Category: Crime Investigation

Introduction

Prevalence of crime is a threat to any ordered society. Crime prevention and crime control require a wide range of response, which includes developing a comprehensive understanding of why people commit crime. Numerous criminological theories have emerged over the decades that explain in parts the taxonomy of criminal behavior. The earliest theories revolved around the Classical and the Positivist approach. The Classical approach theorized that “crime was a rational choice based on the pleasures of an illegal act outweighing its pains” (Cullen and Agnew 8). The Positivist school argued that crime was committed by people who had not biologically ‘evolved’ enough. Yet another early theory posited that criminals had specific biological and psychological traits which could be identified. These early theories were largely discredited by most experts and the Chicago school of social disorganization came into vogue. According to this theory, crime occurs because of breakdown of social cohesion in neighborhoods. However recent advances in medical sciences have led to a resurgence of criminal theories based on biological and psychological factors in a social background. The theory, also known as the Sociobiology or Psychobiologyis the focus of this essay which also dwells on some recommended responses for the Criminal Justice System in dealing with criminal behavior.

Main body

The Socio-biological theory basically posits that biological and genetic factors play an important role in the way humans perceive the environment and learn coping mechanisms to deal with that environment. This interrelation of innate biological factors, together with the environment gives rise to human behavioral patterns that includes criminal behavior also. Socio-biologists argue that no two people are born with the same brain, brain chemistry and a thinking process that is equal. Thus, the response of two individuals to the same environmental condition would differ. Walsh et al. reports “that individual biochemistry has a powerful influence on human behavior” (838). Researchers have found that deficiencies of Vitamin B3, B6 and C can cause antisocial behavior. Other researchers have found that diets high in sugar lead to hyperactivity and attention span disorders. When the diet of previously uncontrollable hyperactive children was regulated, it led to a dramatic decrease in disruptive behavior. Low blood sugar levels or Hypoglycemia has been known to cause anxiety, headaches, confusion, depression, and general irritability. Reed reports that “a significant and large proportion of our criminal offenders are suffering from malnutrition induced by excessive consumption of junk processed food” (5).

Allergies caused due to different types of foods, foods added with chemicals and chemical pollution of environment have been known to produce a wide range of antisocial behavior. Behavioral psychologists through neurobiological studies have found that the poor judgment performance of adolescents is attributable to “incomplete frontal cortex and cerebellum development” (Hanson 19). Damage to the prefrontal cortex of the human brain either through injury or due to other physiological factors produces changes in human behavior over which ‘free will’ may have very little control. Researchers have found links between abnormal brain electrical patterns as recorded on Electro Encephalograms (EEGs) and the number of such people incarcerated in jails and prisons. Juveniles with abnormal EEGs have shown a range of response which includes poor impulse control, tantrums, disruptive behavior, hostility and poor social adaptation. Added to such a wide range of biological factors if one were to add the social factors, it is not surprising that crime is so common.

However, biological factors described above in stable psychological and social environments have proved to be controllable and have not necessarily led to criminal behavior. It is obvious that a trigger of adverse psychological and social causes is relevant to explain the spurt in criminality. A typical example would be the life in the Bronx. A child brought up in average low income neighborhood of Bronx faces a host of socio-psychological factors. Poor incomes lead to poor diets and junk food as the main staple. This dietary imbalance then could manifest in general irritation and disruptive behavior as has already been stated. Since juveniles have poor judgment performances, influence of older members of the family or the neighbors who could be criminals themselves could significantly alter their life’s choices. In some Bronx neighborhoods, not belonging to a street gang could possible lead to existential danger. Such an environment creates a fear psychosis where the individuals live in mortal fear of either the criminals or the police. Poor socio-economic conditions also set the stage for broken homes, frustrated abusive parents and a breakdown of normal societal behavior. If one adds to this cauldron, individuals with brain injuries, brain damage or those with behavior altered adversely due to biochemical causes coupled with possible environmental pollution that affects the functioning of the brain, an explosion of deviant behavior and rise in criminality is a guaranteed outcome. In the above example, it becomes evident that not only does sociobiology become relevant but also, other social theories of criminology. That is not to say that the classical approach is not a valid theory. Old fashioned greed and man’s predilection to break rules and ‘get rich quick’ by whatever means also holds as much relevance as the wide ranging theories described above.

With such a backdrop, the Criminal Justice system has to develop a viable structure to address the entire tapestry and range of human behavior where some acts are with the full volition of the individual, others beyond their control and some resulting from the state’s inability to provide the requisite avenues for self realization. The American criminal justice system based on liberalism, strong belief in the ‘rule of law’ and the independence of thought and action led to two main approaches for sentencing; namely the indeterminate and the determinate policies of sentencing.

The indeterminate sentencing policy that believed that humans can be transformed and that any sentencing must view the special circumstances of every case was discarded as ‘too soft’ by all 50 States who have shown preference for determinate or mandatory sentencing laws as the way ahead. “Mandatory sentences are based on two goals—deterrence and incapacitation” (Parent, Dunworth and McDonald 1). However, statistics have proven otherwise, Europe which follows the softer indeterminate approach has a lower rate of incarceration per 100,000 people than the US. Since the determinate or the mandatory policy of sentencing despite its widespread usage in the United States for over two decades has not helped reduce crime, a fresh look at the sentencing policies needs to be taken. In case of the younger adults and teenagers, “early interventions to divert individuals from offending have been found to be one of the most effective types of intervention overall” (Rubin, Rabinovich and Hallsworth 11). The concept of ‘Restorative Justice’ is gaining ground in Europe. In this approach, the offender, the victim, their families, the community and the police, all are involved in the rehabilitative process. This method has been found to reduce repeat offences and has helped bring a number of criminals back into the mainstream society. Improving the health of disadvantaged children and providing social and economic stability to such families would help in reduce crime. Concepts such as situational intervention also help bring down crime. The police, in this case, not only carry out the routine patrols, but also look at community protection holistically through measures such as providing better street lighting in the neighborhood during hours of darkness. Ensuring adequate number of taxis at night helps prevent ‘street corner’ muggings.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be summarized that the socio-biological theory as also the other social theories of criminology holds equal relevance. These theories cannot be divorced from the psychological and socio-economic factors that act as catalysts. Hence a criminal justice system has to view at the entire issue holistically. For the policy makers, a return to the indeterminate sentencing policy with some variations offers the best solution for reducing crimes in the U.S. The Minnesota model of ‘presumptive’ sentencing in which judges can impose a sentence within the range or deviate from the recommended stretch (Hayes 21) is a viable option. Increasing psychological counseling sessions as well as psychiatric intervention are also required for which adequate funding would be required by both the federal and state authorities. These are some of the options for a suitable Way Ahead for the U.S. Criminal Justice System.

Works Cited

Cullen, Francis T. and Robert Agnew. Criminological Theory Past to Present Essential Readings 3rd edition. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2006.

Hanson, Michael J. “Towards a New Assumption in Law and Ethics.” The Humanist 2006: 18-21.

Hayes, Sean. “The End Of Determinate Sentencing:How California’s Prison Problem Can Be Solved With QuickFixes and A Long Term Commission.” 2006. Web.

Parent, Dale, et al. “Key Legislative Issues in Criminal Justice:Mandatory Sentencing.” 1997. National Institute of Justice.

Reed, Barbara J. “Municipal Court of Cuyahoga.” 1977. Orthomolecular Psychiatry, Vol 6, No. 1, 1977, Pp. 2-7. 16. 2009

Rubin, Jennifer, Lila Rabinovich and Michael and Nason, Edward Hallsworth. “Intervention to Redice Antisocial Behaviour and Crime.” 2006. RAND Europe. Web.

Walsh, William J., Laura B. Glab and Mary L. Haakenson. “Reduced Violent Behavior Following Biochemical Therapy.” 2004. Elsevier. Web.

Credibility is one of the central concepts in the field of criminology. Practitioners and scholars try to ensure that their decisions are based on credible evidence, which is regarded as the essential premise for the effectiveness of the decision. The importance of the use of credible evidence is discussed when evaluating an approach within the corrections system (Carroll, 2017). The Missouri model is quite different from the conventional approach to the corrections system as the juvenile delinquents who are in correctional facilities are not subjected to violence and have fewer restrictions. Many people claim that the Missouri model should become a norm as it has proved to be effective. However, many scholars and practitioners stress that more studies have to be implemented to obtain credible evidence supporting the effectiveness of the model. Carroll (2017) argues that it is essential to identify the population that will benefit from the model most, particular methods to implement the model in different settings, examine long-term outcomes, identify some weaknesses or gaps, and so on.

It is clear that researchers and practitioners cannot rely on a case that shows the benefits of some systems. When it comes to the research, Maxfield (2015) notes that the data obtained should be generalizable, which is one of the criteria of credible evidence. Therefore, the model should be checked in different settings (for example, in different states) before it can be made a system used nationwide. It is also essential to make sure that short- and long-term effects are analyzed as interventions can be effective during a limited period of time and have adverse long-term outcomes.

Credible evidence is also critical in the field of migration agencies when it comes to the analysis of data obtained from asylum seekers. Van Veldhuizen, Horselenberg, Landström, Granhag, Van Koppen (2017) claim that the number of details is regarded as the major criteria of credibility. Thus, migration officers see the lack of details as an attempt to deceive. Nevertheless, researchers note that this criterion cannot be regarded as central since people may have memory issues due to various reasons (for example, certain psychological states).

This case unveils an important topic concerning the credibility of the evidence. Researchers and practitioners have to use proper criteria to assess the credibility of the evidence. The lack or abundance of details is not reliable enough, and other aspects should be taken into account. As for criminology research, Maxfield (2015) states that it is important to collect sufficient details to be able to come to plausible conclusions. At the same time, it is necessary to collect relevant data. For instance, migrant officers do not have to focus on details concerning places, people, and so on. It is possible to discuss values, traditions, and even emotions as these topics can help asylum seekers prove their origin.

On balance, it is possible to note that the debate concerning the credibility of the evidence is still ongoing as researchers and practitioners still have different views on criteria to utilize, aspects to focus on, and so on. At present, the credibility and effectiveness of many studies, interventions, and decisions can be questioned. The only way to ensure credibility is to carry out studies that focus on different aspects of an issue. Looking at things from a different angle is the most effective strategy when analyzing or evaluating some interventions, programs, and so on.

References

Carroll, V. (2017). Is the Missouri model really a panacea for youth corrections?The Denver Post. Web.

Maxfield, M. G. (2015). Basics of research methods for criminal justice and criminology. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Van Veldhuizen, T., Horselenberg, R., Landström, S., Granhag, P., & van Koppen, P. (2016). Interviewing asylum seekers: A vignette study on the questions asked to assess credibility of claims about origin and persecution. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 14(1), 3-22.

Criminology cooperates with many disciplines to prevent and eradicate crime. Examples of such disciplines include criminal law, which studies responsibility for the commission of crimes and the punishment that will follow a committed crime. Moreover, criminology cooperates with forensic medicine, which provides the necessary forensic statistics (Hagan and Daigle 6). In addition, criminology interacts with sociology, which studies society and its processes, and psychology, which studies the inner life of people and their behavior. Criminology has a direct connection with all of these and many other sciences.

In criminology, there are two schools that have specific ideas on which their teachings are based, and it is called Classical and Neoclassical schools. The idea of the Classical School is that people have free will when making decisions, and punishment is a deterrent for them when committing a crime. The teachings of the Neoclassical school are based on the fact that they consider the motives and other circumstances of the commission of a crime, which make it possible to reduce or increase the penalties.

Situational crime prevention aims to reduce opportunities and incentives for committing criminal acts. This is done by maximizing the risk of being detected. In addition, situational crime prevention minimizes the benefits for criminals from committing illegal actions. It helps to assist victims of crimes, as well as correctly organizes the environment in public places. The crime prevention strategy is aimed at improving the well-being of certain groups. Furthermore, this strategy increases the availability of social benefits for the population, such as healthcare, education, employment, and others.

There are many different theories of crime that have been proposed by various authors to explain the reasons for which crimes are committed. One such idea is the biological theory of crime which was created by the Italian forensic psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso (Dunnage 1). This theory lies in the fact that people have certain innate anatomical and psychophysiological features, which as a result, lead them to commit criminal acts. However, biological theories do not have reliable confirmation, and natural causes are part of many other general theories. In the modern world, the biological approach to crime is not used in the investigation of crimes committed, as it is not entirely reliable.

From a biosocial point of view, a person has a dual essence. Since humans are social beings, they regularly enter into social relationships. Besides being social creatures, humans are also biological organisms. The joint presence of both signs in humans forms an integral entity that has its own biological and physiological characteristics. Criminological, the biosocial essence of a person is expressed in violence, that is, the desire to hurt other people.

There are various theories of the commission of a crime, but they are all different and have their characteristics. Psychological theories of crime basically contain the idea that the urge to commit a crime is dictated by the psychology of people and that all people are deviants by nature. The fact is that all people have different degrees of deviance. The difference with other theories is that psychological theories investigate the personality directly and associate the cause of the crime with it. Other approaches focus on the motives of the committed crime.

There are also types of people who are capable of committing crimes. For example, there are such terms as psychopath and antisocial personality. A psychopath is a person who demonstrates psychopathic traits, manifested in the inability of an individual to repent and show empathy towards others. An antisocial personality is a person who is opposed to any person, group, or activity that helps other people improve. The difference is that a psychopath has no empathy for other people, and an antisocial personality with a negative attitude prevents other people from becoming better.

There is an opinion that society cannot exist without crime. According to Durkheim’s theory of social disorganization, crime is a normal phenomenon in society, which is unpleasant, but without which the existence of humanity is impossible (Bellair 2). This is because crime is connected with the social life of people, which means that it allows law and ethics to develop and improve. This idea is used to this day, as it has a significant impact not only on criminology but also on sociology.

Strain theory considers that the tension that was caused by certain factors in society, such as low wages or the unavailability of a good education, is a factor that encourages people to commit crimes. Classical theories draw attention to disadvantaged segments of the population, in which the inability to have enough means of subsistence, and the lack of desire to receive it, leads to the desire to commit crimes. For example, people whose incomes put them below the poverty threshold could not realize common, socially acceptable ambitions through legal means. Therefore, they were forced to take the path of criminal behavior to achieve their goals. Later, a new deformation theory was proposed, which demonstrated the weaknesses of previous theories. In addition, it included incorrect justifications of crimes committed by middle-class people and discrepancies between their desires and the expected result after their decision.

Works Cited

Bellair, Paul. Social Disorganization Theory. Oxford University Press, 2017.

Dunnage, Jonathan. “The Work of Cesare Lombroso and its Reception: Further Contexts and Perspectives.” Crime, History & Societies, vol.22, no.2, 2018, pp. 1-19. Web.

Hagan, Frank and Daigle Leah. Introduction to Criminology. Sage, 2020.

Introduction

Investigative interviewing in criminology profoundly impacts the efficiency, reliability, and outcome of subsequent proceedings. The primary aim of interviews by law enforcement and other officials from investigative bodies is to gather accurate information while protecting the inherent integrity and dignity of everyone, including suspects, witnesses, and victims during questioning. Bachman and Schutt (2020) describe questioning as among the most versatile methods for identifying social variables. In their seminal work, the authors present different questioning styles and appropriate circumstances for their application. While there are numerous types of questions, Bachman and Schutt (2020) elaborate on open-ended and close-ended questions. Questioning in criminal investigation helps establish the objective truth and critical information needed to solve a case.

Questioning in Criminal Investigation

Open-ended and close-ended questions can potentially uncover social aspects that investigators might miss during interviewing. According to Bachman and Schutt (2020), open-ended questions are preferred during intensive interviewing and when explicit responses are not guaranteed. In essence, open-ended questions encourage further elaboration and discussion, to which there are no explicit responses. Consider survey questions, for example, to which a person replies by writing or talking. Conversely, close-ended or fixed-choice questions can be designed without an explicit response but the choices are mutually exhaustive and exclusive. For example, the Core Alcohol and Drug Survey provide preformulated choices for respondents to check (Bachman & Schutt, 2020). Close-ended survey questions can further be supplemented with some open-ended questions.

Moreover, open-ended questions provide in-depth information on respondents’ perceptions, feelings, and experiences. Apart from minimizing confusion about the meanings of complex responses, open-ended questions can be used as the basis for fixed-choice questions because they provide a wealth of information. Bachman and Schutt (2020) mention that such questions are crucial for obtaining the interviewee’s interpretations in detail and highlight flaws in some questions. Despite numerous advantages, open-ended questions are time-consuming in terms of organizing and summarizing. Additionally, some respondents can find it challenging to provide lengthy feedback when asked many open-ended questions and can provide irrelevant information (Bachman & Schutt, 2020). Open-ended questions contain unstructured and subjective data, and thus, analysis and interpretation can be difficult. In such a case, phone or in-person or phone interview is preferred to questionnaires.

Given the drawbacks of open-ended questions, respondents are more likely to answer close-ended questions as intended by the researcher. Bachman and Schutt (2020) concede that most surveys encompass fixed-choice questions that can be processed and analyzed using statistical software that helps obtain quantitative and measurable data. The inclusion of response choices further reduces ambiguity and questions can be modified based on the survey for consistency. However, close-ended questions can conceal real emotions or thoughts, and thus, the choices must have a range of possible responses to a given question (Bachman & Schutt, 2020). Plus, the range of options regarding a specific question does not provide detailed information, which can create further confusion. Unlike open-ended questions, it can be challenging to ascertain whether the fixed-choice questions were answered accordingly.

Conclusion

In summary, a criminal investigation is a complex and multi-faceted process that demands strategic and tactical approaches. The aim of questioning during a criminal investigation is to confirm the methods and motives of offenders plus identify victims and witnesses through data collection and analysis. Open-ended and close-ended questions are often used during investigative interviewing to gather the needed information. Although open-ended questions provide detailed and extensive data, they are time-consuming, subjective, and unstructured. On the other hand, close-ended questions reduce ambiguity and provide measurable data through statistical analysis but provide less-detailed information. Therefore, investigators should optimize the questioning style that matches a specific situation.

Reference

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2020). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice. Sage.

Introduction

Ferrell illuminates that the media or screen aggression is unswervingly related to real violence. This relationship has extensively affected the current generation, who admire 80% of the movie and print content they are inclined to. There has been incidence of aggression and criminal acts as a result of media or screen content. It is noteworthy that some of these events have not been solved to date.

Popularizing of criminal culture and its implications

Ferrell illuminates a variety of concepts pertaining to the popularization of criminal culture as illustrated by the following tenets. First, he highlights the concept of criminal subcultures and their influence on the entire society. They act as magnets consequently attracting persons who had not initially foreseen the circumstances or attractions.

It is noteworthy that criminal subcultures are forged after attitudes and beliefs are shaped by the societal systems (Ferrell, 1998, pp 71). Consider the following example as it pertains to cyber crimes since it brings together people endowed with certain skills and tendencies that ultimately culminate in execution of criminal tendencies.

Media representations of crime are also illuminated by Ferrell since it culminates in the infusion of such tendencies in the society (Ferrell, 1998, pp 71). Ferrell highlights that the media is solely responsible for the formation of definite subcultures that propagate crime in the society. Consider the following example; there are crimes that have occurred as a result of media or screen aggression.

For example, the movie” Natural Born Killers” produced in 1995 and “directed by Oliver Stone”, resulted in two teenagers committing murder. It resulted to the murder of “William savage a Mississippi cotton gin manager and shooting of Byers Ann Patsy in Louisiana who was left paralyzed from the neck down” (Boyle, 2005, pp, 29). Two teenagers admitted to these crimes, Sarah Edmondson and her boyfriend. They testified to have gotten motivation from the movie “natural born killers that was under the steward of Oliver Stone.

This means that the implications of media representation of crime are seen in the increased focus on societal processes. Ferrell also illuminates concepts pertaining to criminalized characteristics of music as illustrated by its cult like following that aims at spreading its ideologies especially to people who are unaware. The implications are evident in change of lifestyles especially among the unsuspecting youth and other young persons.

Interests served

According to Ferrell, the interests served range from the producers or rather persons initiating the process “popularization of criminal culture” (Ferrell, 1998, pp 72). It is noteworthy that market leaders in the TV and music industry together with the movie industry focus on coming up with definite cultures that will not only propagate sales but also develop a following.

Entities that have failed in regulations also have vested interests in the popularization process, which have to be addressed in the long run. It is noteworthy that Ferrell insinuates that popularization of such a culture involves persons with diverse interests.

Conclusion

Controversies surrounding productions such as music culminate in higher sales. On the contrary, consumers suffer the consequences. It is the victims of these violence and crimes that suffer the most. The best method to curb such productions, which might pollute the minds of consumers, is to administer regulation to such products. These products include computer games, video and Internet.

List of References

Boyle, K. 2005, Media and violence: gendering the debates. California. SAGE Publication Inc, pp, 29-35.

Ferrell, J. 1998, ‘Criminalizing Popular Culture’, in F. Bailey & D. Hale, Popular Culture, Crime and Justice, Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth, 1998 71-86.

In today’s world, crime rates have increased steadily for various reasons. With economies of most countries going uphill, more money is earned, and a progressively high number of people are indulging in criminal activities like robbery. Criminology is the study of crime patterns using social, psychological, and biological aspects of a human being. Criminology identifies what drives a person to indulge in criminal related behaviors and the main reasons that influence criminal activities. It is assumed that the rise in criminal activities is due to social aspects of mankind. This shows that sociology has a big impact and role when it comes to crimes especially around the urban cities in Canada and their environs. There are theories that depict the reason as to why a person indulges in criminal activities especially in urban settings. These theories center on psychological, biological, and social aspects of a person. The most common aspect that facilitates a better understanding of why man partakes in criminal activities is sociology. Sociology is the identification and analysis of social behaviors, orders, disorders and changes in the society (Weisburd, Groff, & Yang, 2014). In criminology, there is the social structural theory that is subdivided into various theories. The most common theory that is used in most urban settings is the social disorganization theory.

The social disorganization theory was crafted by Henry McKay and Clifford Shaw in the year 1942. One of the reasons for the selection of this theory is that it looks into the influence of crime through poverty in the urban cities such as in Canada and the people who undertake criminal activities in the areas. Another reason is that the theorists of the social disorganization theory believe that the neighborhood of a person influences the idea of crime in him/her. The theorists, therefore, state that a person instigates crime through the place he/she dwells in. This is seen throughout poor neighborhoods where crime rates are high due to an increase in population and poor living standards of persons dwelling in these regions (Wong, 2012).

The third reason is that social disorganization theory identifies the residential position as the major factor in criminal activities. The theory stipulates that the location of a person is the driving force that facilitates crimes in urban settings. This is so when compared to the rise of insecurity amongst residential dwellers and middle-income residential places. One of the tenets of the theory is the belief that a criminal’s race, age, or gender does not influence criminal activities. This is ultimately true as crimes are done with people of different ages, races, and dissimilar genders. This shows that various groups of people do crime rates progressively from different levels of societies and convictions. Another tenet is that the social disorganization theory further suggests that factors such as unemployment and single-parent homes link to the increase in crime in urban settings. These factors result in poor living conditions and an insufficient amount of money that is evident in the homes of people who involve themselves with criminal activities (Kaylen & Pridemore, 2013). Another tenet is that dropping out of school is a factor that has an impact on crime. Lacking education means staying idle and this leads to a student mingling with criminals from the neighborhood thus being initiated to crime, which marks the onset of committing criminal activities. This is evident in most urban communities where they experience high rates of criminal activities that are undertaken by people from the lower side of the society.

The strength of the theory lies in the highlighting of crimes undertaken by a society affiliated with poverty and high joblessness rates. This identifies the inequality of social classes that is obvious in most countries. Such inequality is seen to be the determinant of crimes and other misdeeds. An additional strength of the theory is that it talks about the crimes in the neighborhoods that are typically ignored by the police force (de Looze, Janssen, Elgar, Craig, & Pickett, 2015). The theory shows the empowerment of a community could decrease criminal related activities. The theory stipulates that crime starts from the community and it can end through a community initiative. If a community scheme is undertaken, the rate of crime could be reduced as most idle persons will be kept busy with money-generating tasks and various forms of employment found, which could ultimately lead to low idleness rates. The downfall of the theory, however, is that it does not expound on serious felony related activities like corporate crimes and organized offenses. These crimes relate to stealing of large sums of money, drug-related activities, and murder. The theory only focuses on petty crimes and the reasons that lead to the commission of such misdeeds.

The major reason as to why social disorganization theory is important is because of a few factors. The theory depicts a community that is sidelined by others because of its class status. Class has and will always be a determinant of a society because of the beliefs that come with it. The society is always disadvantaged because of the gap between the poor and the rich as it gradually widens with the growth of the economy. The theory identifies the people who involve themselves with criminal activities due to poverty and lack of education (de Looze et al., 2015). This is evident in most low-end communities that observe such states. This is also identified with communities with similar status. Another reason behind the importance of the theory is location/residential place associated with the residents. It is undebatable that most urban cities and towns experience high rates of crimes. Most urban settings are surrounded by low-income neighborhoods, the underprivileged ones. These settings are plagued with the increase of criminal activities in and around the neighborhoods. The criminal activities, as supported by the theory, are undertaken by people from the underprivileged communities for sustainability. These reasons show the security concerns of a social class and the inequality of provisions in less privileged communities.

Community policing is one of the policies that can be identified in this theory. Community policing shows the unity of a community and the police to enforce better and secure neighborhoods that are free from crimes (de Looze et al., 2015). Problem-oriented policing is another policy that works effectively with the theory. Problem-oriented policing advocates for the discovery and resolution of problems that could otherwise harm a person or the society. This is effective in the theory as it is prudent for law enforcement agents to help a community in preventing acts of criminal activity from taking place and that would have affected not just the criminals but the entire society. The third policy is the Policing by Consent; this is affiliated to the theory by the support of the community to the law enforcement agencies. This policy identifies the role of a law enforcement agent and his position as regulation and security maintenance representative. The theory advocates for a strong law enforcement agency that facilitates excellent security services to the society and improvises ways that eliminate or maintain criminal activities amongst criminals at a low level. It is the work of the police to ensure communities live in peace and reduce the rates of criminal activities by apprehending the culprits.

References

de Looze, M., Janssen, I., Elgar, F. J., Craig, W., & Pickett, W. (2015). Neighbourhood crime and adolescent cannabis use in Canadian adolescents. Drug and alcohol dependence, 146, 68-74.

Kaylen, M. T., & Pridemore, W. A. (2013). Social disorganization and crime in rural communities the first direct test of the systemic model. British Journal of Criminology, 53(5), 905-923.

Weisburd, D., Groff, E. R., & Yang, S. M. (2014). The importance of both opportunity and social disorganization theory in a future research agenda to advance criminological theory and crime prevention at places. Journal of research in crime and delinquency, 1(10), 12-15.

Wong, S. K. (2012). Youth crime and family disruption in Canadian municipalities: An adaptation of Shaw and McKay’s social disorganization theory. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 40(2), 100-114.

Criminologists have identified various definitions of crime. Crime is an act committed by persons who go against societal norms and expectations. It also involves breaking of laws of the land. These acts include robberies, vandalism, theft, rape, and other various vices. The actors of these crimes are usually referred to as criminals. There are many reasons why the crime rate is high in the United States. Some of the reasons include jealousy, anger, greed, and revenge. During the recession, crime rates tend to shoot up in the U.S. because of poor living conditions and pressure to meet daily needs. The urge to continue with criminality is encouraged when the rewards are handsome and steals successfully without being got. Research reveals that an individual who steals for the first time and escapes without being got is likely to repeat the vice. But if an individual steals for the first time and he is got and punished he is likely not to repeat the vice. Such a person would likely quit the act of criminality.

Many sociologists have argued that the punishment of an individual when he commits a crime discourages people from indulging in criminal tendencies. Punishment of offenders should be stipulated, in-laws. An individual cannot be punished if there is no law guiding the judgment. The legal process involves the police, who are responsible for investigating crimes and making the arrest of the offenders. When an individual is arrested the court determines whether that individual is wrong or not. If an individual is found guilty of committing an offense he/she is sent to prison or offered any form of punishment depending on the crime committed. Punishment of offenders has helped a lot in reducing the rates of crimes in the United States. Punishment serves to deter the offender from repeating the crime in the future. It also discourages those who are about to commit the crimes or any future crimes. Punishment of offenders is also meant to rehabilitate the individuals to abandon the old habits and reform. Offenders commit crimes due to various reasons. Some commit crimes under the influence of drugs. Different offenders are offered skills and treatment depending on the nature of the crimes they committed. Individuals are also trained to be acceptable in the societies where they committed crimes. Rehabilitation is usually offered to first offenders and juveniles because they have not hardened in the criminal behavior. Punishment is also meant to reinstate the victim of the crime to the normal position before the crime was committed against him/her. When an individual is sent to prison the money earned through goods and services he offers in prison should be used in compensation of victims of crime.

Punishment of offenders through detention helps in reducing the crime rates. This is because the offenders are few in society. Reducing the opportunities of committing crimes also helps to deter possible offenders from committing a crime. This can be done through regular police patrol on the areas prone to crimes, installing cameras on the target of criminals like the banking halls, and regular checking of illegal firearms. The law enforcement agencies should also work in cooperation with the police to reduce crime in society. Criminals are products of society and most of the criminals are known in society. The government should always chip in during a recession to help the people. This is through the provision of unemployment benefits and cheaper housing facilities. This would lessen the possibility of individuals engaging in criminality.

Circle Sentencing and Classical Criminology

Circle sentencing is the process whereby a criminal is tried and a verdict is produced through a communal process rather than the normal courts or judicial system. In circle sentencing, it is imperative that the criminal first plead guilty and be willing to participate in the process.

The process of circle sentencing is believed to alter the rights of defendants described in classical theory in several ways which will be outlined below. It is essential to note that the alteration of these rights can be either positive or negative, depending on the criminal’s dispensation or nature of crime.

According to classical criminology, the crime of an individual is regarded as a crime towards society that can only be punished by the society. Also, in classical criminology, the punishment is often awarded according to the crime and the individual traits of the criminal are not considered.

The general perspective and approach to crime in classical criminology means that two criminals who have committed a similar crime will have similar rights. This is irrespective of differences in their unique individualistic circumstances such as their psychological state or even social and financial status.

However, circle sentencing directly contradicts this since the process tends to be more individualistic in nature. Even though circle sentencing is carried out by society, the special circumstances surrounding the crime and the criminal are usually put into consideration.

This alters the rights of defendants described in classical theory since the punishment is no longer just served to fit the crime. It is also served in a measure that puts the individualistic factors surrounding the criminal himself into consideration.

This alteration is not a problem since the punishment resulting from circle sentencing will end up being more effective and comprehensive. As far as deterrence and criminal punishment is concerned, circle sentencing is an improvement to the classical theory of crime and punishment.

Positivist Criminology

Positivist criminology began in the 19^th century. This is whereby; unlike in the former classical models of crime that attributed criminal behavior to social factors, a criminal was pre-determined by various biological features. This theory was refined in the post-colonial era to constitute only the psychological traits of a criminal.

According to Freud, various psychological traits which are common in all criminals are usually a product of the parenting process. It is these psychological problems resulting from poor parenting practice that result into a child growing up with criminal tendencies.

Using this foundational Freudian premise, various positivist criminological theories were developed. It was believed that particular personality types and characteristics are directly attributable to crime. Various measurement methods were developed in order to identify, measure and classify certain traits associated with criminal behavior. It has become common to use standard scales, questionnaires and inventories to identify and classify criminal minds.

The latest trend in positivist criminology is what is referred to as profiling. Criminal profiling based on certain identifiable behavioral patterns and psychological markings is a common criminal identifying tactic in the United States.

Even though the effectiveness of the investigative methodology has not been scientifically proven, it has proven to be successful in several counts. It is not uncommon to find profiling, a positivist criminology concept, being used as a defense tactic in child sex abuse cases.

The use of positivist criminology and psychology has also been effectively applied in behavioral modification programs for offenders. Traits that have been successfully modified using this approach include certain cognitive distortions which have resulted in the prevention of recidivism. While evidence of the effectiveness of such approaches is unverifiable, the exceptions to the rule have not been enough to dismiss positivism as a criminological approach and theory.

Risk – A Gendered Phenomenon

The concept of risk or edgework is considered a gendered phenomenon in two main aspects. Initially, it was believed that males are more risk takers compared to females. However, further research revealed that this conclusion was merely due to the fact that the majority of criminals interviewed in the study were male offenders.

The gendered aspect of risk which has been verified is the fact that men and women participate in different types of risk-taking or edgework activities. The risk activities associated with male criminals often involve status and prestige-related activities.

These edgework activities in the male gender often involve the self-expression of one’s dominance or anti-conformity to the structured life in the modern society. The male risk activities are often more dominant and easily recognizable compared to the female activities due to their verifiability.

For the female gender, the risk activities are usually related with their sexuality. The female is considered to be participating in edgework when they take sexual risks such as unsafe and indiscriminate sex. The other aspect of risk taking for the female is their resistance in violent relationships.

This is clearly evident in the women who continue to stay in a relationship that is both abusive and a risk to their own lives. This gendered aspect of risk in women is however not accurately verifiable because it is not always easy to determine whether those taking part in the risk activities are actually engaging in risk-taking or edgework.

In this essence thus, risk is a gendered activities because a stark difference still exists in the nature of edgework between the male and female criminals.

Forensic science is one of the accurate methods of collecting and analyzing evidence from a scene of a crime. Since courts require substantial evidence, investigators ought to use the most accurate forensic equipments and to follow all the necessary steps. Investigators use different approaches to collect biological evidence at the scene of a crime.

Chisum and Turvey posit, “All biological evidence is subject to deterioration and requires a lot of care” (2000, p. 23). Investigators may collect a number of biological evidence ranging from blood, hair, seminal fluid, to bones and organs. In case the investigators collect blood sample as their evidence, they do it using two five-milliliter tubes. Saferstein alleges, “The blood should be collected in vacutainers with Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) as anti coagulant” (2000, p. 45).

On the other hand, if researchers are to collect a blood sample from a postmortem subject, they ought to “get it from the non-body cavity areas such as heart or chief internal blood vessels” (Saferstein, 2000, p. 46). For easy identification, researchers need to label all blood samples accordingly.

In case the researchers wish to collect liquid semen as their evidence, they use disposable pipettes or clean syringes to put it into disinfected tubes. Otherwise, they may use cotton wool to collect the liquid semen. They can use the cotton wool to absorb the semen, air-dry the content, and utilize it in forensic investigations.

In many cases, scientists use swabs to collect trace samples (Chisum & Turvey, 2000). The target area is rubbed severally using a moistened swab to collect biological traces. Nonetheless, moist swab may fail to collect adequate traces, therefore, calling for multiple swabs. Today, investigators use double swabbing technique to collect adequate traces.

After collecting traces from the crime scene, they are taken to laboratory for analysis. Analysts look for a number of clues that may help to identify the criminal. For instance, when analyzing blood sample, analysts look for the presence of genetic markers, which resemble those of the prime suspect.

If a crime involves beating or stabbing, chances of exchange of blood between the perpetrator and the casualty are high (Chisum & Turvey, 2000). Hence, analysts try to determine if the blood sample contains genetic markers that would help them identify the perpetrator. To substantiate a rape case, researchers look for traces of semen in the victim.

In the absence of semen, they look for traces of pre-ejaculation fluid. Investigators conduct a DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNA) test on the semen or pre-ejaculation fluid obtained from the victim and the results compared to those of the suspect. This helps to arrest the criminal involved in the crime (Houde, 1998).

Forensic evidence presented in court influences the judgment an attorney makes. Therefore, to make sure that the parties involved receive justice, forensic researchers need to be accurate in collecting and analyzing their evidence. One of the ways through which investigators may enhance accuracy of the results is by ensuring that they use disposable instruments to collect biological traces. Disposable instruments would minimize chances of contamination (Houde, 1998).

In addition, investigators ought to air-dry the collected fluid before packing to avoid chances of it reacting with the packaging material. One of the reasons why investigators fail to obtain accurate results is that, their biological traces contaminate the evidence (Houde, 1998).

To control this, investigators should make sure that they wear gloves to prevent the likelihood of touching the biological traces they intend to collect. Other mistakes that investigators need to avoid include, coughing, sneezing, or talking over the evidence. Coughing, sneezing or talking over the evidence might alter the results if the traces are exposed to investigators’ saliva (Houde, 1998).

Crime scene researchers may be asked to defend their findings in a court of law. In such a case, they would have to prove that their research observed all the necessary procedures. They would have to prove that investigations followed the outlined chain of custody (Kelly & Wearne, 1998).

The chain of custody starts after discovering the evidence and accounts for individuals that realized and gathered the evidence. Besides, it accounts for the method used to collect the evidence and the duration that every activity took. Investigators are advised to take photographs of the scene of crime before collecting evidence. The photographs help to, “identify where the evidence was located inside the scene of crime and its relation to other paraphernalia found at the scene” (Kelly & Wearne, 1998, p. 72).

Hence, researchers may include photographs to reinforce their evidence. Additionally, investigators would have to convince a judge that they followed all the guidelines when collecting biological traces. Presence of an expert witness would help the researchers in defending the integrity of their evidence.

An expert witness might help to elucidate the importance of the adduced evidence. Besides, the witness may help the investigators to bring out the relationship between their evidence and the case at hand (Kelly & Wearne, 1998). Consequently, to help in defending their research, investigators may go to an extent of looking for a third party. This would make the attorney adopt the evidence presented in a courtroom.

References

Chisum, W. & Turvey, B. (2000). Evidence Dynamics: Locard’s Exchange Principle & Crime Reconstruction. Journal of Behavioral Profiling, 1(1), 22-37.

Houde, J. (1998). Crime Lab: A guide for Nonscientists. Rolling Bay: Calico Press.

Kelly, J. & Wearne, P. (1998). Tainting Evidence: Inside the Scandals at the FBI Crime Lab. New York: Free Press.

Saferstein, R. (2000). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. New York: Prentice-Hall.

Creating a perpetrator profile is an essential step in the investigation process. By defining the key characteristics of a criminal, one will be able to identify the possible suspects and, therefore, locate the perpetrator faster. Typically, two approaches toward creating a perpetrator profile are identified. These approaches include common personal characteristics, such as appearance, and crime scene characteristics, namely, the behavior that a perpetrator displays when committing crimes (Pecino-Latorre et al., 2019). By noticing patterns in the specified behaviors and isolating unique characteristics, law enforcement officers can determine potential suspects.

The assessment of the criminal’s characteristics is necessary to identify the unique personal features that will help to identify the perpetrator among similar offenders. For example, in a case where a criminal had to be tall and physically strong to attack an equally strong victim bare-handed, short people with no physical strength should be excluded from the investigation. Similarly, for the identification of the crime scene characteristics, issues such as the weapon with which the crime was committed will have to be isolated and recorded. For instance, if the assault was carried out with a knife, the specified detail should be recorded in the criminal’s profile (Pecino-Latorre et al., 2019). Thus, all details of the crime will be aligned and organized in a manner that will make the investigation go faster.

Incorporating the personal characteristics of criminals and the unique criminal behaviors that they demonstrate when committing crimes, one can locate possible suspects and determine the most likely perpetrator comparatively easily. Therefore, the existing strategies, while being quite few and rather basic, allow for an accurate depiction of a criminal and further success in the investigation. For this reason, both approaches should be utilized when examining the information for further investigation.

Reference

Pecino-Latorre, M. D. M., Pérez-Fuentes, M. D. C., Patró-Hernández, R. M., & Santos-Hermoso, J. (2019). Expressiveness and instrumentality of crime scene behavior in Spanish homicides.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(22), 4526.