivated and motivated by the individuals hatred for a certain person should be treated differently.

The hate crime law tries to minimize aggressive behavior towards minorities and provide security for all social groups. Equality is the crucial building brick of democracy to the same extent as liberty. Furthermore, it is critical to differentiate hate crime law from hate speech law to evaluate the article. The distinction is that the first one comes to power only in case of another crime committed under other regulation such as threat, violence, or damage to a property of a victim, whereas hate speech law considers a particular speech as a crime by itself (The United States Department of Justice, 2019). Therefore, the government should focus on the direct criminal act

To conclude, the hate crime law effectively protects people from different social groups and their freedom in spite of its potential risk to an individuals right to express himself and his ideas. Hate speech should be distinct from hate crime, which is a bias-motivated felony. In this case, the government will maintain a stable social infrastructure that is both liberated and fair.

References

Reese, C. (2006). Hate crimes laws are a bad idea. In W. Vesterman (Ed.), Reading and Writing Short Arguments (5th ed., pp. 137138). The McGraw-Hill Companies.

The United States Department of Justice. Hate Crime Laws. (2019). Web.

Crime measurements are critical indicators for accepting or declining potential legislations, and these statistics help to build the correct course of action in the form of strategy among law enforcement agencies. There are three main ways to measure the overall crime rate in a particular region. Firstly, the crime data can be collected by using Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), which is a national standard to record and report all crime incidents. Secondly, the crime level can be measured through the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), which was developed by the FBI to acquire more accurate data on the subject (Maltz & Rice, 2015). Thirdly, crime rates can be obtained with the help of the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which uses victims and reports as the main source of information. All incoming reports are categorized according to the type of crime and the severity of the incident. UCR is most likely to be the most accurate and representative on a national scale, because some states, such as Hawaii, are not included in NIBRS (Hawaii, 2018). Therefore, it is important to have a universal crime data analysis system, which does not leave blind spots.

In the case of Hawaii, the level of violent crime rates is generally lower than the national statistics. For example, all violent crime rates between 2008 and 2018 for the United States is around 400 per 100000 people, whereas the number for the region is equal to 250 per 100000 (Hawaii, 2018). However, non-violent crime rates for Hawaii and the United States are similar and comparable, which was surprising. I always considered my hometown, Honolulu, to be relatively peaceful, but thefts are as common as in the mainland. The level of violent crimes was not surprising for me, because I always knew that the local people are generally less hostile and police are strong.

References

Hawaii. (2018). Web.

Maltz, M. D., & Rice, S. K. (2015). Envisioning Criminology. Springer.

Introduction

Corporate crime has been a way of life for as long as corporations have existed; however, there is a need to respect the fact that white collar crimes have become more of a reality in recent decades mostly because the role of corporations has expanded drastically.

Why it is helpful to have a topology of corporate crime  criteria used and the criteria that is most significant?

It is helpful to have a topology of corporate crime because corporate crimes are immensely diverse. Classifications therefore go a long way in helping one to understand the type of crime being discussed. There are several criteria that can be used to classify a corporate crime. For instance, a crime may be distinguished by the nature of law that has been violated such as environmental law, consumer protection law or civil/ criminal law. In other situations, the criterion used may be the agent that committed the crime such as CEOs, employees, top level or middle level managers. Sometimes, a corporate crime may be classified on the basis of the activity being carried out e.g. corporate stealing, corporate violence or corporate deceptions. Another approach is through the use of service or product involved such as health care providers crimes, banking industry crimes or automotive corporate crimes. The criteria that is mostly used to classify white collar crimes is the type of activity and the two types of approaches covered are economic exploitation / abuse of power/ fraud and corporate violence. (Freidrichs, 2007)

How corporate abuse of power, corporate fraud and corporate economic exploitation are interrelated and the segments of society that suffer from these forms of white collar crime?

The latter aspects of corporate crimes are related in that they are perpetuated by the elite that have control over means of production. The Marxist school of thought unites all these crimes by asserting that workers are rarely given the right value for their contributions. In other words, the change created by the labor offered by employees is what leads to the value associated with a certain product. Corporate abuse of power, corporate fraud and economic exploitation all have implications to the average citizen because these crimes often further corporations interests while leaving out the needs of the former party. In other words, white collar crimes such as these are often propagated by the need to increase profits at all costs. Little if any regard is given to the welfare of the employees that caused those profits in the first place. In the end, the wealthy keep getting wealthier while the oppressed keep being oppressed through these crimes. (Freidrichs, 2007)

More often than not, these forms of white collar crime are committed due to the fact that corporations have immense control and power in many countries. In developed nations, many corporations have the capacity to influence elections through aggressive lobbying and making campaign contributions. However, in less developed nations, corporations use more unconcealed forms of abuse of power, fraud and economic exploitation. This is largely because manipulating such political processes will place them at an advantage and further advance their interests.

Such forms of white collar crime are normally against the general public rather than against a certain group of people. When an individual takes part in corporate fraud, then they are in fact robbing the taxpayer. This is because revenue that was supposed to be duly collected and used to provide services to the citizenry may not be collected and this comes in the way of effective systems. Likewise, corporate abuse of power also severely affects the general public because they are the ones that keep purchasing products or services made by these corporations yet some of them may engage in practices that place the consumer at a disadvantage. Nonetheless, in other situations, abuse of power directly affects employees of organizations owing to unfair labor practices. The same may be said of economic exploitation

Types of retail crime and service fraud committed by small businesses

Retail crime may occur in the form of defrauding vulnerable people where the elderly and the poor are exploited by corporations due to their lack of knowledge on product and services. For example, some retail outlets charge ten percent more for some of their products in poorer neighborhoods than in middle class or high income areas. Also, in the funeral business, families are often made to spend much more than they can afford through elaborate funeral arrangements. As if this is not enough, small businesses in the health industry are not immune from such retail crimes. For instance, adult homes and homes for the mentally ill often overcharge their consumers or embezzle money mostly because they are dealing with vulnerable groups. (National White collar crime center, 2009)

Also, retail crime can occur through service business fraud where small businesses may inflate costs or charge consumers for repairs that are non existent. This practice is especially common in the automobile industry. Additionally, other electronic industries such as televisions, computers and the like have been notorious for this form of crime. In the health industry, a survey carried out in 1993 revealed that consumers are robbed off millions of dollars by paying up to thirty three dollars more for prescription drugs in certain pharmacies. The latter sector is actually vulnerable to service fraud because consumers may not be aware of the actual costs that they are supposed to pay for these very commodities.

Occupational crime and vocational crime in the context of white collar crime

Occupational crime may be defined as violations of legal codes during engagements in legal occupations. In other words, these forms of white collar crime are largely committed by professionals or business people. Examples of occupational crimes include service fraud by retailers, plagiarism in the academic industry, falsification of drug content in the pharmaceutical industry and many others. In contrast, avocational crime is committed by persons outside the occupational arena but against members of a certain occupation; for instance income tax evasion and insurance fraud.

The major difference between avocational crime and occupational crime is that the latter is committed by persons in an occupational setting while the latter are not. However, both forms of crimes are normally carried out by persons in legitimate professions who then choose to act in opposition to their duties and responsibilities. Also, both forms of crimes are sometimes perpetuated by ones status as these place individuals in unique positions to take advantage of others. Also, these two types of white collar crime are normally carried with the major goal of heightening ones profits or financial status. On the other hand, avocational crime has less drastic effects compared to occupational crime mostly because the former is normally committed against one entity while the latter may be committed against several entities. (Slapper & Tombs, 1999)

The main groups that perpetuate occupational crimes include legal professionals, business persons and unscrupulous health industry personnel. On the other hand avocational crimes are normally carried out by various types of individuals some of whom may be employed while others may be potential consumers of certain services.

Conclusion

Corporate crime is essentially classified on the basis of activities, agents, laws broken or products under consideration; however, the most common criterion use is that of activity. Corporate abuse of power, fraud and economic exploitation are related because they all involve oppression of the poor in order to increase financial gain. Retail crimes often come in the form of price inflations, exploitation of vulnerable groups as well as dishonest product indications. Lastly, occupational crime is committed by a legitimate professional while avocational crime is committed outside such a setting.

References

David O. Freidrichs. (2007). Trusted Criminals: White Collar Crime in Contemporary Society, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson-Wadsworth Publishing.

National White collar crime center. (2009). White collar crimes.

Slapper, G. & Tombs, S. (1999). Corporate crime. London: Pearson Education Limited.