Category: Crime Investigation

Introduction

Criminology tries to explain the cause of criminal and deviant acts through several theories. The classical criminology theories posit that crime is a choice because people were created with free will (Burke, 2019). These classical criminology theories were instruments in developing the current criminal justice system encompassing courts, police, and correctional facilities. They emphasized punishing an offender because the general belief was that punishment would correct their free will. Positivist criminology theorists rely on scientific methodologies to determine the causes of crime (Burke, 2019). They use this scientific data to recommend the best course of action to correct deviant or criminal behavior. This school of thought rejects the free will concept and believes that people are products of the environment they interact with. This research paper will analyze environmental criminology by summarizing its major contents, identifying its weaknesses and strengths, and providing links to other theories.

Summary of Major Environmental Criminology Content

Environmental criminology tries to explain crime by specifically focusing on a geographical location. This view of causes of crime is a positivist view that asserts that crime is not a product of rational choice. Instead, the theory suggests that crime is at best influenced if not outright caused by an individual’s spatial environment (Burke, 2019). When this theory is applied to explain and interpret crime, the consensus is that no two criminals are similar because they are affected by unique and different circumstances that ultimately lead them to commit crimes. Deviant and criminal acts result from interactions and socialization with the immediate environment. For instance, a child raised in an upper-middle-class neighborhood with good schools, churches, and other social amenities is not likely to commit criminal acts. However, a child born in a working-class with poor social infrastructure and social amenities who regularly interacts with people who commit a crime is likely to commit a crime in the future. How these two individuals turn out is a product of the environment their interact and socialize with.

For environmental criminologists, mitigating and fighting against crime takes two approaches of crime mapping and broken window theory. Crime mapping is a tool used by law enforcement and environmental criminologist theorists to pinpoint the exact location a particular crime occurs and develop mechanisms to stop it (Burke, 2019). The data collected when mapping the location of a crime provides valuable insight and vision of the frequency and incidence of crime in a particular area which also helps in future operations. The broken windows theory postulates that if a disorder is left unattended in a specific location, it will continue to attract more disorder, eventually leading to more severe crimes.

The literal interpretation of the broken windows theory is that one broken window will attract more broken windows. In essence, the theory proposes that a single crime incidence that is left unaddressed leads to more crime, which displaces law obeying citizens, leaving the location filled with deviants and criminals. Thus, the strategy for law enforcement is to take stern action for any transgression no matter how trivial it may seem in order to protect the integrity of a location in the long term.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Environmental criminologist theory perceptively tries to explain why some people are more susceptible to deviant and criminal acts while others are not by analyzing an individual’s socialization process. In particular, environmental criminologists focus on immediate socialization agents such as school, family members, peers, and neighbors to stitch together information to explain why a specific person commits a particular crime. While this theory has its strengths that provide logical explanations for some criminal behavior, it is also fraught with weaknesses that fail to explain some criminal acts and have led to undesired consequences. This section will outline some strengths and weaknesses of the environmental criminologist theory.

One of the environmental criminologist theory’s strengths is that it focuses on specific characteristics making it possible to tailor-make solutions to a crime problem. Environment criminologists do not assume that all criminals and deviants are similar or that they are motivated by similar factors. Instead, they focus on establishing specific conditions that could lead an individual to commit a crime in order to develop strategies to mitigate or eradicate the occurrence of the crime. This approach towards crime prevention and eradication is comprehensively detailed and ensures the root causes of crime are established, and appropriate actions are taken to prevent or eradicate it. Some of the strategies adopted by environment criminologists, such as crime mapping and the broken window approach, ensure active instead of passive policing is adopted and implemented. Criminals are thus, stopped on their tracks before committing severe felonies that could disturb the peace and tranquility of an area. Active policing, in particular, is preferred compared to passive policing which waits on criminals to carry out their criminal deeds to elicit a reaction.

Further, environmental criminology shifts the focus from criminals to ordinary people to understand crime and its prevention. The core focus of the theory is the interaction and socialization between people, where the theory maintains that behavior is learned and thus criminal behavior can also be learned. Environmental criminology removes any ideas that criminals are inherently evil people through this shift in perspective. Instead, the theory humanizes them by placing them in social settings to explain the source of their conduct. This approach contrasts with other theories that look deep into the consciousness and biology of deviants and criminals to explain their behavior. By seeing them as humans first, humane solutions to the crime problems can then be developed and implemented and positively impact the community and the individual with deviant or criminal behavior. Thus, environmental criminology shuns the root causes approach in favor of a situational perspective that enables practical solutions to be developed to solve crime problems.

Despite the above strengths, environmental criminology has several weaknesses, with one of them being its narrow focus on the situation and conditions of an individual’s environment at the exclusion of other factors such as rational choice, free will, and biology in explaining deviant and criminal behavior. While behavior is learned, criminal behavior can be hereditary or arise from the sensible choices of free-willed individuals. Advances in technology and genome analysis allow scientists to isolate specific genes that are only present in certain people predisposed to crime (Burke, 2019). Further, criminal behavior can also be due to a rational choice after carefully weighing all costs and benefits. These two approaches deviate from the situational approach adopted by environmental criminologists by attempting to explain the root cause of crime. Additionally, these root causes approach make the situational approach inherently weak.

Practical solutions developed using the environmental criminology approach have had unintended negative consequences for a part of the population. Using the crime mapping and the broken window approach, police departments naturally profile low-income neighborhoods that are predominantly Black and Hispanic. With active policing encouraged by the theory, in places like the United States, most Black and Hispanic individuals from such communities find themselves targeted and put behind bars for minor transgressions. These tactics have created an environment of distrust where communities see police as their enemies. Further, the tactics have led to overcrowding in prisons, and a disproportionately high population of blacks and Hispanics compared to the majority white population. Interestingly, these tactics have not had any meaningful impact on the level of crime and raise essential questions on environmental criminology strategies’ effectiveness.

Links to Other Theories

The environmental criminology theory uses an almost similar approach as the psychological criminology theories. Psychological theories explain crime and how and how it can be eliminated by analyzing an individual personality. Sigmund Freud, who was an influential psychologist, asserted that human nature stores instinctive reservoirs that require frequent gratification (Burke, 2019). The urge for gratifications is restrained by a sense of morality and ethics internalized by children due to their interaction and socialization with their parents. However, adults develop a rational part that mediates between the morality and gratification urges. Because urges are constant, criminality is thus a failure of the mediating rational part of an individual. The psychological theories take a root causes approach but analyze individual actions at a personal level to understand crime and prevent it. This personal approach is similar to the environmental criminology theories that analyze an individual and develop solutions based on that analysis.

Further, environmental criminology theory refutes assertions by the rational choice theory that criminality is a result of a cost-benefit analysis by a criminal. Instead, the theory paints the picture of the inevitability of criminal behavior when an individual is exposed and learns certain behavior. The rational choice theory approach to criminology offers no concrete actions that could be taken to deal with crimes because its assertions assume anyone could be a criminal when the right conditions are in place (Burke, 2019). Instead, it offers an explanation of why and how crime happens with an emphasis on increasing the cost to deter but not stop crime. In contrast, the environmental theory’s scientific methodology explains why crime is happening and practical steps that could be taken to ensure that it is either eradicated or reduced significantly.

Conclusion

Criminology theories explain why individuals commit criminal and deviant acts and offer insights on how such crimes can be deterred or eradicated. Over the years, theorists have offered multiple theories that explain the root cause of criminal behavior or the situations that lead an individual to be involved in crime. One such situation perspective on crime is environmental criminology. This theory asserts that criminal behavior, like any other behavior, is learned through socialization with local agents of socialization such as immediate family, peers, and neighbors. This theory humanizes people involved in crime and offers practical solutions on how crime can be reduced through crime mapping and the broken theory approach. However, this theory ignores other factors that could lead an individual to be involved in crime, such as rational choice through free will and biological factors. Further, the solutions developed to combat crime using environmental criminology have had negative consequences on Blacks and Hispanics.

Reference

Burke, R. H. (2019). An Introduction to Criminological Theory. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group.

The Simpson trial lasted 134 days and was one of the longest and the most controversial cases in California state history. According to the prosecutor’s office, O. Jay Simpson had long planned to take revenge on his ex-wife for her relationship with Ronald Goldman. As stated by the defense, the killers were drug dealers who were unhappy with Nicole’s friend’s reluctance to pay for another consignment of goods. Besides, the defense argued that the police and prosecutors were pursuing the former athlete on racial grounds. Despite the large amount of circumstantial evidence that testified to the guilt of O. J. Simpson, the jury declared him innocent.

On June 12, 1994, Nicole Simpson’s neighbors were alarmed by her dog, who behaved restlessly. One of the neighbors noticed bloody shoe impressions along the concrete walkaway. When a neighbor tried to take the dog inside the house, it led him to two dead bodies. There were countless cuts on Mrs. Simpson’s body, including the neck – the killer practically cut off her head. Her friend, Ronald Goldman, was found dead right beside her.

Subsequently, the investigation was able to establish the size and model of the alleged killer’s shoes. Those were expensive 12-size Bruno Magli shoes produced by the Italian manufacturer. The trial also found that Simpson’s foot was the same size as the bloody prints at the crime scene. However, the shoes themselves have not been recovered during the investigation, and therefore the evidence remained circumstantial. The accused claimed to have never been in possession of such footwear.

William J. Bodziak, an F.B.I. expert on shoe prints and tire treads, also testified during the trial. According to him, there were no indications that there were several killers at the site (Margolick). He also confirmed that the footprints could very well belong to Mr. Simpson. Unfortunately, only after the verdict was passed, a photograph of the accused wearing the same Bruno Magli boots was found (Butler-Young). Taking all of the above into account, one may assume with a certain degree of confidence that the footprints at the crime scene indeed belonged to Mr. Simpson.

Works Cited

Butler-Young, Sheena. “The True Story Behind O.J. Simpson’s Infamous Shoes From the Trial.”Footwear News. 2016, Web.

Margolick, David. “Simpson’s Shoe Size Fits Bloody Prints Left at the Crime Scene, an F.B.I. Expert Says.”The New York Times, 1995, Web.

Latent prints are hidden prints that can be found at crime scenes. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2006), latent prints include fingers, palms, and soles. These surfaces bear sweat pores that secrete moisture that can linger on various surfaces for extended periods (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2006). This discussion post will examine latent print residue composition as well as its viability under different conditions.

The latent print residue consists of both organic and inorganic components. The organic elements refer to the human swear secretion, primarily apocrine, eccrine, and sebum, originating from different types of sweat glands (Boseley et al., 2019). Inorganic matter found in the latent print residue can include amino acids, trace metals, proteins, and ions secreted with sweat (Boseley et al., 2019). In addition, other contaminants can be present, depending on the activities undertaken before the prints are left on the examined surface. For example, food residue, cosmetics, powders, dust, and skin cells can be part of the composition of latent prints (Khare & Singla, 2022). Each latent print residue is unique; therefore, their viability may differ.

The viability of latent prints depends on the residue composition and other factors, such as surface, weather, and time passed since the print was left. Thus, latent prints are absorbed differently by different surfaces. According to Khare and Singla (2022), porous and semi-porous surfaces such as cardboard and finished wood can absorb organic matter from the surface of fingers, palms, or soles. Latent print residue on such surfaces can remain for long periods. Meanwhile, non-porous surfaces, including glass, plastics, and ceramics, do not absorb residue, and prints on such surfaces do not last more than a few days (Khare & Singla, 2022). Moreover, high environmental temperatures can impact organic matter in print residues, leading to them disappearing faster (Khare & Singla, 2022). In addition, adult and child latent prints fade away at different rates, with child fingerprints evaporating faster than those of adults due to a different organic structure (Khare & Singla, 2022). Concerning time, depending on the composition, surface, and environmental conditions, latent prints can remain on surfaces for decades. In summary, latent print residue comprises organic, inorganic, and other matter affecting the viability of such imprints.

References

Boseley, R., Dorakumbura, B., Howard, D. L., De jonge, M., Tobin, M. J., Vongsvivut, J., Ho, T., Van Bronswijk, W., Hackett, M. J., & Lewis, S. (2019). Revealing the elemental distribution within latent fingermarks using synchrotron sourced X-ray fluorescence microscopy. Analytical Chemistry, 91(16), 10622–10630.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2006).The science of fingerprints: Classification and uses.

Khare, V., & Singla, A. (2022). A review on the advancements in chemical examination of composition of latent fingerprint residues.Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 12(1), 1–9.

Introduction

The Reid system of interrogation and interviewing is particularly used in U.S. crime departments. In the Reid method, an accusatory process is used where the suspect is told that the results of interrogation indicate they stand guilty. The Reid technique comprises factual analysis, interviewing, and interrogation. The interrogation in Reid may seek information that the respondent can freely give, such as crime witnesses and the information the respondent does not want to disclose. Proponents of Reid’s investigation suggest it is very effective in gaining intelligence from an unwillingness to confess suspects. However, if used by the wrong people, such as juveniles and the mentally impaired, the Reid system risks the probability of false confessions. The Reid system is a psychological tool applied in law to detect the sincerity of suspects but is challenged by false confessions.

Components of the Reid Method

Factual analysis, behavior analysis interview, and interrogation are the three constituents of Reid’s interrogation. A factual analysis is used where the investigator has gathered information to know about each suspect. Based on biosocial statuses such as occupation, marital status, gender, and ethnicity the investigator determines the probability of guilt or innocence in factual analysis (Chen, 2021). Moreover, before and after the criminal behavior of the suspects is used to formulate circumstantial evidence. Interviews are used to analyze suspects’ behavior in Reid’s interrogations. ‘Structured behavior provoking’ is a non-accusatory method of asking questions that evoke verbal and nonverbal behaviors that may indicate innocence or guilt.

The interrogator first asks normal background questions to evaluate the suspects’ standard verbal and nonverbal behaviors. A behavior analysis interview is a non-accusatory technique only used to identify the suspects’ truthfulness and deceptiveness. Positive confrontation, theme development, handling denials, overcoming objections, procurement and retention of attention, handling passive mood, presenting an alternative question, having the suspect narrate the various details of the offense, and converting a written confession to an oral admission is the steps of Reid interrogation (Constanzo, 2021). Interrogation is the final aspect of the Reid technique that is applied if the factual analysis and behavioral analysis interview is indicting.

The Advantages and Shortcomings of the Reid Method

Reid system is beneficial to investigators by discerning when a suspect is honest or lying. Judgments to distinguish between truth and deception are challenging; hence investigators leverage the Reid technique. Reid techniques have been marked as the most effective method of producing suspects’ confessions. Deception can affect court rulings when used in the presentation of circumstantial evidence. However, critics argue that the Reid technique is coercive and can lead to false confessions. The presumptive guilt nature experimented on in behavior analysis interviews creates room for reciprocal observations between the interrogator and the suspect, potentially creating guilt.

Application of the Reid Method in Psychology and the Legal System

The Reid approach uses psychological methods to determine guilt in law. No physical force is used to extract evidence and confessions from the suspect but rather psychological intelligence. The Judeo-Christian tradition recognizes confession as the acknowledgment of wrongdoing either publicly or privately necessary to obtain divine judgment. The probability of false confessions challenges the application of the Reid technique (Chen, 2021). A biblical perspective defines false confession as an involuntary confession of guilt that affects judgment. The Kinesic Interview method is the trending alternative that serves a similar purpose as the Reid approach.

Conclusion

Investigators and police officers use the Reid system to determine the sincerity of the suspects. Factual analysis, behavior analysis interview, and interrogation are the components of a Reid interrogation. Distinguishing truthful and deceitful confessions during challenging investigations is vital for fair conviction. Nevertheless, the prospects of false confession in Reid’s interrogations are high, making the system incompetent. The Kinesic Interview method is the trend in lie detection and interrogation.

Reference

Chen, A. (2021). The ineffectiveness of the Reid technique in law enforcement interrogations and how a non-accusatory model of interview can be applied in law enforcement interviews in the United States.

Constanzo. (2021). Forensic and legal psychology: Psychological science applied to law. Worth Publisher Inc, U. S. Web.

Introduction

Modern legal sciences, for instance, criminal law, have made it possible to formulate the types of crimes, reduce them to criminal codes, determine the forms and methods of crimes, and shape a valuable theoretical background. However, due to the specificity of each of these disciplines, they cannot address the issue of crime in general. Therefore, their gradual development has led to the emergence of a special science that studies crime as a phenomenon existing in society. This is criminology that cannot be separated from many social theories due to its inextricable connection with certain concepts and phenomena about the principles of human behavior, interpersonal communication, and other aspects of human existence. This work aims to present criminology from a social science perspective, present the key theories that overlap across various disciplines, and prove the contiguity of individual approaches to addressing the current challenges and preventing crime.

Belonging to Social Sciences

Criminology cannot be attributed only to legal sciences since it is based on no special legal branch. According to Pridemore et al. (2018), this discipline is a socio-legal theoretical and applied discipline that studies crime as a social phenomenon, the essence and forms of its manifestation, as well as its laws. The reasons and determinants that explain the essence of crime and the motives that induce individuals to defy the law cannot be analyzed without reference to other areas of knowledge, for instance, psychology or sociology. The personalities of those who commit crimes are assessed in a variety of contexts, including demographic characteristics. The development of a system of crime prevention measures, in turn, is impossible without a preliminary assessment and comparison of current social norms and foundations because any restrictions are a consequence of specific preventive rules. Moreover, as Nagin and Sampson (2019) argue, this science is characterized by causal relationships, which is a feature of social research. Therefore, criminology can be presented as a social discipline that uses the existing legal framework for the implementation of the tasks set to detect and prevent crime manifestations.

Many regulations, recommendations, and conclusions of criminology are of a legal nature since they are based on the norms of criminal, executive, procedural, and administrative legislative rules. Thus, in the system of social sciences, criminology can be located at the intersection of sociology and jurisprudence. According to Nagin and Sampson (2019), criminological research is often based on searching for relationships and justifications for specific assumptions or the proof of hypotheses, which are also frequent study methods in social disciplines. Criminology refers to jurisprudence since the phenomena it analyzes are characterized by the legal concepts of a crime or a subject of a crime, depending on the task set. The causes and conditions of crime, in turn, are largely associated with defects in legal consciousness or legal psychology, and some humanitarian disciplines aim to study the specifics of human behavior and motives. In addition, as McClanahan and South (2019) note, the study of crime as a general phenomenon, the causes of crime, the personality of the offender, and crime prevention measures fall within the scope of sociology. Therefore, criminology cannot be called an exclusively legal science due to its sociological background.

Criminological Theories Overlapping with Social Sciences

In addition to general background, theoretically, criminology and social sciences have common interpretations from the standpoint of individual concepts. Some authors cite different models used in criminology, which, in turn, have a pronounced social connotation (Cohen, 2017). These theories can be applied not only to aspects of crime and criminal or administrative responsibility but also in a more general context. The analysis of such concepts can confirm the social nature of criminology.

One of the related concepts is the theory of social justice that is applicable both to the provisions of criminal law and to universal human social values. This model is based on the concept of natural human rights – the rights to life, freedom, and property. According to Cohen (2017), by following this theory, on the one hand, a person should be given what one deserves, including the offender, and a punishment commensurate with the act should be imposed. On the other hand, an innocent citizen needs protection from criminal encroachments and security, which can be realized through the assessment of the violation of rights (Cohen, 2017). This principle serves as an effective tool to determine the degree of guilt and, at the same time, shapes the basis of interpersonal relationships in society.

Another theory that proves that criminology may be considered one of the social sciences is the concept of free will. As Paternoster (2017) states, this concept assumes that the crime committed by a person, as well as a person’s behavior in general, is the result of one’s choice. The main causal factor in crime is based on the principle of an individual’s free will. A crime is a deliberate and purposeful act, and each offender assesses the likelihood of one’s arrest, conviction, and punishment, including the estimated severity of this punishment. As a result of the influence of these negative circumstances, an antisocial attitude of the personality is formed. Countermeasures against crime are the identification and elimination of negative circumstances that shape specific deviant behavioral patterns.

The social disorganization theory is a concept that finds its application in criminology and, at the same time, explains specific behavioral motives in a social context. According to Liu (2020), this model proceeds from the impossibility or unwillingness of certain individuals or groups to function monolithically in a variety of life situations caused by urbanization, migration, and other unfavorable factors. The lack of cohesion leads to a state of anomie and social disorganization. As Barnes et al. (2019) note, human behavior, as a variable that is studied in different sciences, can be viewed through the prism of statistics. As a result, different cases of deviant behavior are taken in numerical data, which is typical in many social sciences, and concrete ratios can be drawn up, thereby creating a general picture of social behavior. Cohen (2017) argues that “the working class and racial minorities are doubly vulnerable not just to crimes of the powerful but also to predatory street crimes” (p. 246). Thus, one can draw a parallel between criminal behavior and social status, which confirms the connection of criminology with other sciences and its strong sociological background.

While taking into account the diversity of theories, one can note that criminology can have individual research nuances and analytical tools, but in general, the social implications of most of the models are obvious. The evaluation of any concept implies that the main object of discussion is the individual as a social subject exhibiting specific behavioral traits and demonstrating personal motives under different impacts. Therefore, criminology can be viewed from the perspective of social sciences due to this close relationship.

Preventive Social Measures in Criminology

The listed directions of the development of criminology do not exhaust all its branches. At the same time, they show that studying the causes of crime and the development of measures to prevent it is a significant, complex, and multi-level process. The emergence of modern criminological concepts and approaches is greatly influenced by criminal sociology which provides multi-level empirical information and creates a fertile ground for the formation of new directions and schools (McClanahan & South, 2019). Moreover, such new accents contribute to maintaining effective legal regulation and creating preventive activities within the framework of existing knowledge about the social nature of humans. Fighting deviant behavior, addressing the problem of poverty, controlling individual social communities, and some other measures are valuable solutions to address the existing difficulties. Thus, by using approaches from sociology and the psychology of the individual, criminologists can develop theoretical and practical methods for their discipline, which confirms the aforementioned relationship.

Conclusion

Considering criminology from the perspective of social science, one can find many common approaches and concepts that prove the contiguity of different spheres. Modern criminological theories are largely based on social and psychological concepts about the behavior and personality of the offender, as well as one’s motives and incentives. The conducted research confirms the proposed relationship and provides arguments in favor of the use of specific preventive social measures to overcome modern challenges and address the gaps to reduce crime. The findings prove that from a theoretical standpoint, many sciences intersect. Further research may be devoted to studying the practical relationship between criminology and social disciplines.

References

Barnes, J. C., TenEyck, M. F., Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2019). How powerful is the evidence in criminology? On whether we should fear a coming crisis of confidence. Justice Quarterly, 37(3), 383-409.

Cohen, S. (2017). Against criminology. Routledge.

Liu, L. (2020). Family, parochial, and public levels of social control and recidivism: An extension of the systemic model of social disorganization. Crime & Delinquency, 66(6-7), 864-886.

McClanahan, B., & South, N. (2019). ‘All knowledge begins with the senses’: Towards sensory criminology. The British Journal of Criminology, 60(1), 3-23.

Nagin, D. S., & Sampson, R. J. (2019). The real gold standard: Measuring counterfactual worlds that matter most to social science and policy. Annual Review of Criminology, 2, 123-145.

Paternoster, R. (2017). Happenings acts, and actions: Articulating the meaning and implications of human agency for criminology.Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 3(4), 350-372.

Pridemore, W. A., Makel, M. C., & Plucker, J. A. (2018). Replication in criminology and the social sciences. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 19-38.

Introduction

Chain of custody, sometimes abbreviated as (CoC), is defined as the chronological documentation or a paper trail that shows seizure, the custody, controls, transfers, analyses, and disposition of electronic or physical evidence (Fridell 48). This concept is always very important when one is handling criminal cases. However, it is also applicable in civil litigation. When there is evidence to be presented in court, it is always important to handle it with a lot of care to avoid claims of tampering with evidence. This is because it can compromise the evidence. The three components of the chain of custody are very important if one is to win a particular case. For instance, when the evidence is a piece of knife, it must be proven that the knife is the piece of evidence. A litigant’s fingerprints or blood sample can help prove this. The second step should be a testimony of consistency showing the possession of the item. For instance, an officer picks the knife, hands it over to the forensic officer, who finally hands it over to the evidence clerk. The evidence clerk would finally store it. Lastly, there should be testimony by all the individuals who had possession of this evidence showing that the evidence has not been tampered with.

Concept of “Locard’s Principle of Exchange”

Forensic science has had a massive development due to the effort put in place by various scientists, including Edmond Locard. Locard’s principle of exchange holds that a criminal will always have cross-transfer of some form of physical evidence when he or she encounters a person or an object. This principle is currently very popular in court cases (Brown 56). For instance, when one is accused of murder, traces of blood of the victim on the accused person’s hand or clothes will be a confirmation that the accused had contact with the victim.

Major Types of Individual Identification that Have Been Used Throughout Forensic History

Forensic science has been very important in the identification of the accused in the courtroom. While in court, there is always a need to produce proof that a particular individual is the one who is rightfully needed in the court. Forensic science has helped a lot in the identification process. Several ways through which criminal investigators identify criminals exist. DNA profiling, also known as DNA testing, has been one of the widely used strategies in the identification of criminals. This tactic helps in the identification of individuals through their DNA profiles (Tilstone 92). The technique of DNA profiling is credited to Sir Alec Jeffreys of the University of Leicester, who was the first to bring up the technique in 1984.

Another common type of individual identification is offender profiling. In this strategy, an investigator will try to predict the behavioral pattern of an offender and connect it to the nature of the offense. This would then be connected to how the offense was committed. In the end, it would help in connecting the crime to the person who committed the offense. Dr. Richard Jarvis is credited with this strategy of criminal profiling. Digital image forensic is another strategy that has also been in use for the identification of individuals in the court. In this case, an individual will be identified through an image that was captured during the process of committing the offense. In this strategy, there must be a strong authenticity of the image to ensure that there was no form of tempering with the image (Houck 112). Several individuals have participated in the development of this strategy, including Henry Farid.

The process of putrefaction in humans

Putrefaction is one of the stages in the decomposition of a dead body. According to Middleton (42), putrefaction is the decomposition of a dead body, which involves the breakdown of the proteins in the dead organism. The process is systematic and depends on several factors. The putrefaction process can be analyzed based on hours after death or days and weeks. A dead body will undergo a series of processes after death. Once an individual dies, blood will settle in those parts of the body closest to the ground. A few hours after death, the skin will become pale because of the absence of oxygen. After a few hours, livor mortis will discolor the skin. The body will then start cooling down at a rate depending on the environmental temperatures. The muscles will relax completely in what is known as primary flaccidity. After a few minutes, the muscles will stiffen because of coagulation of proteins in the muscles, a condition referred to as rigor mortis. This is about six hours after death. It is important however to note that not all dead bodies undergo rigor mortis, especially bodies of infants (Middleton 42).

After about two days, there will be discoloration on the skin of the abdomen. As the gases form in the abdomen, they will begin to swell. This will depend on the temperatures around the corpse. After about four days, the discoloration will spread to other parts of the body. Discolored veins will become visible. After about six days, there will be the formation of blisters on the skin. There will be an increase in the swelling of the abdomen. After three weeks, the tissues will soften as cavities start busting and the nails fall off. This process will speed up with the presence of insects and other microorganisms, which may be acting upon the dead body. After the fourth day, most of the soft body tissues will liquefy. The face would then become completely unrecognizable (Middleton 43).

Lessons Learnt From Death Investigation

There were massive facts that I came to learn from the death investigation. Although I was aware of the fact that a body would decompose after death, I did not have a comprehensive knowledge of the processes that take place during death. For instance, the fact that the process leading the body to liquefy on the fourth week was a little skin curdling was unknown. The process may make an individual reconsider the choice of this profession. Trying to imagine that at one point, one may need to investigate a person who has been dead for four weeks made me a little scared. However, as one continues to learn these facts, they become normal. Each profession has its challenges and facing a dead body is just one of the challenges faced by forensic psychologists. I understand that with time, everything will be normal since the processes are internalized with time.

Works Cited

Brown, Rhonda. Forensic Science: Advanced Investigations. Mason: South-Western Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Fridell, Ron. Forensic Science. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2007. Print.

Houck, Max. Forensic Science: Modern Methods of Solving Crime. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2007. Print.

Middleton, Christopher. Ballad of the Putrefaction. Hull: Carnivorous Arpeggio Press, 1993. Print.

Tilstone, William. Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006. Print.

Criminology is the scientific discipline where many technical and humanitarian sciences have been incorporated to serve the public good. It consists of elements of biology, chemistry, physics, psychology, sociology, and many other scientific branches. Each criminological term has a unique meaning that is strikingly different from its counterparts in other disciplines. Therefore, a person wishing to become a specialist in criminal law must know and understand what the various criminological terms mean. Words such as trends and patterns are critical to the discipline. Knowing them gives one an understanding of the basics of criminology and makes further study easier. This paper will explain what trends and patterns in criminal law mean with examples.

Such a term as a trend has a clear definition in criminal law. Experts note that “a crime trend is defined as a significant change in the nature of selected crime types within a defined geographical area and time period” (Crime trend law and legal definition, 2021, para. 1). For example, British criminologists have found a decline in adult victimization in violent crime over the past 20 years (Stripe, 2021). The trend was found in the analysis of crime statistics in England and Wales.

In criminology, patterns refer to crime pattern theory, a conceptual model designed to explain how and why crime occurs and predict it. Patterns here mean variations in the behaviors of both victims and perpetrators and shared and unique circumstances of offenses within one type of crime. Recently, the United States has experienced an outbreak of violent crime, including homicides and aggravated assaults (Hilsenrath, 2020). A common pattern here is that the rise in violent crime has only occurred in large cities.

References

Crime trend law and legal definition.(2021). USLegal. Web.

Hilsenrath, J. (2020). Homicide spike hits most large U.S. cities.The Wall Street Journal. Web.

Stripe, N. (2021). The nature of violent crime in England and Wales: Year ending March 2020. Office for National Statistics. Web.

Abstract

Different types of practices are used to collect the evidence at the crime scene. One of these practices is fingerprinting. Fingerprinting allows detection and fixating human fingerprints that are left by the friction ridges. There are four different approaches in fingerprinting: chemical lifting, cyanoacrylate fuming, visualization/lifting in blood and visualization/lifting on human skin. Each of these types is designed to detect and capture fingerprints left on different kinds of surfaces. Furthermore, every type involves certain methods and instruments to fixate and lift fingerprints. This research will be focused on describing each type of the fingerprinting methods while focusing on peculiarities that each practice has. Also, the process of casting a mold of tire and footwear impressions will be described in detail.

Fingerprinting

The type of fingerprints collection method that is used in the crime scene is often determined by the surface it is left on. The surfaces, in turn, vary in significant numbers. Fingerprints may be left on glass, marble, metal, plastic, finished wood, etc. These surfaces are called nonporous. Other types of surfaces are called porous. These surfaces will deform under pressure, therefore, creating a fingerprint (Sheridan, 2013). Porous surfaces include soft materials such as butter, clay, soft metals, cement, soil, etc.

Nonporous surfaces are generally the areas that are searched for the fingerprints. However, it is much easier to detect and collect fingerprints on porous surfaces. For the nonporous surfaces, forensic science recommends using the most common chemical lifting practices such as dusting with fingerprint powder (NFSTC, 2013). This powder may be made of black granular, black magnetic, aluminum flake or other materials.

The process of using the fingerprint powder consists of applying the powder that will stick to the human skin grease and will not reside on the adjacent surfaces. Therefore, the fingerprint is made visible. Specialists then proceed to take photographs of fingerprints that are then analyzed and stored in the police database. However, using the fingerprint powder may contaminate the print area making fingerprint’s quality unacceptable. If there is a possibility of contamination, the recommended course of action is to use cyanoacrylate.

Cyanoacrylate, as well as other chemicals used in the process of fingerprint detection, is used to make the latent fingerprints visible without causing additional contamination of the crime scene and the area in which a fingerprint is found. Applying chemicals to fingerprint area causes the reaction which only highlights the outlines of a fingerprint. As well as in the procedure of dusting, highlighted fingerprints are then photographed and passed to further departments for analyzing and storing.

Another common area to look for fingerprints is blood residue. Fingerprints left in blood stains are often too poor in quality to be immediately collected by photographing them. There are, of course, some cases when blood stains are left on transparent sources or the sources that are highly reflective. Blood fingerprints are mostly collected by using chemicals such as amido black, heme specific dyes and others (Dhall, Sodhi & Kapoor, 2013).

For an extended period of forensic science history, collecting fingerprints from human skin was considered to be impossible. However, the researches of German Federal Criminal Police achieved success in inventing the procedure of detecting and lifting latent fingerprints in the postmortem casework (Färber, Seul, Weisser & Bohnert, 2010). The experimental procedures involved using adhesive powders that reacted with the residual fluids and grease creating a visible fingerprint. Therefore, fingerprints left on the human skin became detectable and collectable. Due to the characteristics of human skin surface, the application of fingerprint powder is not possible as the dust will spread on the skin without highlighting the fingerprints. Therefore, the usage of chemicals that react to different types of residual fluids is prescribed by the forensic practices.

Another important part of fingerprinting is composing and processing the documentation that makes the procedure of investigation much less complicated. The documentation generally contains taken actions, gathered data, and achieved results. The starting point of creating documentation regarding fingerprints must be the crime scene. This documentation provides basic information that is collected on arrival to the crime scene such as case number, address, information about the victim, time of arrival and departure of LPE, and the name of LPE (U.S. Department of Justice, 2012). Additionally, documentation regarding evidence must include the location of items and their condition preceding the collecting procedures. Documenting the crime scene may be achieved by making photos, sketches or taking notes that describe the crime scene. When all of the documentation is composed, it must be placed in the temporary storage for further transportation.

Casting

Although fingerprints are considered to be the most reliable and sufficient source of evidence in many cases, additional pieces of evidence may be crucial to the investigation. There are two types of evidence that is somewhat similar to the finger ridge impressions, namely tire and footwear impressions. These pieces of evidence may provide additional information about the criminal which will contribute to solving the case. However, there are certain difficulties that forensic units face when the need to collect tire and footwear impressions occurs. The impressions left by tires and footwear mostly remain in the soil which makes detecting and extracting them much harder. Nevertheless, forensic science provides different types of materials as well as different approaches to efficiently collect the impressions.

The primary procedure that is used to collect such pieces of evidence is casting a mold. It is achieved by filling the area in which the prints are found with precisely mixed water and dental stone or sulfur. Yet it is obligatory to thoroughly document the area before casting by taking photographs or making sketches. This obligation is due to the fact that casting procedure is relatively dangerous regarding contamination and deformation of the impressions. In case if any damage is done to the area of impression, photographs and sketches may provide the information to recreate or correct the molds.

A number of steps needed to cast a mold may differ depending on the type surface the impression was found in. Such surfaces may include snow, sand, soil, etc. Since impressions may be frail due to the nature of the material, it is recommended to fixate the impression by applying fixatives such as hair spray or others. The procedure includes pre-mixing the materials that will be used, pouring mixed materials into the impression, etching the needed information (date, case number, item number, officer’s initials) on the mold, and mold extraction (Warrington, 2015).

Pre-mixing materials must be completed using mixing containers, measuring cups, stirring spoon or stick, and a hot plate or stove to melt the sulfur if it is used instead of the dental stone or together with it. The mixture must not be directly poured into the impression because this will most likely result in deformation and, therefore, poor quality of the mold. It is necessary to apply the mixture on the outside surface and direct the flow into the impression. The mold must then dry up. More extreme temperatures result in faster drying. The finished mold must be carefully retrieved to prevent any damage. This concludes the procedure of casting.

References

Dhall, J. K., Sodhib, G. S., & Kapoorc, A.K. (2013). A novel method for the development of latent fingerprints recovered from arson simulation. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 3(4), 99-103.

Färber, D., Seul, A., Weisser, H., & Bohnert, M. (2010). Recovery of latent fingerprints and DNA on human skin. Journal of Forensic Sciences. Web.

National Forensic Science Technology Center. (2013). A simplified guide to fingerprint analysis. Web.

Sheridan, S. (2013). Techniques for collecting and analyzing fingerprints. Web.

U.S. Department of Justice. (2012). The Fingerprint Sourcebook. National Institute of Justice: Author.

Warrington, D. (2015). Casting: Essentials. Web.

Introduction

The essay is a critical examination of the three major characters in the movie Blood in Blood Out. This is accomplished through the lens of social bonding theory. The theory is used to give more insight on why or why not Miklo, Paco and Cruz committed or did not commit crime in the movie. The movie Blood in Blood Out was released back in 1993 and directed by Hackford Taylor and was filmed in the Spanish speaking region of Los Angeles in side San Quentin State Prison in California. The entire movie has been deemed a melodrama concerning what really happens in the street crimes, gangs as well as prison way of life of Chicanos. The three were cousin and associated closely with each other during violence in East Los Angeles back in 1972 (Hackford, 1993).

Before joining Cruz and Paco, Miklo had attacked his father. They engaged themselves in various criminal activities which eventually left each of them with serious negative consequences. For instance Cruz who was a talented artist after being hit on his backed was paralyzed for life and eventually decided to be a drug addict. On the other hand, after several crimes, Paco who was an accessory to murder eventually joined the military and became a detective in order to escape being jailed. Similarly, Miklo who was arrested together with Paco found himself rising up to being a leader of a gang in San Quentin. The gang was dubbed La Onda which was a Latino gang. Towards the end of the movie, Paco visited Cruz who had been re-accepted by his family and through their conversation they indeed Paco was responsible for all that has befallen them since he was the one who ordered Miklo to kill Spider, a gang leader (Hackford 1993).

Description of social bond theory

The theory was developed and proposed by Hirschi Travis back in 1969. The theory was later updated and it was dubbed social control theory. This theory has been deemed to offer an interesting platform from which the social problems facing mankind are approached and explained (Sampson & Laub, 1993). As described by author, “Elements of social bonding include attachment to families, commitment to social norms and institutions (school, employment), involvement in activities, and the belief that these things are important” (Hirschi, 2002). It is worth noting that this theory has a close bearing with the general theory of crime. Ideally the theory asserts that “there is an absence of social attachments among juvenile delinquents”.

Additionally, the theory holds that since those who live with us in one way or the other affect our lives, then “we in turn are direct descendents of their actions” (Sampson & Laub, 1993). The most crucial period of an individual is the adolescence as individuals here need a lot of positive influences in their lives so that these individuals will be better placed to have a close social tie with others in the society. However, if the association that is shared is full of negative aspects and attributes for instance criminal like habits, there are indeed higher chances of adolescence to be negatively influenced (Rhodes, 2000).

According to the author, there are four major or fundamental elements of the theory; “attachment, commitment, involvement in conventional versus deviant or criminal activities, and lastly the common value system within an individual’s society or subgroup” (Hirschi, 2002). Attachment has been viewed as the extent of values as well as norms and beliefs that a person holds in a given societal setting. This aspect is more pronounced when considering the manner of parenting that one was brought up with. Similarly, attachment to a peer group is equally important as that from one’s parents. Parents and peers who are well bounded influence deterrence from criminal activities (Hirschi, 2002). On the same note, it is held that other attachments such as learning institutions, prison among others play a major impact in conventional society. For instance, when the middle class student tends to prejudice and mock those from the lower class a seed of resent is planted making the affected individual loss trust and resent schools from very tender age. Ultimately such an individual will engage in antisocial activities.

Commitment as an element looks at the commitment of individuals to adhere to law, guidelines and procedure laid down by the respective authorities. At an early age, when individuals are taught the importance of obeying the norms as well as the manner with which a given society works makes one to be a better person as there is a platform to distinguish between what is deemed ‘right and wrong’. “A typical example is when a child is raised in a family where illegal drugs are bought and used; there are higher chances of such a child to get involved in drugs later in life” (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 2005). Although the bound within a nuclear family might be good, there is also an opportunity given to individuals to choose how they will lead their lives. This is in most cases shaped by the basic rules taught to individuals. Additionally, “if a person shares common values/norms as others in their subgroup then the motivation to deviate will be hard to overcome”.

It is worth noting that this theory has been accepted by majority of sociologists due to the fact that bonds do exists in any given societal settings and such bonds can be evaluated to reveal the impacts it has to individuals. Thus for Hirschi, 2004 social bonds do exist and in situations where it is weak then there is bound to unusual behaviours to be experienced. This is captured in what the developer of the theory asserts;

[The more weakened the groups to which [the individual] belongs, the less he depends on them, the more he consequently depends only on himself and recognizes no other rules of conduct then what are formed on his private interests] (Hirschi, 2004).

Summery of the theory

A critical examination of the theory reveals that individual behaviour are usually or in most cases dictated by the influence of those they network with or live together with. For that, matter, a positive influence at a tender age especially during adolescence will in most cases result to an individual who can distinguishes right from wrong. However there are four major elements of the theory that best describes it; “attachment, commitment, involvement in conventional versus deviant or criminal activities, and lastly the common value system within an individual’s society or subgroup” (Hirschi, 2002).

The theory also notes that although one might be in a family that exhibits stronger bound, the choice of leading one’s life is in their own hands and for that matter individuals can engage in antisocial behaviours not because they were not brought up in a good manner and associated with good peer but because they see such acts to suit their way of life (Mills, 1990). The social bond theory clearly points out the time in human life that extra care needs to be taken (Brown et al., 2007). Adolescence has long been seen as the prime time where individual strongly need positive influence so that they can adopt norms, belief that are a true reflection of a society free from criminal activities.

According to McLennan et al., 1980 the major assumptions of the theory are; young individuals who had a stronger attachment to their parents were less likely to engage in criminal activities, commitment to values that are deemed conventional for instance struggling to attain good education exhibit generally acceptable behaviours and young individuals who indulged in behaviours deemed unconventional are more likely to engage in criminal or antisocial acts. Additionally adolescents who do not engage in unconventional behaviours are attached to their peers.

Thus, [Social Control Theory proposes that people’s relationships, commitments, values, norms, and beliefs encourage them not to break the law. Thus, if moral codes are internalized and individuals are tied into, and have a stake in their wider community, they will voluntarily limit their propensity to commit deviant acts].

One prominent author that did critique the theory was Hindeland Michael back in 1973. Through his studies, he established that indeed peers who spent more time with delinquent peers were prone to commit crimes compared to those who got attached to peers with socially acceptable behaviours. On the same note, there are a number of studies that have indeed shown that those children who are brought up by parents who are drug abusers do exhibit a greater chance of following suit and becoming drug abusers later in life. According to Akers, 2000 individuals associating with peers, family members who are deviant will eventually get motivated to engage in criminal activities facilitating antisocial behaviours. It has also been established in subsequent studies that whereas weak bond between parents and their children leads to delinquency a strong bond among peers also yields the same results of increased rate of delinquencies (LaGrange and Raskin, 1985).

Criticism of social control theory

Although the theory has been hailed to help sociologists approach and clearly explain some social problems, there are important points raised by a number of authors in the field of sociology. One important point raised as a weakness of the theory is that it fails to succinctly differentiate the significance of each of the four elements of the theory (Krohn & Massey, 1980). It has been established and suggested by subsequent scholars that indeed it is possible that there exists differences in the four elements of social bond theory (Liska & Reed, 1985). For instance it has been established that adolescents who were found to actively engage in criminal acts were indeed highly involved which is contrary to what Hirschi held that such a high level of involvement reduces the chances of delinquency. Additionally, the developer concluded that any kind of any type of social attachment was of benefit, however it is eventually established that deviate parents and peers support and nurture antisocial behaviours (Brown et al., 2007).

It is also acknowledged that there are certain kinds of bound that was overlooked by the developer of social bond theory. A typical example is that of the Americans family structures. It is apparent that currently there are increased single family households, same sex marriage among others. Such kind of an arrangement although not fully studied leaves an open room for discussing whether it affects individuals in the society in a positive or deleterious manner (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 2005).

Similarly another serious weakness in the theory is the failure of properly and exhaustively defining the major concepts of the theory. For that matter the manner with which terms are defined definitely alters the results from a well intended study. Lastly subsequent scholars who tried to justify the assumptions and hypotheses of the theory might have used a wrong study design (Krohn & Massey, 1980). For instance majority of them used self reporting studies. This methods has been shown to exhibit a number of serious negative consequences for instances it is possible that the reporter has a different motive of sharing certain information and that the posed questions might be understood and interpreted in a different manner other than what the researcher had intended (Wilson, 1980).

Application of the social control theory

For Miklo, it is apparent that his parents had separated. In my own humble view, problems in the family might have resulted to this and domestic violence was a key contributor. Being raised in a family prone to violence, Miklo ended up beating his father up before moving to stay with the two cousins of his. It is thus apparent that the negative influences around him via his father largely contributed to his delinquent behaviours (Nye, 1958). On the same note, while he met with his cousins, of which are his peers, it is evident how Cruz and Paco incited him though in a clever manner. Paco lets Miklo know that he is not suited for the gang this eventually made him prove his worth when he attacked the rival gang (Hirschi, 2004).

Initially, the thought of joining the gang was brought to light after the three meet hence involvement with bad influence is a serious concern in driving especially adolescents into criminal acts. The pressure on him to make it clear that he was ready to join the gang by launching an attack in order to gain recognition is in large part contributed by the very statement said by Paco (Matsueda, 1994). Similarly, the environment in which Miklo and his cousin lived was full of violence as well as criminal activities. The various gangs within the vicinity in my opinion played a major role in enticing these youths to join and engage in rivalry as well as supremacy (Hirschi, 2004).

After being arrested and sent to San Quentin Prison where the environment within is controlled by three major criminal gangs purely based on their race Miklo is left with no option but to engage in criminal activities. Even in the gang he was introduced by his friend Popeye, he was initially criticized for his colour; on the same note, the other gang known as Aryan Vanguard tried to make Miklo a sex slave. According to Jensen & Rojek, 1998, such an environment makes one to have no other option but to engage in delinquent acts. The pressure on Miklo to join the group was made clear to him when he met with the group leader.

He was to kill an enemy inmate of which he agreed to doing. He successfully convinced Big Al and eventually stabbed him to death. In this case it is evident that although the social control theory asserts that higher level of involvement helps deter criminal acts, it is indeed conflicting when this concept is applied to the case of Miklo. The pressure from the gang makes him commit serious crimes which in any society will be deemed unacceptable (Matza, 1964). Additionally it emerges that the officers are not able to charge Miklo since he has evidence about kickbacks from gambling received by the officers. Thus the societal setting within the prison in my view is rotten and it is an epicentre of criminal activities that goes unpunished (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 2005).

When he was released on parole, Miklo continued to enact the orders of the group he had joined. However, while working his immediate boss in Miklo’s opinion was robbing him. This eventually pushed him to join an armed gang. In the case of Paco, although he engaged in criminal activities, the influence can be fully described from his peers. Despite the fact that he found himself in trouble a number of times, his desire to quite such acts deemed antisocial saved him a lot (Felson, 1994). As described in the theory of social control, individuals who engage themselves in constructive activities are not prone to engage in antisocial behaviours (Hindelang, 1973).

Since Paco joined the L.A.P.D and worked as a detective, there is no instance mentioned of him engaging in criminal activities rather he worked hard in restoring order and law within his jurisdiction. However, he acknowledges that by ordering Miklo to murder Spider, he is indeed responsible for the misfortunes that have befallen Miklo. Similarly, the major contributor to the reason why Paco initially engaged in criminal activities can be ascribed to the kind of parental he experienced (Bursik & Robert, 1988). In my humble view, his parents were not concerned with his activities as well as his whereabouts, show little empathy and love. This left him with no other option but to look where he can find an attachment with peers who are delinquent. “Becoming attached to delinquent peers makes sense only as a solution to the insecure feelings and distorted conditioned thinking which signal less healthy functioning” (Briar Piliavin, 1965: 43)

Similarly, for Cruz just like his two cousins, a volatile family greatly contributed to his troubles. Instead of choosing the right path of life, he was forced to choose a wrong one mainly because he lacked the kind of family support that instils proper behaviours that are socially acceptable (Hartwell, 2000). Additionally living in a society where crime is the order of the day, his mind was tuned to see such activities as not being wrong. Such an environment leaves very little room for an individual to be brought up and being able to differentiate right from wrong even if the family is committed to doing so. It is also apparent that his engagement in cocaine was aggravated when his family denied him (Harp et al., 1993). In my humble opinion, if his family could have showed intensive support in helping rehabilitate him, he would have found himself out of trouble earlier than expected (Akers, 2000).

Conclusion

From the review of the social control theory and its application, there are four major elements that are key to understanding it and they include attachment referring to an individual’s sensitivity to live of others, commitment, involvement and beliefs. Individuals are influenced by the social environment in which they are brought up from and for that matter persons who are raised in a volatile environment, having negative consequences are more likely to engage in acts that are antisocial. For the three major actors in the movie Blood in blood out, it is apparent that Miklo, Cruz and Paco engaged in serious crimes as results of social influence basically driven by the four mentioned elements. In my opinion, it would be better for the relevant stakeholders such as parents, relatives, neighbours and the government to ensure that young individuals as they grow up are taught as early as possible to differentiate right from wrong and internalized socially acceptable norms and beliefs. Although there are criticisms about the theory, social control theory opts to be recognized as a major and dominant theoretical perspective in criminology not only in the previous centaury but also in 21^st centaury (Spinner & Leaf, 1992).

References

Akers, R. (2000). Criminological Theories. 3rd Edition. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company.

Briar, S. Piliavin, I. (1965) “Delinquency, Situational Inducements, and Commitments to Conformity.” Social Problems 13 (1): 21-39.

Brown, S. et al. (2007). Criminology: Explaining Crime and Its Context. Newark, NJ: Anderson.

Bursik Jr. & Robert J. (1988). “Social Disorganization and Theories of Crime and Delinquency: Problems and Prospects”. Criminology 26(3): 519–539.

Felson, M. (1994). Crime and Everyday Life. London: Pine Forge Inc.

Hackford, T., Gershwin, J. (Producers), & Hackford, T. (Director). (1993). Blood in blood out. [DVD]. United States of America: Hollywood Pictures.

Harp, T. et al. (1993). “Partnerships in recovery: shelter-based services for homeless cocaine abusers” New Haven. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 10(3): 77–90.

Hartwell, S. (2000). “Not all work is created equal: homeless substance abusers and marginal employment” Research in the Sociology of Work, 9(4): 115–125.

Hindelang, S. (1973). “Causes of Delinquency: A partial Replica and Extension,” Social Problems, 21(1): 471-487.

Hirschi, T. & Gottfredson, M. (2004). A General Theory of Crime.” Classics of Criminology”. Ed. Jacoby, J. Long Grove, IL: Waveland P, Inc.

Hirschi, T. & Gottfredson, M. (2005). “Punishment of Children from the Perspective of Control Theory” In Donnelly, M. & Murray, A. Corporal Punishment of Children in Theoretical Perspective. New Haven, CT; London, UK: Yale University Press.

Hirschi, T. (2002). Causes of Delinquency. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.

Hirschi, T. (2004) “Control Theory of Delinquency. Long Grove, IL: Waveland P Inc.

Jensen, G. & Rojek, D. (1998). Delinquency and Youth Crime. 3rd Edition. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press.

Krohn, M. & Massey, J. (1980). “Social Control and Delinquent Behaviour: An Examination of the Elements of the Social Bond.” Sociological Quarterly. 21 (1): 34-74.

LaGrage, R. & Raskin, W. (1985). “Age Differs in Delinquency: A test of theory,” Criminology, 23 (1):19-45.

Liska, A. & Reed, D. (1985). “Ties to Conventional Institutions and Delinquency.” American Sociological Review 50 (2): 1-15

Matsueda, R. (1994). “Testing Control Theory and Differential Association.” American Sociological Review, 47(1): 2-34.

Matza, D. (1964). Delinquency and Drift. New York: John Wiley.

McLennan, G. et al. (1980). Crime and Society: Readings in History and Theory. London: Routledge.

Mills, R. (1990). “Substance abuse, dropout and delinquency prevention – The Modello/Homestead Gardens public housing early intervention project”. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Conference on the Psychology of Mind, St. Petersburg, FL.

Nye, F. (1958). Family Relationships and Delinquent Behaviour. New York: John Wiley.

Rhodes, R. (2000). Why They Kill: The Discoveries of a Maverick Criminologist. New York: Vintage.

Sampson, R. & Laub, J. (1993). Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Spinner, G. & Leaf, P. (1992). “Homeless and drug abuse in New Haven” Hospital Community Psychiatry, 43:166–168.

Wilson, H. (1980). “Parental Supervision: A Neglected Aspect of Delinquency”. British Journal of Criminology, 20(2): 43-61.

The term criminology refers to the design and scientific study of the extent, nature, control and cause of the criminal behaviors in both the individual and society. Crime is any act committed that deprives the individuals and the society of their values, rights and beliefs. There are different reasons why people commit crimes. Several factors such as the society, systems, culture and economy affect the criminal behaviors of a person. The criminal act may be as a result of a combination factors or one factor stated above.

The reasons behind a person’s desire for committing a crime vary from an individual to the other. The reasons include anger, greed, revenge, jealousy, or pride. Many people organize for successful crimes just to acquire and live a better life. The act is in some people. Several criminals think that the action is more lucrative than performing routine jobs. It is in their minds that crime brings joy and substantial rewards.

I think that inadequate parenting skills like neglected and sexually abused children are liable to be criminals later in life. Peer pressure and drug abuse can also lead to criminal offences. Drug users will always think negatively on how to make money for more drugs than what they have. Income and level of education is a significant factor leading to crime. Low-wage earners may be tempted to get additional resources to make ends meet.

Some will automatically prefer illegal processes to get cheap cash. Easy accesses to handguns which are sold cheaply give criminals a sense of security. They can be able to accomplish vicious crimes because of the support they get from the firearms. I may commit crime, especially white-collar crime, for monetary gain to meet my budgetary needs.

People become criminals through a process in their life. The life experiences people face in life makes them think differently and acquire new skills. They eventually chose what they want to be. It is believed that all criminals have some basic denominator.

The intention is to make some gains in their actions done. Different criminals have different reasons for their actions. Some will be criminals for a specified period while others will make it for life. The theory of sociology says that the major cause of crime is the straining groups and individuals undertake.

These people can not live without criminal acts. An individual will experience such strains when they can not achieve their goals. The same will happen when their values are taken away by other people. Lower- class people will steal to make additional money because they can not get enough from the low wages they earn. There are cases where crime follows family line. There re some instances where all family members are criminals.

The best way of taming the action in the society is by reforming the system especially the judicial, economic and the education. A change should start with oneself. The legal domain commits white-collar crimes and goes undetected.

There should be guidelines in the usage of force by law enforcers like the use of firearms. Clear guidelines on lawyers and prosecutor roles should be implemented. The principles on controlling juvenile delinquency and their protection should be entrenched in the judicial system. The length of detention should be reduced for the offenders.

Prisoners who remain in for more than two years find it hard to re-incorporate into the society. Another best way of reducing crime is by reducing the opportunities. This can be ensured by increasing the number of the police force in the streets and increasing their income. Street lights should be on all the time. Creation of employment is a principal strategy to boost the economy.

This will tame crime because many people will be earning a living. Control of outlawed drugs should be intensified to tame drug addiction among the users. I think that there should be criminal education by the judicial system to enlighten people on the dangers of crimes.