Category: Crime

Following the rising cases of drug trafficking in and around Birmingham, the federal police have taken to arms to indict all possible drug suspects within the geographical boundaries of this area (Wallace, H., & Roberson, C. (2009). The bureau initiated a home-to-home manhunt of the suspected drug traffickers who mostly are illegal immigrants from Latin American countries.

This manhunt bore fruits on June 2, 2012, when the federal police arrested an illegal immigrant from Colombia who was in possession of 200 grams of cocaine and 100 grams of methamphetamine. The man whose name is Castillo Don is said to have smuggled the drugs through the Mexican American border and had intentions of selling the same to some unnamed drug traffickers who have since gone under. Castillo who also had an illegal firearm a.22 caliber pistol was in the company of two women who were also arrested and are set to be prosecuted in court this week.

Castillo will be charged with several crimes which will include the illegal possession of a firearm, the possession of illegal substances in terms of drugs with an intention of distributing them and being in the country without proper documentation. This is after being deported back to Colombia two months earlier. These charges carry a very heavy sentence with possession of illegal drugs with an intention to distribute carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment and a fine of not less than $10 million. The possession of an unlicensed firearm and being an undocumented immigrant for that matter could see Castillo face 10 more years in custody. This means that either way, Castillo is going to serve a very long term in jail.

The two women who have so far been established as Mariana and Anna will also be facing double charges. They were in the country illegally which could see them face at least 10 years in prison and also had the intention of distributing drugs which could see them face a prison term of not less than 40 years in prison. These prison terms are set to run consecutively and thus could see the two women serving a very long term in prison.

The federal police have further established through their investigation that the two women have been involved in the distribution of cocaine for the last two years. This could see them, therefore, serve a prison term of up to 70 years in prison.

The federal bureau of investigation has although issued a warning that these cases are on the rise and that the country might not have enough space or money to host the number of the ever-increasing criminals in the American prison systems. The bureau has suggested that the American government coalesce with other countries in the region to have these criminals indicated in their respective countries to ease off the burden. This though will be a tricky affair as the laws of the respective countries may not conform to the federal laws in America. Either way, the government will come with a way of having these criminals in jail without imposing a very heavy tax burden on the American taxpayers.

For further information on this issue and others to do with drug smuggling and trafficking, visit the FBI website.

References

Federal Bureau of Investigations. Web.

Wallace, H., & Roberson, C. (2009). Written and interpersonal communication: Methods for law enforcement. (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

TV violence has been blamed for the increasing crime levels and child aggression for the longest time. Most of the proponents of that theory state that by witnessing a certain behavior in fiction people become more prone to repeating it in real life. They use the examples of the maniacs who have been found to enjoy violent movies and video games. However, that line of thought is heavily flawed. First of all, while the research does find a correlation between TV violence and aggressiveness in adolescents, it is important to remember that correlation does not equal causation. As the recent studies conducted in Kuwait have shown, parental mediation is an important factor determining how much the children are affected by violent TV programs. Parents who controlled TV consumption made it considerably less likely that their kids will be engaged in deviant behaviors in the future. That means that simply showing violence does not necessarily harm children  the lack of parental attention does. Secondly, an often overlooked fact with deviant behavior in fiction is that it attracts real-life deviants. It is incorrect to use the examples of the school shooting maniacs in this argument since it is very likely their own mental state has led them to seek media with high levels of violence.

When arguing about the negative effects of TV on society, it is important to remember that most scientific research only shows connections between facts, not concrete causality. While the emergence of television has been marked by the increased levels of deviant behavior, we must remember other facts about that era. The second part of the 20th century was marked by societal crisis, racial tensions, and unprecedented changes in the world. All of these factors undoubtedly contributed to the rising levels of violence in society. It is unfair and unwise to put all the blame for the deviant behaviors we experience these days on TV shows.

Sex of the children

As the humanity develops new technologies, we learn to manipulate the aspects of our lives previous generations thought impossible. One of the powers these advancements have given us is the ability to choose the sex of the children. That ability can be used for good, and I argue that it can become an important part of parenting.

Firstly, this technology can decrease the number of abortions, especially in the overpopulated countries like India and China. With the laws limiting the number of children per family, Chinese often chose to abort the kid of the undesired gender. In India, traditions prevent women inheritance, often making daughters a burden to the family. While all of these issues need to be fixed on a social level, the ability to control the gender of a child can prevent a large number of abortions in those states.

Secondly, this innovation allows parents a freedom of choice. Their child will be created from their genetic material one way or another, and an opportunity to control the process to a degree is valuable. It ensures that people can build their families the way they want without relying on chance.

Finally, some hereditary diseases only transmit to children of a specific sex. Using the gender selection technology in cases when of the parents has such disease is justifiable by the health considerations. If a disease can be avoided the codes of medical ethics dictate that every measure should be used to prevent it.

All of these factors speak in favor of the sex selection technology. In my opinion, they prove that the ability to manipulate a child during pregnancy will be an important aspect of parenting in the future.

Introduction

The modern world is experiencing tremendous paradigm shifts as consistent and systemic efforts are being made to eliminate discrimination and create a tolerant and egalitarian society. Feminism is a movement and ideology which seeks to redefine social attitudes towards women and establish the provision of equal rights. Despite significant progress and massive advocacy efforts on behalf of individuals, groups, and international organizations, gender-based discrimination is present in practically every region of the world. Transnational sex trafficking is a prevalent issue that serves as evidence that a persistent problem exists surrounding the exploitation of women due to the lack of social protection. The modern globalized world provides numerous opportunities for organized and transnational crime to align the efficient system of women sex trafficking. It is critical to comprehend the link between the social vulnerability of women and inherent economic conditions in developing nations that cause transnational sex trafficking in order to implement comprehensive and systemic solutions that address the needs of the victims and promote a paradigm shift in accordance with feminist theory.

Background

The United Nations has established human trafficking as a quickly growing criminal activity. It is estimated that approximately 2.45 million are trapped in forced labor and trafficking networks worldwide, with 43% being targeted for sexual exploitation. An 80% majority of these transnational victims consist of women and girls (Erez, 2010). International organized crime creates problems for all victims and vulnerable populations. However, there is an adverse impact on women as a whole. For example, migration intensifies the gender-linked vulnerability of females, making them dependent on male husbands, employers, or sponsors within the ethnic communities.

Human trafficking is based on obtaining control over a person through illegal and inappropriate methods of force, fraud, and deception with the purpose of exploiting them. The definition established by the United Nations emphasizes that trafficking is more than a criminal act. Rather, it is a complex process that is a crime against humanity. It mentions that abuse of power and a vulnerable position of a person can be considered methods of control. Furthermore, there is a clear indication that exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation (Erez, 2010, p. 552).

Feminist Theory

Sex trafficking is inherently a form of violence against women, which is a common occurrence in a patriarchal society that exists today. The second wave of feminism demonstrated the intricacies of violence that exists in industrialized nations. This horrific aspect can take many forms, but it is based on a universal theoretical concept of power and control. It has been shown that sexual crimes are often not centered around sexuality but rather positions of power and social order in the patriarchal society. Men engage in violence against women because society has allowed them to do so, with social institutions and the criminal justice system tacitly overlooking numerous cases of control and abuse (Rosenberg & Duffy, 2010).

These patterns of violence were part of the mechanism designed to sustain social male domination and subordination of women. Feminist research over the years has identified the complex model of abuse that extends beyond physical and sexual into economic and psychological dimensions. The issue is not based so much on individual men or their gender in general, but rather a social order which creates an environment and pressure conducive to abuse. Violence becomes less of an external threat but rather an internal process as women are affected by attitudes of learned helplessness and a sense of self which leads to victimization (Rosenberg & Duffy, 2010).

The theoretical background for sex work and sexual exploitation of women is complex and diverse as a social concept but is often underdeveloped at the individual level. The moral debates considering these macro-level theoretical contexts impact large-scale social systems (such as law) that determine the legality of whether a woman can choose to exchange sex for money (both willingly and involuntary). Academic and legal scholars on the issue offer various viewpoints on comparing sex work with sexual exploitation. However, micro-level theories view sex work as a process that consists of victimization and entry as well as the difficulty of exiting this industry (Gerassi, 2015). This is an important aspect to discuss because sex trafficking often leads to women becoming sex workers or being exploited for sexual purposes.

The feminist theory seeks to question whether any type of sex work or prostitution can be a voluntary act. Service providers of such services (escort) tend to argue against the interpretation that that industry maintains an overrepresentation of women. Regarding this topic, generally, two opposing sides exist, each arguing a different theoretical perspective. Neo-abolitionists condemn any form of sex work, even if voluntary, viewing it as oppression against women in general. Their argument is based on the premise that prostitution cannot be fully consensual. However, the opposing group, consisting of sex positivists, states that a woman has the right to choose this line of work (Gerassi, 2015). Sex trafficking has been consistently associated with services offering sex in exchange for money. These women are kept under strict control, abused, and not allowed to leave. Even if their entry into the profession was voluntary at first, there are numerous instances of the issue becoming oppressive.

The Impact of Globalization on Sex Trafficking

Globalization is the trend of socio-economic interconnectedness amongst countries around the world that is promoted through a free-flowing movement of capital, goods, and ideas across borders. Neoliberal economic policies implemented in the 1980s have actively contributed to creating the modern global system of open financial markets and competition with little government regulation. The aim was to improve global economic growth by providing entry to markets for poorer nations. While the goal of reducing absolute poverty was achieved, these policies resulted in a tremendous wage gap between the rich and developing countries. The effect on agriculture and industry, which lowered wages, has created a pull factor that attracts migrant workers to affluent nations such as the United States. However, stringent immigration policy has led to the creation of forced labor, and human trafficking practices as migrants become dependent on third parties (Encinas, 2018).

In the modern globalized world, criminals have learned to take advantage of numerous opportunities for the trafficking of people. It is achieved through modern methods and networks of transportation which have been created by globalized trade (Bromfield, 2015). This applies to sex trafficking as well, which has become one of the primary objectives for criminal organizations. As borders are blurred, more opportunities arise for the transport of women from more impoverished regions into affluent countries for the purposes of sex work and exploitation (Flynn, Alston, & Mason, 2013). Tighter border controls result in poor and vulnerable migrants relying on brokers to make perilous journeys. The cost of transportation amounts to a persons life savings and more which places them in debt to these powerful criminal organizations. Therefore, people are forced into slavery or prostitution for compensation.

It is critical to consider that most women involved in sex trafficking come from poor regions of the world. Poverty, illiteracy, cultural patriarchy, and the widening gender gap all contribute to the rise of trafficking in these regions (Jani &Felke, 2015). Furthermore, the political climate, buried in corruption and where the rule of law is rarely enforced on such issues, becomes conducive to crime. Governments of such regions are not actively involved in resolving sex trafficking. Meanwhile, legal systems are based on cultural traditions of patriarchy which promote the vulnerability of women. This leads to practices of forced marriage and rape, as well as creating barriers to education and employment (Gilbertson, 2015).

Therefore, globalization negatively impacts women from these regions of the world as they become sources of cheap labor to be used in developed countries, including sex services (Jani &Felke, 2015). The countries where women are trafficked are commonly affluent. It does not matter whether prostitution is legalized or regulated. Women will be funneled into either the legal industry or the underground sex trade, depending on the policies of that specific country. Nevertheless, women become slaves, even if they are integratedinto the legal system of sex service. Furthermore, participation in such systems creates a possibility for arrest by law enforcement. Most often, this leads to deportation on the charges of illegal entry or forged documentation. Meanwhile, traffickers themselves are rarely convicted (Gilbertson, 2015).

Case Study

Eastern European countries are common sources of sex trafficking. Romania is one particular country impacted by the issue. The cause of this is considered the low standard of living in the country with significant demographical, unemployment, and financial issues after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Families are commonly unstable as women are left by their husbands. Therefore, they are left vulnerable and can be entrapped by traffickers through the promise of good income. The social mindset for women focused on attracting a wealthy man in order to have a decent quality of life is commonly manipulated by traffickers. Furthermore, there is a lack of a strong legislative base or federal structures to protect women and prevent trafficking, which is abused by criminal organizations. The post-Soviet government corruption and relaxation of border control have allowed for criminal activity and sex trafficking into the European Union nations (Caramello, 2013).

FeministsEfforts to Improve the Situation

Sex trafficking most commonly occurs in regions or situations where there is a lack of social guarantees for women. In order to resolve the issue, a redefined legal environment should be created. Women are significantly empowered when the criminal justice system protects them and becomes a resource to resist violence and victimization. The trafficking of women for sexual exploitation requires a collective response that provides support services and respects the rights and dignity of women. The needs of vulnerable populations such as migrants should be considered as their immigration status should not jeopardize access to services. Overall, existing institutions, social structures, and community networks should be utilized in providing support and protection for women at risk of sex trafficking and attempting to escape victimization (Erez, 2010). While there are limited resources to help each victim individually, a collective effort is undoubtedly effective against transnational sex trafficking.

In terms of interventions, social workers must examine the process and system comprehensively. A criminal justice response is commonly rejected in favor of harm reduction programs. These seek to employ case management which interconnects clients with counseling, medical care, housing assistance, and advocacy groups. It is important to note that despite common misconceptions (even amongst social workers), women experiencing violence in both domestic disputes and sexual exploitation are inherently similar. These women are faced with physical and psychological abuse, dominance, social rejection, and overbearing control (Bromfield, 2015). This is an important concept to consider within the context to address the issue since efforts and interventions targeted at the issue of sex trafficking can be used in other social situations and vice versa.

Moving forward, change is most likely to occur through legislation. However, as history has shown, policies are often ineffective at addressing the root of the issue and, at times, create more barriers. Some concepts to consider is that both academic research and legislation passed regarding the issue of sex trafficking should focus on the needs of the victim rather than the demands of the criminal justice system as it has been doing. The process of prosecution is often traumatic and detrimental to the victim, particularly migrants. Police practices and procedures should take a holistic and investigative approach as the issue requires a collaborative approach amongst agencies, both domestically and internationally (Kingshott& Jones, 2016).

There is a significant gendered policy discourse regarding sex trafficking. The subject is often viewed as men trafficking women (which may be somewhat supported by anecdotal evidence). Women are portrayed as victims that are naïve and unaware of the risks and oppression that are associated with human smuggling. Meanwhile, men are portrayed as most likely to deliberately break the law and to be perceived as criminals. Therefore, human rights violations against men are not taken into account, and men are viewed as less deserving of compassion. Therefore, protective policies lead to the restriction of womens choices. They are creating a legislative framework that places abuse of female migrants as the sole fault of traffickers as detrimental. This way, the womens agency is denied, and the role of the state is unclear. The discussion on the topic fails to consider that human smuggling and trafficking is a by-product of restrictive migration regimes, exploitative employment practices and inequality between poorer and richer countries (Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, 2011, p. 62).

Policies should be more comprehensive in assessing the problem. Through feminist efforts, politicians should consider questions of whether the legislation values or empowers women and addresses inequality without creating loopholes or double standards. Eventually, policy creation will evolve towards creating a significant impact on the prevention of transnational crime (Noyori-Corbett & Moxley, 2016). Inherently, this will require a paradigm shift in social thinking which will be difficult to achieve but will produce equality amongst genders and end the horrific practice of sex trafficking.

Discussion

Advocacy efforts against sex trafficking highlight several distinct principles:

1. Prostitution directly causes sex trafficking;
2. Sex trafficking and prostitution are interconnected;
3. Prostitution is a form of violence against women (Jackson, 2016).

In the continuous battle of formulating social perceptions of sex work and the individuals participating in it, as well as those who seek to help and support these women, it is critical to establish precise definitions surrounding the issue. This requires challenging stereotypes and reclaiming labels. Feminist advocates seek to highlight the experiences of women involved in sex trafficking in order to clarify their side of the story. The primary objective is to destigmatize sex work and repel criminal prosecution of the victim rather than the abuser. These narratives are difficult to accept as they challenge mainstream cultural morals and attitudes. However, such counterstories of marginalized and oppressed victims effectively disrupt the social constructs manipulated by media and political agendas (Jackson, 2016).

In order to identify the best practices on the issue of sex trafficking moving forward, one must avoid participating in the moral panic that commonly arises in the discussion of the topic. As evident, the problem is complex, requiring an in-depth understanding of political and social contexts, theoretical background, and the process of victimization in sex trafficking. The scholarly human rights framework needs to recognize that while consensual sex work exists, there are a number of participants who are coerced and exploited in the industry due to sex trafficking (Bromfield, 2015).

Conclusion

Gender-based discrimination and exploitation of women remain prevalent issues in the modern world. Feminist theoretical perspectives highlight that violence against women occurs due to the systemic social status quo which sustains such conditions. Rapid globalization, which is a positive occurrence, has been overshadowed by transnational sex trafficking that has become widespread due to ease of transportation. Women experience discrimination due to gender-linked vulnerability and a common perception of women as sexual objects. Feminists attempt to redefine social norms and resolve the issue by establishing social guarantees for women through the removal of barriers to financial stability and protection from crime.

References

Bromfield, N.F. (2015). Sex slavery and sex trafficking of women in the United States: Historical and contemporary parallels, policies, and perspectives in social work.Affilia, 31(1), 129-139. Web.

Caramello, I. B. (2013). A case study of sex trafficking in Romania. Web.

Encinas, P. (2018). The correlation between globalization and human trafficking. Web.

Erez, E. (2010). Women as victims and survivors in the context of transnational human trafficking for commercial sex exploitation. Revue Internationale de Droit Pénal, 81(3), 551-562. Web.

Flynn, C., Alston, M., & Mason, R. (2013). Trafficking in women for sexual exploitation: Building Australian knowledge.International Social Work, 57(1), 27-38. Web.

Gerassi, L. (2015). A heated debate: Theoretical perspectives of sexual exploitation and sex work. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 42(4), 79-100.

Gilbertson, M. (2015). Globalization and the sex trafficking industry: Examination of effects on regional value chain operations. Web.

Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women. (2011). Smuggling and trafficking: Rights and intersections. Web.

Jackson, C. A. (2016). Framing sex worker rights: How U.S. sex worker rights activists perceive and respond to mainstream anti-sex trafficking advocacy.Sociological Perspectives,59(1), 27-45. Web.

Jani, N., &Felke, T. P. (2015). Gender bias and sex-trafficking in Indian society.International Social Work, 69(4), 831-846. Web.

Kingshott, B. F., & Jones, T. R. (2016). Human trafficking: A feminist perspective response. In Advancing justice on all fronts (pp. 1-22). Denver, Colorado: Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Web.

Noyori-Corbett, C., & Moxley, D. P. (2016). A transnational feminist policy analysis of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. International Journal of Social Welfare, 26(2), 107-115. Web.

Rosenberg, L., & Duffy, A. (2010). Violence against women. In N. Mandell (Ed.), Feminist issues: Race, class, and sexuality (5th ed.) (pp.161-196). Toronto, Canada:Pearson Education Canada.

Introduction

Violent crime has become a major part of the crime world. Sexual crimes, terrorism and hooliganism are just some of the violent crimes. Violent acts cause 1.43 million deaths in the world (Siever, 2008). The majority of occasions of violence are due to aggression. Aggression and violence in schools is showing a decrease though media highlights the few that occur (Christle et al, 2001). Youth violence and aggression is considered a significant problem for which preventive measures are the solution.

Biological basis of violence

When acts of violence are repeatedly committed, an underlying neurobiological reason will be found; the control systems in the pre-frontal cortex cause the aggression provoked by anger stimuli (Siever, 2008). The imbalance between the control and the responsivity of the amygdala and the limbic regions of the brain produce the aggression. The insufficiency of circulating serotonin, the excess of catecholamines, the imbalance in the glutamate and the GABA systems and pathology in the neuropepetides could contribute to the abnormal and violent behaviour (Siever, 2008). Administration of drug therapy with mood stabilizers would reduce the limbic irritability and SSRIs would inhibit the serotonin reuptake.

Aetiology of sexual assault

The theory of evolutionary psychology speaks of the males as aggressive, hasty, fickle and undiscriminating (Dupre, 2001). The females are expected to be coy and remain aloof till they meet with males having the best genes and whom they want to cohabit with. This biologic principle is faithfully followed by the human beings. Great diversity is exhibited by animals when selecting a mate. The male has an express desire to propagate his species till death and inject the females. He may even kill to achieve his aim (Dupre, 2001). Other researchers have spoken of many theories: Sexual Assault and Male Dominance, Sexual Assault and Cultural Norms, Sexual Assault and the Media and Biological Theories of Sexual Assault (Theories of Sexual Assault, Human Rights).

The rational choice theory, which is as imperialistic as the evolutionary postulates that Man would select that action which is most contributory to his goals of propagation (Dupre, 2001). Economics is one field which uses this theory. All aspects of behavior can be studied using the theory. Rational choice theorists prefer not to mention how they achieve their goals. Evolutionary psychologists have many suggestions for assessing outcomes but they never mention any psychological mechanisms for generating behavior. Therefore the revolutionary psychology and rational choice theories are treated as complementary. What people want is managed by the evolutionary psychology and how they attempt to achieve their wants is through the rational choice theory (Dupre, 2001). A fruitful perspective is provided by the rational choice theory.

The game theory was developed recently. Coordination of actions through games has found its place in various fields.

Sexual assault occurs in different contexts and thereby has many causes and complications. The psychopathology model attempted to identify the mentally ill or chemically imbalanced. If a person committed sexual assault, he may be fit into this model. The belief that the rape is a product of his illness helps to select a treatment model for his therapy. Treatment models included approaches as castration, psychotherapy, electric shock, and hormone injections (Jones, 1999). This model began to be challenged around the 1970s. Though it has been discarded now, that rape occurs due to irresistible impulses has not totally lost its significance (Theories of Sexual Assault, Human Rights).

Religion-based Terrorism

Religion-based terrorism was initially considered to be a preoccupation of the poor. However after the 9/11 terror attacks in the US, this notion has been disproved (Newman et al, 2006). The terrorists in that attack were young, middle class, educated and possessed money.

The men were perhaps worried about the threat to their women, family and patriarchy. The invasion by the western world led to pornography, violence, entertainment outraging the modesty of women and bringing the problem of promiscuity into the family (Newman et al, 2006). Believing that all these issues would lead to degradation of their outlooks and religious sentiments and values, the men have resorted to terrorism to protest against the westernization.

They are resistant to change and do not cultivate the tradition of self-criticism. Globalization has threatened the traditional forms of market in many nations by the free market and economic forces, putting their economy into turmoil. Ethnic and religious tensions, globalism and antiglobalism, poverty and exploitation are the causes of terrorism (Lacqueur, 2001).

Hooliganism

Football hooliganism is a common situation for death and violence (Archetti and Romero, 1994). This crowd violence brings disorder into what should have been a public event designed to demonstrate the benefits of peaceful competition, numerical equality, respect for the rules of good conduct, clear penalties for infractions by players, team loyalty, respect for the adversary, group discipline, individual creativity, and victory as the prize reserved for the best players (Archetti and Romero, 1994). Subcultures of young working class fans who were unemployed felt that the game was being taken out of their hands into middle class and international competition. They did not appreciate the transformation of football for a middle class audience. The players were also turning to a jet-set lifestyle and losing contact with the working class. The speedy economic and political changes further alienated the working class. Economic and social differentiation became more defined.

Comparison of the 3 types of violence

Hooliganism can be described as a protest by the working class when social differences become sharper. It does not have the extent of thoughts, values and sentiments that terrorism has.

Moreover it is usually not a pre-planned move. It is more of a mob psychology where the numbers just join in when somebody sparks it off. Terrorism usually involves a religious group of people with their own culture coupled with the inability to accept change. They would prefer to strictly confine themselves rather than allowing other people with a different set of values into their midst whereby they expect an intrusion into their culture. They cannot accept changes to their culture. Their protest is in the form of terrorism. Sexual assault is more a violence involving the psyche of a single person. This person, usually a male, succumbs to his evolutionary instincts to assault a female in the act of propagation of species.

Deindividuation

Deindividuation, is the situation where anti-normative behavior is released in groups in which individuals are not seen or paid attention to as individuals (Festinger et al, 1952). Hooliganism can be considered as examples of deindividuation. There are three ways of how this can affect a group of people (Mullen et al, 2003). Each person when in a group ceases to function as an individual.The actions which would normally have affected him or inhibited him as an individual loses its effect when in a group. This results in the violent behaviour seen as looting and vandalism. Responsiveness is increased when in the group and one tends to follow what the others are doing. The persons adherence to the new norms that arise in the group is increased. (Mullen et al, 2003).

Disengagement theory

Disengagement theory delineates how relationships between people and other members of society are severed or altered in quality; each of these events constitutes a form of disengagement (Mcileen, 1998). Of the many postulates, the one that talks about disengagement between men and women, explains the occurrence of sexual assault. When the society is ready but the individual is not, disengagement occurs and this could be the background for terrorism.

Dehumanization

Dehumanization denotes the psychological process where the opponent is viewed as less than human and not deserving of moral and legal consideration (Postmes, 2001). The individual believes that the actions of the opponents are evil behavior. His thinking will be irrational and circuitous wanting to destroy his enemies at all costs. This manner of thinking is very descriptive of a terrorist. The oppressed party can change into the oppressor as in terrorism. Loss of individuality leads to total loss of control and releases a person from internalized moral restraints to produce emotional, impulsive, irrational, regressive and intense behavior (Postmes, 2001).

References

Archetti, E.P. and Romero, A.G. (1994) in Football, Violence and Social Identity (Eds.) Richard Giulianotti, Norman Bonny and Mike Hepworth. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 1994.

Christle, C.A. et al, (2001). Youth Aggression and Violence: Risk, Resilience, and Prevention.

Dupre, J. (2001). Human Nature and the Limits of Science Published by Clarendon Publishers:Oxford, England.

Festinger, L., Pepitone, A. and Newcomb T. (1952). Some consequences of deindividuation in a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 382-389.

Jones, O.D. (1999). Sex, Culture, and the Biology of Rape: Toward Explanation and Prevention, 87 Cal. L.R. 827, 838-39.

Lacqueur, W. (2001). A History of Terrorism Published by Transaction Publishers New Brunwick and London.

Mcileen, Rband Gross, R (1998) Developmental psychology, London: Hudder and Stoughton Educational Publishers.

Mullen, B., Migdal, M., & Rozell, D. (2003). Self-Awareness, Deindividuation, and Social Identity: Unraveling Theoretical Paradoxes by Filling Empirical Lacunae. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(9), 1071-1081.

Newman, E., Thakur, R. and Tirman, J., (2006). Multilateralism under challenge?: Power, International order and Structural change. Academic Foundation Publisher, 2006.

Postmes, T. Spears, R and Cihangir, S. (2001), Quality of decision making and group norms Journal of personality and Social psychology, Vol. 80, p. 918-930.

Siever, L.J. (2008). Neurobiology of Aggression and Violence American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 165, p. 429-442 American Psychiatric Association.

Theories of Sexual Assault.

Outline

The consumption of drugs in contemporary societies has led to great effects which have been witnessed in those consuming the drugs as well to entire contemporary societies. Among those societies that have been affected by drug usage is Australia, where its main concern is on alcohol consumption. In Australia, irresponsible alcohol consumption has been found to cause violent crime which has been considered to be as a result of several other influencing factors other than regular alcohol consumption.

The increase in the number of venues in which alcohol is sold has been a major factor of influence since it has provided large amounts of liquor in the market at lower prices due to existing competition levels. Relaxation of laws governing licensing of alcohol trading venues has supported violent crime associated with public drunkenness, since licensees do not find it necessary to follow their regulations, since nothing is done to those who are caught breaking laws regarding alcohol trading. Hours during which alcohol is traded have also been extended, which equally contributes to increased instances of violent crime due to alcohol consumption. Those venues that operate for considerably longer periods register higher numbers of violent crimes committed by drunken persons during the extended time, than those venues that close by the time specified in license requirements.

Violent Crime Associated With Public Drunkeness Is Not Just An Alcohol Problem

Introduction

Australian states have registered an increased rate of antisocial and violent behaviour that is mostly related to alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption does not just make someone to become violent, but this happens only when it is taken in excess amount. Alcohol consumption reduces the rate in which the nervous system performs its activities and when it is overly consumed, it affects coordination in speech, reactions as well as concentration. This results to aggressive behaviour such as violent crime, which is the situation being experienced in Australia due to increased consumption. It is predicted that, Australian society is in a situation where alcohol has produced violent social conditions which are unsafe to members of the society. This violent behaviour due to alcohol has been found to affect the entire society as drunken Australians indulge in criminal activities like rape and burglary. Eckersley (2005 pp 45-47)

Further research has revealed that, violent crime resulting from alcohol consumption is closely associated to moderate consumption rather than heavy alcohol consumption. For instance, a study conducted in 1997 by an Australian research firm campaigning against drug abuse showed that, about forty nine percent of those deaths that were related to alcohol consumption were caused by acute drinking and not chronic alcohol consumption. This shows that, the largest percentage of alcohol consumers who engage in violent crime are not habitual drinkers but occasional consumers of alcohol. This is considered an essential aspect of public health affecting not only alcohol consumers but the entire Australian society. The Australian government has not taken this issue lightly as they have considered it among the areas of discussion in parliamentary sessions. In 2004, the licensing of alcohol consumption was among the policies put forward for review by Australian jurisdictions, which resulted to heated debate in both the political as well as public arena. It was argued that, several jurisdictions had ignored the anticompetitive elements associated with licensing of alcohol consumption. Stockwell (1996 pp 7-15)

Australian Council Concerned With Drugs Particularly Alcohol

This is the most influential council in Australia regarding the consumption of drugs and it particularly deals with alcohol. This council serves as the overall national voice representing those other Australian societies that work towards reduction of harm resulting from drugs specifically alcohol. This council incorporates various parties in its campaigns among them being community, government, business as well as non-government sectors. Diverse operations of this Australian council have made it clear that alcohol is a unique commodity. Alcohol is categorized as a drug which can lead to disability or even death when it is misused. These adverse effects of alcohol are put in the second place after tobacco use in the category of preventable usage of drug that can lead to death when misused.

Extensive research has revealed that alcohol consumption rates as well as resultant effects increase with increase in availability of cheap alcohol in the community. This is the same thing that is happening in Australia where production of cheap liquor is on the increase which has rendered it inappropriate to regard its restrictions in a similar manner in which other commodities are regulated. It treats sale of alcohol differently by fixing strict regulations on its consumption policies in order to reduce situations where alcohol consumption is misused. However, policies by this council do not specify a situation where strict regulation should be imposed on establishments trading alcohol. Hence, the council has been found to be deficient of reducing violent crime due to alcohol consumption since it has the power to do so. Various other areas have been given extensive and intensive consideration in order to show that violent crime associated with alcohol consumption is not only caused by regular alcohol consumption but also by other additional factors related to alcohol trading Scribner (1999 pp 310-316). They include;

Drinking Patterns Experienced In Australia

Findings of a study that was carried out in 2001 by the Australian Welfare Institute revealed that about ninety percent of young people from the age of fourteen years have been engaged in alcohol consumption at a particular time while about eighty two percent of them had consumed alcohol one year prior to the study. The study also found out that fifty two percent of those who had consumed alcohol had been involved in some sort of violent crimes whereby some were minor like initiating fights while others were major like burglary and looting. Alcohol consumption patterns experienced in Australia are such that males normally engage themselves in alcohol consumption long before females begin to consume alcohol. This pattern flows to the risks associated with alcohol consumption where young people especially under aged persons, become unable to control their behaviour once they get drunk and end up engaging in violent crime. However, this changes at adolescence where Australian females are found to engage in risky alcohol consumption that results to violent actions more than male adolescents. These patterns have been functional in Australia for quite some time which has encouraged consumers to uphold alcohol consumption at very young ages. Young Australians are therefore exposed to great harm especially girls whose drunken situations incite older men to harass them sexually which is a form of violent crime due to alcohol consumption. Shand (2004 pp 38-42)

Parenting Impact to Alcohol Consumption and Associated Violent Behaviour

This is another factor that has contributed to violent crime resulting from alcohol consumption. The exercise of parenting by Australian parents, caretakers as well as guardians has undergone considerable changes since most guardians and parents fear that their children might follow the same trend of engaging in violent crime. Two categories of parents have evolved with one being comprised of helicopter parents that get over protective to their children. This increased concern is mostly directed towards childrens safety protecting them from being exposed to risky situations associated with alcohol consumption. As a result, children become quite ignorant concerning the manner in which risky situations as well as public spaces should be handled and when they grow up they tend to misuse acquired freedom by engaging in irresponsible drinking. Since these persons are not experienced on the manner in which public spaces should be handled they tend to become violent after getting intoxicated.

The other category of parents is characterized by negligence on the part of guardians and parents who do not provide their children with education and basic needs as expected which make the children to seek alternative sources of comfort which in this case happens to be alcohol consumption. Recent alcohol consumption trends in Australian society have contributed to the situation where young people regard violent behaviour and crime as the common behaviour where they fail to portray empathy to those people they threaten. The trend have also made young Australians to lack respect while dealing with human body which makes them to consume alcohol to a point that they fail to recognize that human body is very delicate and violent criminal behaviour can result to someones death. This shows that violent crime associated with alcohol consumption does not only expose Australian society to instances of physical hazard but also to moral degradation which raises a wide range of concern. Rydon (1993 pp 339-345)

Trading Hours

Studies that have been carried out in Australia have revealed that increased hours of trading in venues that sell alcohol equally contribute to violent crime due to public drunkenness. A different study carried out in the night clubs of Australia in nineteen ninety found out that those clubs where trading of alcohol was extended to very late in the night registered more instances of night assaults which was associated with high intoxication levels experienced in Australians who consumed alcohol those clubs. These particular findings got more reinforcement from a collection of reports in a Western Australian police station which had been accumulated from the year nineteen ninety to nineteen ninety seven.

Since results from the various researches gave similar findings researchers came to a conclusion that alcohol trading for long hours was closely associated with high alcohol consumption levels that in turn led to violent crime in Australian hotels during the time these studies were being carried out. Trading permits that allowed alcohol traders to operate until very late in the night were also found to make a considerable contribution to the high levels of violent crime associated with public drunkenness. This finding was from an evaluation on safety impact as well as a measure of the level at which public members were safe while consuming alcohol until very late in Australian night clubs. It was found out that those night clubs that operated for longer hours registered more assaults than those that traded for regular hours. Therefore, violent crime associated with public drunkenness in Australia is not only caused by regular alcohol consumption but also instances where Australian night clubs are allowed to operate for longer hours providing a good opportunity for crime commission. Edwards (2001 pp 62-86)

Increased Variety of Establishments

This is yet another factor that has contributed to violent crime due to public drunkenness since venues in which alcohol is traded has increased in number as well as in type. Alcohol trading is no longer restricted to pubs but has been extended to hotels and supermarkets where it is sold in packs to be consumed elsewhere. This has been explained as a consequence of the situation where regulations that give trading licenses to these Australian establishments have been overly relaxed. Further evidence from those Australian authorities that provide trading licenses show that increased alcohol consumption that leads to violent crime has received great influence from competitiveness experienced among licensed venues. Increased levels of competition have led to situations where some venues practice irresponsible trading by allowing under aged Australians to consume alcohol as well as those adults who are already intoxicated. These irresponsible measures are very dangerous to alcohol consumers and Australian society at large since when under aged persons take alcohol they loose coordination and control especially due to their immaturity which leads them to engage in criminal activities without having a second thought of consequences of their criminal behaviour. Homel (2008 pp 29-36)

The availability of more alcohol trading establishments in Australia has made some venues to offer considerably favourable discounts on alcohol prices which have served as a great incentive to alcohol consumers who are able to get more liquor at lower prices. This has equally contributed to violent crime since those Australians who consume alcohol at lower prices become intoxicated to a level that they can no longer control themselves and engage in irresponsible behaviour which sometimes happens without their knowledge. A study conducted in Finland in the year two thousand and three showed that the level of alcohol consumption as well as associated violent crimes were found to rise by five percent when groceries were permitted to sell alcohol since it was quite easy to acquire license for restaurants than for night clubs. During this particular time, those establishments that sold alcohol in packs to be consumed elsewhere increased from one hundred and forty to about seven thousand while those venues that sold alcohol and at the same time provided customers with a place to consume it rose from nine hundred to about four thousand. The increased number of alcohol trading outlets was found to have a forty six percent level of association with overall violent crime due to alcohol consumption. As a result, the number of Australians who were arrested for getting involved in irresponsible alcohol consumption as well as associated violent behaviour was reported to increase with men taking eighty percent of arrests while womens representation was one hundred and sixty percent. Roth (1994 pp 67-98)

Homicide level which is a form of violent crimes committed by drunken people was found to increase in specific places in Australia where alcohol trading outlets had increased in number. A study in which this observation was realized took place in nineteen ninety four through nineteen ninety five where measurements were carried out in terms of the number of people who visited a single outlet among available outlets in a single square mile. It was realized that, there was a strong connection between existing homicide rates and geographical location of alcohol trading outlets. Neighbourhoods that were densely populated with alcohol trading outlets registered increased homicide commission rates at a time when other possible causal factors like social disintegration were put under control. It is suggested that, cases of violent crime caused by increased alcohol trading venues can be reduced by imposition of strict regulations concerning of licensing of venues trading alcohol. Grabosky (2005 pp 46-53)

Normalization of Alcohol Consumption in Australia

Oberklaid (2005 pp26-32), argues that, normalization is condition where Australians consider alcohol consumption as a normal practice and therefore being drunk does not raise an alarm. As noted earlier; alcohol consumption is integrated in the culture of Australians which makes it to be on the lead among drugs consumed in Australia. More so, the greatest percentage of alcohol consumption experienced in Australia is normally in such a manner that alcohol consumers become exposed to instances of violent crime. Australian health commentators have warned that encouragement of alcohol consumption that leads to commission of violent crimes by increased licensing of alcohol trading venues could increase the number deaths in Australia due to irresponsible alcohol consumption. A research finding that supports this argument found out that normalization of alcohol consumption plays a bigger part in violent crime associated with public drunkenness than extensive availability of liquor in Australian society. This is because higher levels of free availability of alcohol has been experienced in Europe but it has not led to high rates of violent crime as it is the case with Australia showing that the integration of alcohol consumption in the culture of Australia greatly influences violent criminal behaviour. Higgins (2000 pp 49-54)

Enforcement of Licensing

Laws governing licensing of alcohol trading venues in Australia have been found to vary where different jurisdictions provide different laws. However, there is a close connection between their constituent requirements as they specify on the type of people to whom alcohol should be sold, operation hours of venues that are licensed, the manner in which traders should serve alcohol which is in this case should be responsible as well as provision of adequate security measures. Concerns have been expressed by Australian advocates of public health which argue that the available laws regarding licensing of alcohol trading venues provide minimal incentives to those licensed to stick to their requirements. On the contrary they provide more incentives encouraging licensees to go against license requirements.

Among the license requirements that have been defied include a situation where alcohol is sold to underage persons as well as those who are already intoxicated. Another one is where traders fail to observe trading hours as specified by license requirements. Since late hours have between cited as the most appropriate time for crime commission, those people who consume alcohol until very late are found to engage in violent crimes after they have become drunk. Licensees have also failed to put in place appropriate security measures within their premises which incite alcohol consumers to commit crime since there is no one to discipline them. Little effort of penalization to licensees who allow this to happen in their premises is accorded which encourages Australians to increase their engagement in liquor consumption which in turn leads to commission of violent crimes. Schuerman (2003 pp 92-117)

Conclusion

Research has shown that, violent crime that is associated with public drunkenness in Australia is not only caused by regular alcohol consumption but also by other factors that accompany alcohol trading. Among the other factors include laws that govern allocation of licenses to alcohol trading venues where a high level of reluctance is experienced. Although allocated licenses outline requirements that are supposed to regulate violent crime due to alcohol consumption, those who enforce the laws do not follow them up to ensure that they are obeyed. In other cases, action is not taken to discipline those licensees who are caught defying these laws which encourage them to break it even more.

This flows to alcohol consumers who engage in irresponsible alcohol consumption that leads to commission of violent crime. Other factors are normalization of alcohol consumption in Australia, increased variety of alcohol trading venues, extended hours during which alcohol is traded as well as drinking patterns experienced among Australian alcohol consumers. Normalization of alcohol consumption in Australia contributes to violent crime by encouraging Australians to consume alcohol, since it is accepted by their culture. Increased variety of establishments in which alcohol is sold lead to competition. These make alcohol traders to reduce their prices considerably to a level that is affordable to majority of alcohol consumers. It is widely recommended that, Australian government should review these incentives to commission of violent crime associated with public drunkenness in order to reduce their effects in the entire Australian society. Skogan (2008 pp 58-64)

References

Cowell, D 2001, Crime prevention, SAGE, pp 62-86.

Eckersley, R 2005, Morality, meaning and happiness, Text Publishing, pp 45-47.

Edwards, G 2006, Alcohol policy and the public good, Oxford University Press, pp 14-17.

Grabosky, P 2005, Crime and delinquency in Australia, Australian National University Press, pp 46-53.

Higgins, K 2000, A statistical profile of Crime in Australia, ICS Press, 2000, pp 49-54.

Homel, K. 2008, Preventing aggression in and around bars, clubs and pubs, William Publishing, pp 29-36.

Oberklaid, F 2005, Patterns and Precursors of adolescent antisocial behaviour, Melbourne Publishing, pp 26-32.

Roth, J 1994, understanding and preventing violence, National Academy Press, pp 67-98.

Rydon, P 1993, Blood alcohol levels of patrons leaving licensed premises in Perth, Western Australia, Federation Press, pp 339-345.

Schuerman, L 2003, Communities and Crime, University of Chicago Press, pp 92-117.

Scribner, R 1999, Alcohol availability and homicide in Australian states, S & Allen publishers, pp 310-316.

Shand, F 2004, The treatment of alcohol problems, Elsevier, pp 38-42.

Skogan, W 2008, Disorder and decline, The Free Press, pp 58-64.

Stockwell, T 1996, unravelling the preventive paradox for acute alcohol problems, Guilford publishers, pp 7-15.

Three commonly abused substances and their effects

It is with no doubt that a sizable number of people engage themselves in illicit utilization of substance for both personal and commercial use. The most frequently abused substances are cocaine, heroin and PhenylCyclohexylPiperidine (shortened as PCP). These substances normally have different business and street names depending on location. It is also important to note that the names could vary from one location to another (Doweiko, 2006).

Cocaine is a type of a stimulant. It is usually introduced directly into the blood system through needle jabs. It can also be rolled up with tobacco or alone as a type of a cigarette. Similarly it can be inhaled in its dust form. The short term effects include the following: an abnormal rise in body temperature, an amplified heart beat pace, metabolism and elevated blood pressure. However, the good effects are momentous upshot in moods, rejuvenated vigor as well as improved mental attentiveness. On the negative side, it could cause chest and intestinal pains, cardiac arrests, reduced desire for food as well as stroke. These effects vary from one user to the next (Doweiko, 2006).

Administration of cocaine is another problem area. Particularly, the injection mean has raised a number of concerns among health experts because most abusers tend to share needles. This on its own is a predisposition to other human diseases like HIV/AIDS. It should also be noted that even if these effects are evident in the immediate time, prolonged use of cocaine become addictive. If a user is not able to raise money to purchase the subsequent intake, the next logical step is to meet this end, the means notwithstanding. Some steal while others threaten people for money.

Heroin is a type of a morphine family drug. It is one of the most scarce and expensive drugs in the world. In many countries, its use by individuals is illegal so is its distribution. Usually, it can be injected to the blood system, inhaled or smoked just like cocaine. Its immediate meditative results include temporary pain liberation ability and feelings of elation. On the other hand, it hampers the functions of the respiratory system as well as causing gastronomic upsets. Similarly, it could cause heightened bewilderment, extreme forbearance to pain and occasional loss of consciousness. The major concern about heroin as far as crime is concerned is its proliferation, distribution or trafficking and associated issues like tax evasions and gun running (Carpentier

PCP is another regularly abused substance. Though it widely used in the medical field for anesthetic purposes for surgery, it has found its way to the streets and drug lords consider dabbling in it a worthwhile venture. It was most famous in the 1970s but it is still widely available albeit in different forms. In its liquid form, PCP can be introduced into the blood system through intravenous inoculation while the tablet forms are ingested or smoked. Just like cocaine and heroin, its short term results are a rise in both the heart pace but blood pressure could either go high or low. Additionally, PCP has reportedly been associated with bizarre violent behavior amongst its users. There is also a tendency of the users to succumb to gloominess and intermittent memory lapses.

A situation where a crime was committed by a person under the influence of cocaine

Before we take an in depth look at some situations, it would be prudent to differentiate between two types of drug related crimes. There are instances of drug-related crimes and psychopharmacological crimes. In the latter, a crime is committed by an individual under the control of some drug(s) while in the former a drug could cause a crime to be committed or a crime could lead to drug use (Carpentier, 2007).

A remarkable situation in which a crime was committed by a person under the influence of cocaine was in the case of Leonel Marin Torres. Torres is a Cuban citizen who resided in Seattle before he was handed an incarceration of sixteen years in 2^nd of March this year for having cocaine in his custody and acting offensively under the its influence. Torres was immediately detained when a woman notified the police after he decided to stay in her house against her will. It was also found out that he had beforehand put her in danger by sticking a gun to her torso. He was also guilty of other crimes.

The prosecutor asked the court to hand Torres a long term since he was not only a drug buff but a criminal who hunted other addicts and molested them. To make sure he succeeded, he targeted the defenseless in the society and coerced them to get whatever he desired as well as perpetuating terror on them.

A situation where a person is mostly responsible for the crime

Florencio Villa-Cruz was imprisoned for a decade on 11^th June this year in a Seattle court for scheme to dispensing cocaine. According to the prosecution team, Villa-Cruz was an operative engaged with a bigger trafficking network. When he was taken into custody, he was found with over a pound of cocaine, other undisclosed mass of PCP and over 56,000 dollars in currency in all his homes (Durkan, 2010).

He was reportedly said to be an experienced trafficker and had been deported back to his native Mexico but somehow managed to get back to the United States where unperturbed, he kept on dabbling in drugs.

References

Carpentier, C. (2007). Drugs in focus. sLisbon: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Web.

Durkan, J. A. (2010). Renton Resident Sentenced to Ten Years in Prison for Cocaine Trafficking. Western District, Washington: U.S. Department of Justice. Web.

Durkan, J. A. (2010). Repeat Offender Sentenced to 16 Years in Prison for Drug and Gun Crimes. Western District, Washington: U.S. Department of Justice. Web.

Doweiko, H. E. (2006). Concepts of chemical dependency. 6^th Ed. New York: Cengage Learning.

Introduction

Due to its status as the worlds richest country and the land of opportunities, the United States has attracted millions of immigrants over the decades. The immigrants are mostly people who seek to benefit financially from the numerous economic opportunities available in the country. In addition to the legal immigrant, the US has been facing a major illegal immigrant issue. Thousands of illegal immigrants have been making their way into the US each year, especially from neighboring Mexico. It is estimated that there are more than 400,000 illegal immigrants living in the country.

A number of adverse effects have been attributed to these undocumented immigrants. The problems include a rise in crime, additional strain to the United States welfare system, loss of jobs to US citizens, and drug trafficking. This has caused illegal immigration to be a key policy issue for successive US administrations. One of the effects of illegal immigrants that have received significant attention is a crime. Dinas and Van Spanje assert that of all the problems associated with illegal immigrants, their alleged cause of the rise in crime rates has been the most debated (659).

Americans construe a relationship between the increase in illegal immigrants and the rise in crime in their society. To reinforce or dispel this supposition, a number of studies have been carried out on the topic. To some researchers, the allegation that crime rise is related to illegal immigrant increase is speculative. However, others have been able to show that crime rates are high in states where illegal immigration is rampant.

Hypothesis

This provides strong evidence that there could be a correlation between the two. This paper argues that there exists a relationship between rising crime rates and illegal immigration in the US.

Increase in Illegal Immigrant Population

The US has witnessed a phenomenal increase in the number of illegal immigrants over the last few decades. Miller estimates that out of the 39 million-immigrant population in the US, 11 million are there illegally (1). The more than 10 million illegal immigrants in the country are made up of the individuals who entered the country illegally and those that prolonged their stay in the country after their initial period of legal stay expired (Miller 3). This number is projected to be even higher since a large number of children born by illegal immigrants are undocumented.

The high illegal immigration number has been caused in part by the imposition of strict immigration policies by the US government. As a favorite immigration destination, the US faces millions of potential immigrants each year. The government imposes strict regulations to ensure that the country is not flooded with foreigners. Some of the people who miss the opportunity to enter and stay in the country legally opt to do so without government authorization. Dinas and Van Spanje observe that out of the 250,000 to 300,000 foreigners who enter the country annually, about 45% are undocumented. This suggests that the number of illegal immigrants will continue to rise.

The government has been unable to control the flow of illegal immigrants in the country. In spite of the commitment by the government to restrict movement into the US, people have still managed to enter the US. Most of the illegal entries come from the vast border between the US and Mexico. In addition to this, some individuals refuse to leave the country even after their visas expire. Currently, the US immigration and customs enforcement (ICE) states that it is pursuing more than 400,000 illegal people because they are Absconders (Legomsky 41). Some of these absconders have been deported by they find illegal ways to return to the country.

Relationship between Illegal Immigrants and Crime

Illegal Immigrants have led to an increase in Crime

The high number of illegal immigration has led to an increase in cases of crime in the United. States (Legomsky 1). Data collected between 2000 and 2010 reinforces this claim. In 2002, police department reports indicated that more than 33% of criminals were non-American citizens (Miller 1). Out of this population, 55% were in the country illegally, which means that more than half of the crimes committed by immigrants are associated with illegal immigration (Legomsky 34).

This means that more than 17.5% of all crimes brought before the federal courts were committed by illegal immigrants who make only 3.7% of the national population. Legomsky notes that of the 400,000 immigrants classified as absconders by the ICE, 25% have engaged in criminal activities (41). This negative impact has been most evident in large cities where many immigrants reside. There has been a marked increase in the number of organized crime groups.

McDonalds documents that many gangs and drug cartels in American cities are associated with illegal immigrants (McDonald 64). The above gangs have been blamed for increased drug trafficking and extortion (Dinas and Spanje 658). The rise in drug violence can be attributed to the influx of illegal immigrants from Mexico. US authorities recognize that most of the illegal drugs sold in the country are smuggled in through the Mexican borders. The illegal Mexican immigrants play a crucial role in the drug trafficking business.

Legomsky reports that foreign cartels, especially from Mexico, train young people in their countries and send them illegally to the US to act as drug dealers (46). Reports from the DEA indicate that the Mexican drug traffickers are able to conceal their business within these immigrant groups. Studies show that most drug cartels are able to thrive in the US due to this involvement of illegal immigrants. The high number of illegal immigrants participating in drug dealing can be deduced from the arrest records in some cities. In Los Angeles and New York, illegal immigrants account for the highest portion of reported crimes, arrests, and incarcerations related to drugs and drug-related crimes (Legomsky 46).

In addition to drug crimes, statistics indicate that the increase in other crimes, including robberies and murders, is the result of the rise in immigrant numbers. California has witnessed a spike in criminal activities directly linked to the immigrant population. Estimates indicate that in this state, more than 1,100 warrants have been issued for illegal immigrant suspects (Legomsky 45). This is not an isolated incident since many cases of robberies, murder, and attempted murders have been observed in two other cities that have high immigrant numbers, New York and Los Angeles (Legomsky 47).

Authorities believe that illegal immigrants carry out crimes with the assistance of legal immigrants. The collision between the two immigrant groups makes it difficult for investigators to apprehend the criminals. Records from the federal and state prisons in the US support the view that immigrants have led to a rise in crime. According to prison records, the number of illegal aliens in the state and federal prison facilities between 1980 and 2005 grew from 9,000 to more than 71,000 (Legomsky 34).

Currently, criminal aliens account for more than 34% of the incarcerated people in the federal prisons and more than 27% in the state and local jails (Legomsky 34). Illegal immigrants find it difficult to get formal employment. Their income comes from manual jobs since they prefer to avoid formal jobs that can cause them to be noticed and subsequently deported. Dinas and Van Spanje suggest that they involve themselves in criminal activities in order to sustain themselves (664).

An analysis of the statistics collected by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) between 1995 and 2000 shows that illegal immigration is related to crime (Legomsky 43). Over this period, the INS released more than 35,000 aliens instead of deporting them for various reasons (Legomsky 59). Police records showed that out of the 35,000 released immigrants, 10,000 went on to engage in some form of crime. This shows that the relationship between crime and illegal immigration is significant (Legomsky 44).

Analysis of Studies on the Topic

With an increase in the number of illegal immigrants entering the USA every year, the FBI has reported that there is a corresponding annual increase in the rate of crime (Miller 1). A number of studies have been undertaken on the topic. Miller documents that the modest annual increases in crime rates have been attributed to the presence of illegal immigrants in the country (1). These associations have been backed by empirical studies on crime and immigration. Dinas and Van Spanje reveal that between 1999 and 2006, over 230,000 illegal aliens entered the US (664). Over the same duration, there was an increase in the number of robberies, murders, drug crimes, and sexual crimes. However, the remarkable increase was in the number of sexual offenses.

The illegal immigrants were blamed for committing over 950,000 sexual offenses. Miller reveals that sexual offenses ranged from serious cases such as rapes to less serious offenses involving a sexual violation of other peoples rights (Miller 1). The contribution of illegal immigrants to crimes involving sexual abuse takes place in several forms. In some cases, it involves the sexual abuse of women trying to enter the US. This vulnerable group is asked to provide sexual favors in return for being smuggled into the country.

Once in the country, the primary concern of immigrants is accommodation. There is evidence that some of the legal and illegal immigrant males who have established themselves in the US due to a long period of residence demand sexual favors from the newcomers in return for accommodation (Dinas and Van Spanje 664). Another instance of sexual abuse occurs as female immigrants attempt to find manual jobs in the US. The women are exploited by citizens and non-citizens in the US who demand for sexual favors in return for employment opportunities. Since the illegal immigrants are less likely to be aware of the anti-abuse laws and procedures in the US, they are not likely to report these violations.

The sexual abuses are not restricted to the adult immigrants. Dinas and Van Spanje report that the illegal immigrants children are abused as well (667). However, the probability of the children reporting cases of sexual abuse to the American authorities is relatively low since encounters with law enforcement officers might result in deportation. In some migrant communities such as the Latino, discussing sexual affairs openly is a taboo. As such, even the abused children and young females are not likely to expose the crimes, which makes it impossible to note. In cases where the parents of the abused children are aware of the violation, they often avoid alerting the authorities due to the fear of deportation. These factors have contributed to the high levels of sexual offenses within the illegal immigrant communities.

Similar reports

The presence of Illegal immigrants leads to an increase in crime types of crimes that are targeted at this population. Disturbing crime patterns have emerged in the US with the immigrant population being overrepresented homicide cases. States with high populations of immigrants such as Texas, North Carolina, New York, and California, homicide rates have been increasing since 2000. In Texas, more than 60% of the murder cases involve immigrants, regardless of their immigration status (Loucky 47). In this case, the immigrants were either the perpetrators of the murders or the victims.

A report by Loucky shows that over 95% of homicides committed in the Los Angeles region were targeted at illegal immigrants (67). Illegal immigrants are targeted by their fellow immigrants as well as American citizens. Loucky confirms that there have been a rising number of homicides committed by American citizens against foreigners over the past decade (47). Illegal immigrants have also contributed to the rise in homicides due to their involvement in crimes such as drug trafficking and gun running. Due to the constant tuff wars between drug traffickers, this criminal activity is associated with homicides. The involvement of the illegal immigrant population in drug crimes therefore increases the probability that they will be victims or perpetrators of murder.

In addition to homicide, there is an overrepresentation of illegal immigrants in criminal gangs. Cartels have shown a pattern of targeting this group for recruitment. One report shows that 60% of gangs in California were comprised of illegal Hispanic immigrants. Loucky states that the presence of people trying to enter the US on the Mexican side has attracted drug gangs who recruit the potential immigrants into their business (47). It is believed that the largest percent of the drug trade in the US are the Mexicans and other Hispanics, contributing to more than 80% of the drug trade, yet they comprise only about 5% of the total population (Legomsky 37).

The gangs coerce them to serve as drug mules across the border or as dealers on the American side. In some instances, refusal to cooperate with the cartels results in the death of the individual. Thus, the formation of drug and extortion gangs in the US is highly linked to the presence of illegal immigrants. According to Dinas, Elias, and Van Spanje (664), most of the drug gangs are composed of illegal immigrants because most of these aliens are not educated or skilled to take formal jobs. As such, the presence of illegal immigrants has resulted in an increase in homicides and gang crimes in the US.

Illegal immigrants have contributed to the growth of human trafficking. Human trafficking is regarded as a crime against humanity and it has emerged as one of the most dreadful problems facing the world. In this crime, people are used as commodities whereby they are sold or forced to work to profit other people. Illegal immigrants fuel human trafficking since they present a demand for the services of the traffickers.

The immigrants are charged exorbitant fees to be smuggled into the US. In most cases, the immigrant pays these fees as he/she works in the US. The main players in human trafficking are international organized crime groups. Using their connections in the US, the crime syndicates smuggle people into the US and force them to work. Dinas and Van Spanje document that most of the young females entering the US are victims of human trafficking (667). When they get to the US, some of the women are forced to work as prostitutes in order to earn a living and make payments to the traffickers.

Human trafficking contributes to the increase in crime levels in a number of ways. To begin with, there are criminal activities that exist to facilitate the trafficking. These include extortion, money laundering, and migrant trafficking. Human traffickers are also known to engage in violence and even homicide as they try to instill fear on the smuggled individuals. One of the reasons why the US seeks to stop illegal immigration is so that it can tackle the problem of international human trafficking.

Illegal immigrants have fueled the increase in fraud and other financial crimes. There has been an overrepresentation of immigrants from the Asian continent in these classes of crimes. According to Zhao (32), Asian illegal fund transfer systems in America are complicated but increasingly common crimes in the country. They involve fraud that target banks and other financial institutions (McDonald 26). In addition to this, the Asian immigrants are notorious for tax evasion in the US and the international business arena. The increase in these forms of crimes in the US is the direct result of the rise in illegal Asian immigrant numbers.

Conclusion

This paper set out to demonstrate that there is a relationship between the rise in crime and the increase in illegal immigration to the US. It began by highlighting the immigration problem being faced by the US in the recent years. The paper then showed that illegal immigration has a positive relationship with several forms of crime. It has shown that there is a disproportionate representation of illegal immigrants in drug crimes, human trafficking, and sexual crimes.

The paper has demonstrated that the lack of good employment opportunities for the immigrants contributes to their involvement in crime. Most of them are involved in low-income jobs, a situation that compels them to engage in crime as a way to make extra money. Other are forced to involve themselves in illegal activities such as drug trafficking and gun crimes in order to earn a living.

In addition, their presence makes them an easy target for foreign and local drug, sexual and homicide crimes. The paper has made use of records from the police department and the National Immigration Services to analyze the relationship between crime and illegal immigrant numbers. Considering the well-defined relationship between illegal immigrants and crime rates, the government should engage in even more stringent measures to mitigate and eventually prevent these people from getting into the country.

Works Cited

Dinas, Elias, and Joost Van Spanje. Crime Story: The role of crime and immigration in the anti-immigration vote. Electoral Studies 30.4 (2011): 658-671. Print.

Legomsky, Stephen. The New Path of Immigration Law: Asymmetric Incorporation of Criminal. 2007. Web.

Loucky, James. Immigration in America today an encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print.

McDonald, William. Immigration, crime and justice. Bingley, UK: JAI Press, 2009. Print.

Miller, Teresa. Blurring the Boundaries between Immigration and Crime Control after September 11^th. 2005. Web.

Zhao, Linda Shuo. Underground banks in NYC, their main clientele and operators: The perspective of Chinese illegal immigrants. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 41.1 (2013): 36-57. Print.

The US media often mentions Latinos in the news when discussing drug trafficking and crimes related to crossing US borders. In addition, according to the stereotype in the United States, African American men are dangerous criminals. These particular groups of the population are represented in greater numbers among those arrested for committing crimes (Gabbidon & Greene, 2018). The negative perceptions of black and Hispanic people exist in society, and it is so not only because of mass media and stereotypic images; these perceptions are confirmed by statistical data.

Taking FBI report for 2018 into account, it turns out that there is a connection between crime rates and race. In 2018, there were a total of 6,570 murders, 3,011 (45.8%) of which were committed by whites, and 3,177 (48.4%) by blacks (Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Department of Justice, 2018). The killings are most often intraracial: of the 3,315 murdered whites, 80.8% were killed by white people, and 15.5% by black; of the 2,925 killed black people, 88.9% were murdered by blacks and 8.0% by whites (Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Department of Justice, 2018).

Concerning the proportions of the US population, white people comprise 63.4%, African Americans constitute 13.4%, and Hispanic people  15.3% of the total population (Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Department of Justice, 2018). It turns out that black people, who are only 13.4%, are responsible for almost half of all murders.

There is a widespread perception among the American public, especially law enforcement officials, that non-white people, African Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities, commit the most crimes. The statistical data confirms that this image is not fictional. Moreover, there are not only murders but also burglaries and other crimes correlating with race factor. It is essential to note that black people, accounting for 13.4% of the population, are allegedly responsible for almost 50% of crimes. It is most likely that the higher crime rate among the African American and Latin American people is linked to their worse economic situation.

References

Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Department of Justice. (2018). Crime in the U.S. 2018. Web.

Gabbidon, S. L., & Greene, H. T. (2018). Race and crime. Sage Publications.

Feminist movements initiated from the beginning of 1960s had a significant impact on the society. Womens rights were attempted to be equated to mens both socially and constitutionally through protests, officially vested demonstrations, and adopted legal documents that formalize gender equity. However, apart from the social impact in real life scenarios, it is important to explore whether feminism influenced study progress related to females and associated crimes.

The most notable impact of feminism on women could be illustrated through the emerging interest of researchers to females in vulnerable communities. For instance, it was mentioned that despite the overall idea of promoting support for marginalized female communities, the feminist propaganda lacks credibility and deserves more sustained activism and exclusivity (Brewer & Dundes, 2018). Similarly, it shows that feminist activities do not lead to showing respect to women but rather consider them as a social element that could be utilized for assigning at specific job assignments. Hence, the initial ideas of the feminist movement eventually retranslated into social wisdom driven by economic rather than personal needs.

Meanwhile, it is noteworthy that proliferation of feminism in society led to increasing number of situational violence against women and provoked similar research in narrow employment areas. For instance, Krook and Sanin (2019) reflected on the biases emerging against women obtaining political roles through the dimensions of structural, cultural, and symbolic violence, relating those to the area of the hate crimes. Hence, in this context, females still remain vulnerable and poorly protected from male aggression.

Overall, it should be admitted that the study of women and crime in the post-feminist efforts became more intensive and constructive. In societal terms, females are still suppressed by males as weaker personalities, which requires developing new ways of managing strength imbalances. However, it is unclear whether such efforts would lead to the evolution of transparent and equal behaviors on the social level, as well as prevent new family crimes or workplace harassment.

References

Brewer, S., & Dundes, L. (2018). Concerned, meet terrified: Intersectional feminism and the Womens March. Womens Studies International Forum, 69, 49-55. Web.

Krook, M. L., & Sanin, J. R. (2019). The cost of doing politics? Analyzing violence and harassment against female politicians. Perspectives on Politics, 18(3), 740-755. Web.

Introduction

There has been an increase in crimes across the world and in various social entities. This has attracted new research attention and raised many concerns among researchers. For the last two decades, counterfeit products in Canada have increased significantly despite the changes made on the relevant policies. This paper discusses the crime of trading in counterfeit products from a sociological perspective. It focuses on the recent research findings on the crime especially those associated with the offenders. Throughout the discussion, the offenders are assumed to be the consumers who purchase the counterfeit products willingly. The paper will attempt to employ sociological theories such as strain theory, social learning theory and control theory to analyze various aspects of counterfeiting.

Counterfeit goods are those that illegally copy, duplicate and imitate products or apply registered trademarks without the authority of the owner, therefore, infringing upon the legal right to duplicate of the owner. Frequently, the definition of counterfeit adds the issue of intent to defraud, though it is not a defining factor in many cases. Even though counterfeit products infringe on patent rights, they are strongly associated with copyrights, which in Canada at any rate is an automatic right provided to the originator of a literary, artistic or typographical work or the authors employer. Canadian criminal code and copyright act contain provisions that criminalize counterfeiting activities (Isaac & Osmond, 2006, p.21). The country addresses most counterfeit activities through formal civil legal proceedings while some activities constituting criminal conduct of counterfeiters are subject to prosecution and imprisonment.

With an importance on the potential for change and disruption, there is a characterization of the trader in counterfeit goods that uses a binary antagonism between the legitimate (normal) world and the oppositional (abnormal) practices. For instance, sociological study on file sharing via peer-to -peer networks, films, software hacks and pirated music presents traders as part of a unique subculture (Condry, 2004). Therefore, counterfeiting is characterized by deviations from the normal course for both the offenders and the goods.

Frequency of trading in counterfeit products

A major objective of the research is to have a picture of how frequent the counterfeiters purchase products. The findings suggest that the most commonly purchased goods are music, films, electronics, automobile parts and fashion items. With emphasis on the relationship between general purchasing behavior and demographic variables, the counterfeiters vary according to gender and age (Rutter & Bryce, 2008). Young people tend to buy counterfeit goods more than old people while males purchase counterfeit products more than females (Carpenter & Lear, 2011). The findings demonstrate that the distribution of consumption across many of the goods categories by demographic groupings is not different. However, some variations are observed in some products such as computer games and apparel. Therefore, there are consistencies involving the patterns of purchasing leisure products and their counterfeit correspondents in the larger circumstance of gender, consumption habits and practices.

Arguably, the demographic variations may exist when making decisions to purchase counterfeit products. According to social learning theory, individuals learn to engage in criminal activities, mainly through their relationship with others (Akers & Jensen, 2007). In fact, they are toughened for the activities, learn values that encourage criminal practices and become exposed to the patterns used by criminals. Consequently, they come to believe that crime is advantageous or acceptable in some circumstances. Similarly, Canadian counterfeiters learn to engage in the activities through others and as a consequence come to view them as desirable or justifiable acts. They become skilled at counterfeiting the same manner they become skilled at compliant behavior.

Nevertheless, close or crucial groups such as peer groups, workmates or families have significant influence on what counterfeiters learn. Young people in Canada are the potential market for the counterfeit traders and get much attention from them. Hence, when a small group is convinced with the activities, it can well influence many youths. Older people in the country will not likely form primary groups and hence do not usually learn from peers. In addition, Canadian males are more active in social groups when compared with females. Therefore, they are likely to learn about and engage counterfeiting more than female counterparts. The large amounts of money associated with counterfeit products are also major reinforcements in men.

Trading locations for counterfeit products

The observation made here is that counterfeiters use public places and channels to route their products especially the online environment (The Canadian Ant-Counterfeiting Network, 2007). Given the wide range of contents available on the internet at a very small cost compared with other established social networks, counterfeiters mainly use the internet to get products. The use of public channels offers the element of anonymity to offenders. The public nature of these places suggests that the trading in counterfeit products is normalized and acceptable. Even though individual enticement may vary, the decision to get counterfeit products in social environments suggests a solid social context and enticement to the consumption beyond that benefit attained from just having ownership to the product.

According to control theory of sociology, all people have desires and wants that are easily accomplished through criminal activities than legal channels (Nelson & The University of Arizona, 2007). They engage in criminal activities because of the manacles or controls put in place. Canadian government has continuously been pushed to implement stern regulatory controls on counterfeit goods (The Canadian Ant-Counterfeiting Network, 2007). As a result, counterfeiters have sought those channels that avoid the controls. The shift from old methods of channeling their criminal activities to online environment is one way of evading the regulatory controls. Counterfeiters feel that the government is watching for them and allowing the crime. The more there are alternative means of conducting counterfeit business, the more the consumers become recruited. Those consumers who can access the internet are freer to engage in counterfeiting than others.

Motivation to engage in counterfeiting

Considering the positioning of the trading in counterfeit products within everyday routines and the evolving realization that trading is another social activity, the buying of these products seems to incline more to an already established trading practice than a trend explained by criminology (Marcketti & Shelley, 2009). Phau and Dix (2009) maintain that cost is the major motivation to buy counterfeit products across all categories of goods. Most of the offenders believe that legal products are overpriced. In particular, people from the lowest income category will likely buy counterfeit products when compared with higher income earners. Another motivation identified is value generated, although it is associated with specific categories of products such as music and films. The success of building demand for repeatedly renewing goods is a key motivator. For instance, the desire to watch a film the moment it comes out is a strong motivation to buy counterfeit DVDs.

The motivation to engage in counterfeit business is well explained by strain theory of sociology. The theory suggests that individuals who go through strain are likely to engage in criminal activities when they become distressed (Mooney, 2011, pp.112-113). While stress may surface from the failure to attain various goals, it is sturdily related to the failure to attain money and status. Therefore, a strong motivating factor to engage in crime is money. Likewise, Canadian citizens with low income are likely to buy counterfeit products in order to achieve status and respect from higher income earners. Moreover, the value of products sought by all consumers in the country compels the low income earners to opt for counterfeit goods. It goes with the saying that poor people always view counterfeit goods as the easiest way to attain social status.

Conclusion

The increasing rate of counterfeit crimes has attracted a large pool of researchers from various fields including sociology. The behaviors associated with counterfeiting vary across demographical variables of age, gender and status. Younger Canadians and males are likely to engage more in the practice than old people and females according to social learning theory. Control theory explains how the counterfeiters respond to legal controls and confirms the findings suggesting the increasing use of public channels to get counterfeit products. They are motivated by the cost and value derived from counterfeiting as explained by the strain theory of sociology.

References

Akers, R. L. & Jensen, G. F. (2007). Social learning theory and the explanation of crime. Brooklyn, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Carpenter, J. M. & Lear, K. (2011). Consumer attitudes toward counterfeit fashion products: Does gender matter? Journal of Textile and Apparel technology and Management, 7(1), 1-16.

Condry, I. (2004). Cultures of music piracy: An ethnographic comparison of the US and Japan. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 7(3), 343-363.

Isaac, B. & Osmond, C. (2006). The need for reform in Canada to address intellectual property crime. Web.

Marcketti, S. B. & Shelley, M. C. (2009). Consumer concern, knowledge and attitudes towards counterfeit apparel products. International Journal of Consumer studies, 33(3), 327-337.

Mooney, L. A. (2011). Understanding social problems. Florence, KY: Cengage Learning.

Nelson, S. M. & The University of Arizona. (2007). Offender crime perspectives: A study in affect control theory. Cambridge, UK: ProQuest.

Phau, I & Dix, S. (2009). Consumers willingness to knowingly purchase counterfeit products. Direct Marketing: An International Journal, 3(4), 262-281.

Rutter, J. & Bryce, J. (2008). The consumption of counterfeit goods: Here be pirate? Sociology, 42(6), 1146-1170.

The Canadian Ant-Counterfeiting Network. (2007). Report on counterfeiting and piracy in Canada: A road map for change. Web.