Category: Crime Investigation

Introduction

Criminology is an important part of contemporary society. It has helped the human race to understand the special characteristics of the social system. Many researchers have written about various issues in criminology. They have cited the available evidence concerning the natural world, degree, administration, power, penalty, and hindrance of unlawful conduct, both on the personal and communal positions. The following is a critique of some of the articles that have been put forth to address the subject of criminology.

Annotated Bibliography

Austin, A., & Hardyman, D. (2004). The Risks and Needs of the Returning Prisoner Population. Review of Policy Research, 21(1), 13-29.

Austin and Hardyman (2004) analyze the important issue of attending to prisoners who have just been brought from rehabilitation and correctional facilities. They assess their risks and needs in society. Austin and Hardyman’s (2004) analysis of several other studies shows how the returning prisoners may be a threat to society and the public. However, their discussions regard the threat posed by ex-cons as being significantly little. These researchers also conclude that the needs of the released prisoners should not restrict their release. The findings of this research are based on significantly little evidence and a small sample over a short period. Therefore, such findings may not be completely useful in concluding.

Bahr, S. (2005). The Reentry Process: How Parolees Adjust to Release from Prison. Fathering, 3(3), 243-265.

Bahr’s (2005) research is similar to the article by Austin and Hardyman (2004) since the two studies investigate almost similar characteristics and factors that have to be considered when handling people who have been freed from jail. Bahr’s article investigates the reentry of parolees into society. It also examines some of the factors and variables that determine the probability of returning to prison. This study is commendable because it establishes positive factors that relate to individuals who stay out of prison. An important variable that the research manages to demonstrate is family support. Prisoners and parolees are less likely to get adequate family support after their release from prison.

Bayse, J. (1991). Family Life Education: An Effective Tool for Prisoner Rehabilitation. Family Relations, 43(3), 254-257.

Bayse (1991) investigates the relationship between family support and prisoners’ rehabilitation success. The study utilizes data from a population that is similar to the one used in Bahr’s (2005) study. The participating inmates are 54. After participating in a family program, the number of inmates who report narcissism reduces significantly. This research is an ingenious method of demonstrating how family relationships positively contribute to rehabilitation.

Belenko, S. (2006). Assessing Released Inmates for Substance-Abuse-Related Service Needs. Crime and Delinquency, 52(1), 94-113.

There is often a relationship between criminality and substance abuse. Many researchers have found a connection between the two. Belenko (2006) is one of the researchers who expound further on the relationship between drug abuse and crime. He assesses the need for drug-related services for inmates who are released from prison. He also evaluates the possibility of using new assessment tools that are psychometrically sound in the management of risks that prisoners pose to society. The researcher proposes several themes and suggestions in the management of drug conditions. This study is important since it provides additional management for prisoners who have drug abuse problems.

Belenko, S., & Pugh, J. (2005). Estimating drug treatment needs among state prison inmates. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77(1), 269-281.

Belenko and Pugh (2005) investigate the need for treatment of inmates who have been using drugs. They begin with an analysis of studies that show drug abuse as a positive relationship between being in prison and using drugs. Their assessment reveals a large relationship between drug abuse and crime in the US. Their data from over 275 prisons and over 14000 prisoners reveal that there is inadequate treatment for these prisoners about their drug problem. This study is useful because it allows the provision of important knowledge on the rehabilitation of prisoners in the line of drug abuse.

Hairston, F. (1990). Family ties during imprisonment. Do they influence future criminal Activity? Federal Probation, 52(1), 48–52.

Hairston (1990) emphasizes the relationship between imprisonment and family ties. Readjustment while in prison is linked to the support that individuals have along the family lines and the resources that are available to them. Family relationships are noted as influencing how prisoners relate with their inmates, the guards, and whether they engage in criminal activities upon release from prison. Hairston (1990) states that the number of programs that are aimed at family support is increasing. However, Hairston (1990) states that the available family programs for inmates have relatively little contribution in reducing recidivism. The study incorporates the findings of other studies in its decision-making. Hence, it is less authentic in its conclusions.

Holtfreter, K. (2004). Poverty, State Capital, and Recidivism among Women Offenders. Criminology and Public Policy, 3(2), 185-208.

Recidivism among women prisoners is a topic that has little studies around it. Holtfreter (2004) makes an important contribution to the topic by carrying out the above study, which investigates the relationship between state support for female offenders and the success of rehabilitation. The research is well organized with special statistical tools being used to support the available conclusions. The conclusions include the finding that addressing short-term needs for female inmates is associated with a significant reduction of recidivism. Judging by the professionalism that the study is conducted through, the conclusions are appropriate, and the research is well-grounded.

Laub, J. (1998). Trajectories of Change in Criminal Offending: Good Marriages and the Desistance Process. American Sociological Review, 63(1), 225–38.

Laub (1998) studies the relationship between family and criminal offenses. The main difference between this study and the above studies is that the researcher studies family about marriage. The conclusion is that marriage is significant in creating family bonds, which are associated with reduced criminal offenses. The study is timely. It supports the available evidence on the relationship between crime and social support. The methodology that is used in the study has not been proven over the last few decades. However, the conclusions are supported by the available research in the area.

Levinson, J., & Morenson, W. (2006). Risk Assessment in Child Sexual Abuse Cases. Child Welfare, 75(1), 59-82.

Levinson and Morenson (2006) assess the available evidence on risk assessment in child sexual abuse cases. The initial impression in their study is that there is progress in the risk assessment for these children. These researchers propose the use of better tools in the prediction of child abuse, especially sexual abuse. The current management of child abuse cases is better than what was the practice over the last few years. The authors insist on better measures in the prediction of maltreatment for children. This research is an important addition to the available evidence on the management of child abuse, although it only provides suggestions with no particular measure being suggested.

Messina, N. (2006). Predictors of Prison-Based Treatment Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women Participants. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 32(2), 7–28.

In this last research, the prison-based treatment for some of the prisoner conditions is assessed about other forms of treatment. The researcher evaluates the differences between female and male populations based on the results reported for each gender (Messina, 2006). This research is commendable since it offers an important link for some of the researchers who look for information on the topic. The methodology is effective and important in the conclusions. Therefore, the research can be used in other references to arrive at other conclusions.

Conclusion

The above studies demonstrate the relationship between social interactions and crime. Most of them support the theory that prisoners are better corrected when their social bonds are intact. The studies also propose several interventions where the social bonds are broken. The summarized information can be useful for any researcher who wants to get a rough picture of the subject of criminology.

Reference List

Austin, A., & Hardyman, D. (2004). The Risks and Needs of the Returning Prisoner Population. Review of Policy Research, 21(1), 13-29.

Bahr, S. (2005). The Reentry Process: How Parolees Adjust to Release from Prison. Fathering, 3(3), 243-265.

Bayse, J. (1991). Family Life Education: An Effective Tool for Prisoner Rehabilitation. Family Relations, 43(3), 254-257.

Belenko, S. (2006). Assessing Released Inmates for Substance-Abuse-Related Service Needs. Crime and Delinquency, 52(1), 94-113.

Belenko, S., & Pugh, J. (2005). Estimating drug treatment needs among state prison inmates. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77(1), 269-281.

Hairston, F. (1990). Family ties during imprisonment. Do they influence future criminal Activity? Federal Probation, 52(1), 48–52.

Holtfreter, K. (2004). Poverty, State Capital, and Recidivism among Women Offenders” Criminology and Public Policy, 3(2), 185-208.

Laub, J. (1998). Trajectories of Change in Criminal Offending: Good Marriages and the Desistance Process. American Sociological Review, 63(1), 225–38.

Levinson, J., & Morenson, W. (2006). Risk Assessment in Child Sexual Abuse Cases. Child Welfare, 75(1), 59-82.

Messina, N. (2006). Predictors of Prison-Based Treatment Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women Participants. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 32(2), 7–28.

The article “Race, Gender & Class in Criminology” written by Cregg Barak is devoted to such human aspects as race, gender and class in the society. The author tried to show that these aspects can function not as separate parts but as one whole; he wanted to underline the interaction of these elements with the criminal justice. Barak highlighted the “independence” of class, race and gender and “dependence” of the crime as the separate element. The article under analysis shows how these elements can be the background for the crime structure opportunities and how they can form criminal behavior.

The article is aimed at the following audience:

• People, working in the sphere of criminology;
• Students studying the peculiarities of criminal justice or who are eager to work in this field in the future;
• People who are interested in law and order of the country.

The article is closely related to the topic. The author managed to illustrate that race, gander and class can be an integral part of criminal law. He described how these elements are treated in their relation to the criminology in terms of four main approaches to the study: ethnographic, quantitative, social and time and place studies.

The most important feature of the article is that the author managed to use contemporary data and surveys in order to show the connection with the criminology.

The author came to the conclusion that race, gender and class can really influence the criminal justice and the type of punishment. It concerns people of color and class, sex discrimination which is not so visible nowadays though it really exists.

To my way of thinking this data should be compulsory used in law institution for unskilled beginning specialists to understand urgency of the problem and use this knowledge in their future job.

References

Barak, Gregg. (2004). Race, Gender & Class in Criminology. New Orleans. Vol. 11, Issue 4, p. 81.

Introduction

Crime has various meanings, which depend on the point of view. From a sociological perspective, crime is wrong that violates social relationships. This paper gives a detail of the different sociological theories, which broadens the understanding of crime. Crime typologies help in understanding violent crimes, an explanation of various crime typologies has been given. Doctor-assisted suicide is an issue that has caused intense discussion. This paper gives various reasons why assisted suicide should not be legalized.

What is the nature of sociological theorizing?

Sociological theories are used to study societal structures and social organizations. These theories also examine how social organizations influence people’s conduct. Unlike psychological theories, sociological theories focus on the nature of conduct depicted by a gathering of people. The criminological theory focuses on a sociological perspective because of various reasons (Frank, 2004). One of the reasons is that there has been a concerned interest in social issues like poverty and unemployment.

Based on a sociological description, crime occurs because of various reasons. A person’s locality within the community may influence crime. This is due to the social and financial aspects of life like poverty, isolation, unstable families, cultural issues, which contradict conventional principles. Crime is also a result of social practices such as improper socialization and social education. This stresses the role of social relations and self-discipline in crime.

In addition, crime is caused by class struggle. This approach focuses on the prevailing power relationship between communities and the financial structure of the society (Frank, 2004).

There are three classifications of sociological theories. The different classifications share a certain aspect. The first one is social disorganization theory, which has a link with social ecology. Social ecology was the idea of Park and Ernest Burgess at the University of Chicago. Social ecology deals with how the societal arrangement adjusts to the environment and the presence of other humankind. Social ecology adds valuable information to criminology.

It suggests that society exerts a key impact on individual conduct. Ecological views on the origin of crime have reappeared in the form of environmental criminology. Environmental criminology highlights the role of the geographical locality as a link to crime occurrences.

The second classification is the strain theory. Strain theory shows that criminal behavior is a response to bad social surroundings. Strain theory formed by Robert Merton stated that goals such as riches, education, and class are desirable for everybody. However, he noted that not all people in a social group could achieve these goals.

As a result, delinquency becomes an option for success when people feel the pressure to succeed. Robert Agnew reformed the strain theory to express a coping system that helps minors cope with social challenges caused by negative societal ties (Frank, 2004). Agnew found that different strain theories shared common elements, which were bad relations with other people and that minors engaged in crime due to bad relations with people.

Culture conflict theory claims that the major origin of crime is the conflict of beliefs between members of various groups over what is good conduct. Thorsten Sellin suggests in his book that two types of culture conflict exist, primary and secondary conflict. Primary conflict occurs when a major conflict of cultures takes place and secondary conflict takes place when lesser cultures within the primary contradict. Subculture, which deals with smaller social groups, is part of the bigger culture. Some subcultures do not adhere to the values of the national culture.

The subcultural theory is a sociological view that stresses the role of social groups in delinquency. Walter in his writing states that sub-cultural crime does not originate from lack of wealth, rather it originates from certain values attributed to such subcultures.

What are the assumptions upon which sociological perspectives on crime causation rest?

There are different assumptions upon which sociological views on the origin of crime have been established (Frank, 2004). Foremost, societal gatherings, communal organizations, social structures, and societal functions all give the best avenue for criminological examination. Secondly, communal activities and associations, small group liaisons create the fundamental link from which crime is born. Thirdly, the societal arrangement and its level of management are key elements leading to the occurrence of criminal activities.

Finally, though it is hard to foretell the particular conduct of a person, statistical approximations of group traits are achievable. Therefore, the likelihood that a person belonging to a grouping will participate in a crime can be approximated.

Why are crime typologies useful for understanding violent crimes?

Crime topologies are created to modify social realism. Topologies recognize a trend in crime that is unique compared to others. For a typology to be helpful, how a typology is structured should fulfill a certain function. Subculture of violence can be used to understand crime because it has been the major viewpoint employed to describe the connection between victims and criminals. Homicide findings show that victims and criminals have the same features such as age, sex, and nationalism. Different regions have different patterns of crime based on sub-cultural perspectives (Frank, 2004). For instance, the South has maintained a record of high homicide occurrences.

The victim-offender relationship and the context of crime are useful in establishing crime patterns. Findings depict that about twenty-five percent of homicides are family-related. Females are both likely to be criminals and victims as compared to males. The instrumental-expressive continuum formed by Carolyn Block and Richard Block helps to understand how sibling offenses such as theft may result in a killing. For example, in the case of theft, the goal is to get money or other goods. When there is no agreement between the criminal and the victim an argument may arise leading to homicide.

In understanding crime, victim precipitation deals with the traits of the victims, which may have caused them to be targeted. This helps examine trends of homicide as homicide originates from a conflict between individuals who have a relationship. Weapons play a significant role in understanding crime. The weapon in a crime scene tells whether the crime is lethal or nonlethal. Moreover, the presence of weapons in a place may increase criminal activities (Frank, 2004).

Alcohol and drug use can be linked to committing offenses though it depends on particular types of personalities. Studies reveal alcohol to be a key element in foretelling primary homicide. Gang unions are also factors in crime. Studies reveal that gang members participated in several crimes through the use of weapons and their victims were unrelated to them. Serial murders have one unique feature when compared with others. They are discrete and thus hard to recognize (Frank, 2004).

They frequently alter their technique of committing a crime. The motive behind mass murders is based on personal issues. The major motives are vengeance, love, personal gain, and fear.

Do you believe that doctor-assisted suicide should be legalized?

Legalizing assisted suicide would be a serious fault because of the following reasons. Globally, disability rights activists and groups play a significant role in opposing assisted suicide (Frank, 2004). The basis of their opposition lies in the threats to people with disabilities and the decrease in value of life that are caused by assisted suicide.

Patrons of assisted suicide claim that it helps lessen pain and distress before death. However, many people in Oregon who have practiced assisted suicide law wanted to end life not because of suffering, but other factors linked to disability, low self-esteem, and failure of somebody’s organs to function properly. The fear of being an invalid contributed greatly to assisted suicide. However, many people living with disabilities who depend on others to do basic things know that death is not an option (Frank, 2004). If assisted suicide became a law, then it would be based on bias and favoritism against the disabled.

A major crisis with making it lawful to assist suicide is the impact in health care organizations. Health care systems have always ruled out doctors’ opinions because of financial factors. Financial factors may also influence the decision of nonprofit health programs which receive little funding. The motivation to reduce costs by refusing to give medication creates a major risk. This danger is enhanced when assisted suicide becomes a law. The full impact of legalizing assisted suicide would greatly affect financially unstable people who cannot meet their medical expenses.

Medicine as a profession is also affected by legalizing assisted suicide. Medical practitioners claim that assisted suicide ruins the trust between the sick and the physician and alleviates the physician’s role in preserving life (Frank, 2004).

Investigating the performance of assisted suicide in Oregon portrays the major challenges associated with assisted suicide. These challenges include freedom to make decisions, the risk to persons with disabilities, and the doubtful incidence of Oregon’s deaths. Assisted suicide advocates plead to freedom of choice and free will.

However, legalized assisted suicide destroys a person’s power to choose and become independent. When the lethal injection is being administered, no person is needed to witness. An individual could use another method to kill such as suffocation without the knowledge of others. When the patient accepts suicide, he or she makes a declaration that if he passes away, his death will be unquestionable.

The patient will be defenseless if he or she plans to stop the suicide immediately after the lethal dose has been prepared. In addition, there is a threat that many individuals would select assisted suicide due to external factors (Frank, 2004). For example, old people who refuse to depend on their families for financial assistance may opt for assisted suicide.

Conclusion

Criminology is a broad subject that covers diverse topics such as types of crimes, theories explaining crimes, crime typologies, and whether some issues are legal or illegal such as assisted suicide. A good understanding of criminology is essential in understanding crime, solving crime mysteries, and preventing crime.

Reference List

Frank, S. (2004). Criminology Today, An Integrative Introduction. USA: Pearson Custom Publishing.

The term “situational inducement” means situational factors and circumstances which influence a person (a criminal) when he commits a crime. Following Siegel, situational inducement involves motivations and opportunities at a definite period of time. The recognition of self-interest is an important motivational factor. Self-interest is the most important factor in motivating people because the instinct for self-preservation lies behind all human activities. Life is precarious and a constant struggle for survival (Siegel 2007). Security is the desired result of self-interest, but because of its own tenuous nature, it can never be fully achieved and therefore acts as a constant and ongoing source of motivation. For this reason, economic interdependence is not great, and neither is the ability to control other people. Since survival is no longer contingent on the maintenance of personal relations, motivation to refrain from activities that might harm those relationships is lacking.

The same ideas are expressed by Birkbeck and Lafree (1993) who state that: “situational explanations refer to the processes operating at the moment of the crime’s occurrence: they are theories of crime. Sutherland even felt that situational explanation could be “a superior” crime explanation” (1993, p. 113). As an expedient and effective method of achievement, taking unfair advantage of others is one way, and perhaps a common way, of getting ahead, of gaining the competitive edge, and at the end of acquiring wealth, status, and power in American society.

In contrast to Siegel, Birkbeck, and Lafree (1993) any number of factors may contribute to the selection of one form of exploitation over another. The fact that exploitation is common makes it more difficult for the inhibitors self-restraint and control to be effective. Despite any degree of reprehensibility or culpability, the presence of exploitation and the diminution of important inhibitors create an environment conducive to crime. Attacking criminality alone is illogical. It is analogous to an attempt to extinguish the flames of a fire fed by an open gas jet: the flames are the major problem, but the cause is the gas. In contrast to Birkbeck and Lafree (1993), Siegel states that opportunity alone does not explain the occurrence of criminality, because it fails to account for why some people refrain from exploitation even when the opportunity is there. Some people readily engage in such activities, never considering or caring about the harm they cause others, but others never even contemplate doing something that might hurt someone else. Apparently, acceptability varies by degrees. Given the right circumstances, you might cheat someone on a business deal, but you could never imagine physically injuring someone for personal gain (Siegel 2007). It is unlikely that those who exploit others perceive that there will be greater benefits from such acts and are more willing to take the risks than other people who refrain. It is also unlikely that those who abstain are more conscious of the punishments. Each of us, given our own particular background and socialization, has unique images of acceptable and unacceptable patterns of interpersonal interaction. The degree of acceptability is directly related to the kinds of exploitation people will consider.

In sum, “situational inducement’ is a complex term because crime is determined within the dominant culture of a particular society. As long as people are socialized to accept and practice various forms of exploitation because of the value placed on achievement, particularly material achievement, and not to concern themselves too much with the means of achievement, then crime will be prevalent. This process of acculturation takes place within the informal spectrums of social life to a much greater extent than it involves formal institutions.

References

Birkbeck, Ch., Lafree, G. (1993). The Situational Analysis of Crime and Deviance. Annual Review of Sociology, 19 (1), pp. 113-115.

Siegel, L. J. (2007). Criminology: The Core. Wadsworth Publishing; 3 edition.

There are some cases when the jury cannot come to the conclusion about a verdict even after a long period of discussion. It happens when they reach some irreconcilable differences in their opinion. Such a jury is usually called a hung jury.

In criminal cases, juries are required to arrive at a unanimous verdict. As for civil cases, juries have to reach some level of consensus. A hung jury is usually regarded as the best way to an acquittal, so the greater the number of juries is the more chances of dissension are. One of the difficulties which are associated with hung juries is the supermajority verdicts. It allows jurors to convict a defendant even if there is no unanimous agreement amongst them. The arguments around the majority of verdicts usually involve ‘rogue jurors’ who impede the court session for no reason. Opponents of the invention of majority verdicts state that they undermine public confidence in justice systems. In its turn, it results in the conviction of a higher number of people for crimes that they did not commit.

In the United States of America, a case can be retried as the result of a mistrial. Sometimes the court is permitted to give the jurors an Allen charge. This means that the dissenting jurors are invited to meet again in order to re-examine their opinions; it is made in an attempt to prevent the hung jury from hanging.

In Ethan J. Leib’s article, we find that hung juries are not widely spread. It is important that for juries it must be made easier to acquit. “We hear about them frequently because they seem to happen most often in high-profile cases, perhaps when their cost to the justice system is highest. But the elimination of hung juries is not the only reason to rethink our jury decision rules.” (Leib) He states that convictions and acquittals must be unanimous. The defendant fails to get a clear outcome even if eleven jurors find that he is innocent or the government fails to prove his case.

If the supermajoritarian conviction rule is adopted, the abnormality will be removed. In such a way jury decision rule will be in harmony with those of constitutional and political life in general.

“We don’t expect our Supreme Court justices or our appellate judges to agree unanimously to render a decision, so the idea that citizens are expected to come to a complete agreement is rather bizarre.”

In our society, it is difficult to avoid using jury service. When the jury arrives at a verdict an individual’s liberty and sometimes his life are at stake. But unanimity shouldn’t be treated as a certainty. Most empirical evidence shows that the verdicts that are reached under different decision rules prove not to vary dramatically. That means that unanimity requirements produce approximately the same number of people that are convicted as supermajority requirements do. It is proved that jurors that keep to a unanimous decision rule usually agree to take decisions by a supermajority. It means that there is no difference between these rules. It is also known that some individuals want to falsify their preferences by means of changing their vote.

Jurors are supposed to presume the innocence of the defendants, but when a unanimous agreement is required in order to acquit an individual, it may undermine the fact that our society is free.

Reference

Leib, Ethan. The problem of Hung Juries – and how to solve it. Web.

Introduction

Beccaria supported the ideas of utilitarianism, which state that the happiness in the world can grow due to punishment (Siegel, Brown, & Hoffman, 2012). It is argued that the threat of punishment can be a tool to control and reduce crime. The laws and such authorities as police and courts are in charge of the safety of citizens. However, apart from the legal punishments, other forms of social control can regulate behavior. They appeared in the course of criminology development and were shaped by its contemporary perspectives.

Positivist Criminology Theory

Positivism treats human behavior as a product of extrinsic factors such as social, biological, psychological, and economic (Siegel et al., 2012). About criminology, early positivists believed that the facial features of criminals could be the signs of antisocial behavior. Biological approaches in criminology also include the ideas of Lombroso who believed that serious criminals inherit their offensive behavior (Siegel et al., 2012). Although these theories are not popular at present, there exists a biological theory that mirrors the connection between physical and social features of a person and their impact on his or her habits and behavior. Thus, the investigation of external factors can help to predict or prevent antisocial and criminal behavior.

Sociological Criminology

The sociological approach to criminology suggests considering the impact of social factors on a person’s inclination to criminal behavior (Siegel et al., 2012). These factors include age, sex, the population in the area, and social class. Moreover, Quetelet suggested the idea that alcohol consumption is one of the factors which increase the risks of criminal behavior (Siegel et al., 2012). Another socially-related idea is that criminal behavior can be connected with negative socialization experiences of a person. On the whole, sociological criminology ideas can be applied to discover the risk groups of possible criminals and reduce the unfavorable social impact. On the other hand, social blame can restrain some people from criminal actions.

Contemporary Criminology

Contemporary criminology includes six perspectives. They are classical or choice, biological-psychological, structural, process, conflict, and integrated perspectives (Siegel et al., 2012). For example, the perspective of rational choice advocates that criminals make their decisions rationally (Siegel et al., 2012). It contradicts previous biological theories. In the context of behavior control, choice perspective suggests that there should be more choices for people so that they could prefer conventional behaviors to criminals (Siegel et al., 2012).

Contemporary criminology introduces the notion of the sociology of law. In this respect, theories of crime causation were developed (Siegel et al., 2012). They are supposed to answer the question concerning the reasons for selecting criminal behavior. Although true causes of crimes are still not discovered, the development of these theories can help in preventing and reducing crimes due to the knowledge of reasons behind them.

Another direction in criminology is victimology. The victim plays a crucial role in the criminal process (Siegel et al., 2012). Thus, the investigation of the victim’s behavior and the development of guidelines on how not to become a victim can become another way of social control.

Conclusions

Contemporary criminology focuses on measuring, understanding, and controlling crime (Siegel et al., 2012). Criminologists find connections between crime and deviance. They are similar since both deviant and criminal behaviors differ from the norms of society. Thus, social control can be taken over the first signs of deviant actions before they become criminals.

References

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 4.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 5.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 6.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 6.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 6.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 9.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 9.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 9.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 11.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 12.

Siegel, L.J., Brown, G.P., & Hoffman, R. (2012). CRIM. Introduction to criminal justice (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 13.

Rehabilitation model

This model approaches crime by assuming that the best treatment for any crime is treating the causative factors associated with the crime. These may be social, economic, or personal factors. For instance, unemployment is usually perceived as one of the greatest simulators of criminal activities. This model thus advocates for the increment of the crime perpetrators’ chances of employment to curb crime. This can be achieved by either altering the laws and negotiating with employers or imparting the crime perpetrators with the relevant job skills for the marketplace. A theory under this model is the routine activity theory. This theory believes that crime must occur particularly in areas where it is more lucrative in terms of pay. Curbing it calls for advancing better paying legal activities. Under the model, people only resort to crime since there are no other sources of income available (Phillips 32).

Non-interventional model

According to this model, the reason behind many crimes in society is purely due to the extreme pressure from the legislative bodies. People have been portrayed as criminals and therefore they only strive to make the assertion true. In the process, the crime rate increases alarmingly. The non-intervention model advocates for non-interference. This will allow people to return to the mindset of being viewed as criminal and in the process desire to change. The social control theory falls under this model. It states that society carries the entire responsibility of ensuring a given level of stability in every individual (Phillips 32).

Equal Justice Model

Under this model, every criminal is responsible for his criminal activities despite his economic background, social status, or ethnicity. There exist society laws that govern every individual’s actions and these should be applied indiscriminately. Under this model, the best method to combat crime is to ensure there are severe consequences for each and every action. The theory closely related to it is the choice theory. According to the theory, every individual who opts to commit a crime weighs the benefits of the crime and the possible punishment before making their choice. Since they are well aware of the consequences, they should be punished when found guilty. This may act as a lesson to others and cause them to reconsider engaging in criminal activities.

Due Process model

According to this model, the reason for the increased crime rate is due to the criminalization of certain activities. If the legislature had not declared certain activities as criminal, the crime rate in these activities would not have increased. The critical theory falls under this model. It states that a person considers the consequences of their actions before participating.

Life-course versus Latent theory

Under life course theory, the life experiences in one’s life determine their involvement in the crime. Stress resulting from these traumatic experiences is what drives people into crime. The theory views crime as a dynamic process instilled slowly into a person’s life. On the other hand, the latent trait theory depicts criminal activities as a result of a certain trait that causes particular people to engage in criminal activities when under duress or when pushed in a specific direction. It views crime as a psychological process rather than a dynamic one.

Cybercrime

Neutralization refers to methods that permit one to rationalize or justify criminal acts while the rational choice theory recognizes the presence of reasons thought through before any criminal activity is carried out. Based on the above definitions, cybercrime refers to criminal activities perpetrated through a network. Before engaging in such a cybercrime, the perpetrator has to have a substantial reason, for instance, secure vital information. This amounts to rational choice theory. When the crime is discovered one can deny responsibility or simply condemn the condemners. This amounts to neutralization (Willison 212).

Works Cited

Phillips, Scott. “Criminology: Legal Disparity in the Capital of Capital punishment.” The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology. 2009: 1-40.

Willison, Robert. “Understanding and Addressing Criminal Opportunity: The Application of Situational Crime Prevention to IS Security”. Journal of Financial Crime. (2000): 201-210.

Law enforcement may be defined as the structure in which the community members act in a well thought-out behavior to endorse observance to the law by investigating and grueling persons who infringe the regulations and norms of that society. Though concerned with handling crimes and punishment, there are attempts to dispirit people from committing non-criminal actions of lesser consequences. Law enforcement agencies like the police are responsible for the conduct for the general welfare of the public. Community investment in terms of human resources is of paramount importance. The different law enforcing agencies at the local, state, federal, tribal, military and the FBI levels have their own sets of protocols to follow while discharging their duties, functions and responsibilities. These police agencies operate within their specified boundaries. In certain cases, there could be an overlap like the FBI may operate throughout the USA to complete its assignments. The differences between these agencies lie in human resources, budgets, and jurisdiction. The USA is committed to make its territory safe from any type of aggression. Department of Justice is accountable for the law enforcement and supervision of justice in the country (Department of Justice, 2012). Also, Department of Homeland Security was established to control outside threats to the nation, and in preparedness to September 11, 2001 type attacks and bioterrorism, etc (Homeland Security, 2012). The aim of this essay is to outline the historical development of law enforcing agencies and their jurisdiction with respect to municipal, state, and federal levels.

Local Law Enforcement

These are more prevalent and are committed to have a safe society. They are responsible for patrolling the areas, emergency community services, traffic records, maintenance of criminal and no-criminal records, providing public information, alcohol and drug abuse control, and in total, maintaining the internal affairs at the local municipal level. The rural areas, county and the city policing have their own parameters, and obviously they differ in pay, benefits and materials or equipments to tackle social emergencies and crimes. The larger departments may have smaller specialized units where population is larger, and the social complexity is increased. As far as the patrolling forces are concerned, this job may give a break to the local youths to understand their society better and to move to a better position, later on.

The sheriff’s department also does the same thing as the local police, but the jurisdiction gets larger. They are responsible for conduct of jails, court activities, etc. These may collaborate with local agencies for solving cases. Thus they have a larger geography to serve and may not fall under a civil services system. The economic recession became a limiting factor for local police as it forced them to merge with the other departments or a shut down (USA Today, 2009).

State Law Enforcement

All USA states have their own state police departments to check the activities within their state, at the highways, and the borders. They are usually full-service agencies and may have specialized units according to the needs. Their responsibilities include drug and human trafficking, traffic crashes, etc. across the borders and at the highway speedways. They may have commercial vehicle enforcement laws too. As the employee is assigned the task anywhere in the state, it may result into frequent transfers for the depending families.

Specialized Law Enforcement

They are not under the state and include airport and campus police departments, to operate in specific circumstances. With lesser geography and jurisdiction, their efficiency expected is higher and perks and benefits may vary greatly too as per conditions.

In 2004, federal agencies employed 105,000 people in all the states. The executive branches included departments of agriculture, defense, commerce, army, navy, air force, education, energy, health, homeland security, housing and urban development, justice, labor, veteran affairs, transportation, treasury; these work in tandem with the legislative and judicial departments. These agencies work under the United States Code. Working for a federal agency definitely means that the employee would have better perks and benefits than at local or at state levels, also the recruiting may be a bit tougher too, given the expanse of tasks (The New York Times, 2012).

Indian Tribal Law Enforcement

Tribal sovereignty in the USA gives the indigenous powers to the Indian aboriginal tribes to govern themselves. So these regulations are in addition to local and state law enforcements. Early history involves the Marshall Trilogy (1823-1832), enforcement of tribal courts (1883), and Dawes act (1887), Indian Reorganization act (1934) and Public Law 280 (1953) (Tribal sovereignty in the United States, 2011).

With the spread of terrorism and many faces of it including the threat of usage of biological and chemical systems, the USA law enforcement agencies face a tough challenge to maintain the state safe, secure and highly integral to conformity within laws mentioned in the constitution. The priorities, resources, human needs may need a complete boost to alienate the emergence of any threat to the state. This again calls for a sustainable collaboration between the community, the state and the Law enforcement agencies for a better, safe and secure social living in the territories of the USA.

References

Department of Justice. (2012). Resources. Web.

Homeland Security. (2012). Counterterrorism. Web.

The New York Times. (2012). Articles about the Homeland Security Department. Web.

Tribal sovereignty in the United States. (2011). In Wikipedia. Web.

USA Today. (2009). Economy limiting services of local police. Web.

Today, the era of technology tends to ease and revolutionize the processes used in criminology while making them more advanced and accurate. Consequently, describing chemical tests, understanding the analysis of paint, and determining the methods to define the origin of the fire are the main goals of the paper. Focusing on them will help understand the pivotal role of different analyses in criminology.

Series of tests that a forensic drug chemist would conduct to identify a white powder as containing cocaine with an approximate purity of 80%

In the first place, it is vital to describe a series of tests to identify that the powder is cocaine containing. This analysis is of paramount importance since it will assist in finding illegal drugs. Found materials have to be weighted to identify the compliance of the presented powder with 80% purity with characteristics of the same amount of cocaine. The next step is organizing a presumptive test that will help recognize the presence of the drug by its reaction with the reagent and its ability to change color (Siegel, 2016).

Thus, before that, it is critical to ensure the relevance of the selected test in the context since some elements may cross-react or show similar responses to the reagents (Siegel, 2016). Conducting a confirmatory test such as mass spectrometry is significant to separate the drug from premises and identify its percentage in the powder (Siegel, 2016). After that, the drug has to be classified to determine whether it is illegal or not. Comparing its chemical characteristics with the established patterns will assist in identifying its nature.

The proper collection and preservation of paint evidence from an automobile suspected of being involved in a hit-and-run incident. Paint that is foreign to the suspect automobile is observed on the hood.

Alternatively, the analysis of paint can also provide valuable insights about the accident by establishing a connection between the participants of the accident, victims, and automobiles involved. In the first place, it is necessary to send the pedestrian’s clothes to the laboratory, as they may have transfers of paint from the car and ease the investigation process of a hit-and-run accident (Siegel & Mirakovits, 2015). Putting evidence in paper bags will ensure its safe delivery to the laboratory. With the help of this analysis, it is possible to identify the model and year of production of the automobile by referring to the characteristics of the original colors of the car and the sequence of layers (Siegel & Mirakovits, 2015).

Thus, submitting other parts such as pieces of headlights will also speed the investigation process. In the case of several cars involved in the hit-and-run accident, it is necessary to collect samples of paint from all participants while if appropriate samples are not present on the ground, it will be essential to obtain them from the vehicles (Siegel & Mirakovits, 2015). It is important to note that it is necessary to include as many layers of paint as possible while paying vehement attention to the transferred color (incurred due to hit) and the original one to determine the participants of the accident.

The proper collection of evidence at the origin of a fire that is suspected of having been started with gasoline. The proper submission of controls for laboratory examination.

Lastly, collecting evidence of the cases of fire started with gasoline is complex, as it has to not only include evaluating the remaining gas but also assessing environmental conditions (Siegel & Mirakovits, 2015). In the first place, investigators have to document the nature of the crime scene with photographs, sketches, and notes to ease the investigation process. Meanwhile, the whole investigation will involve stages such as personal observations, the examination of the location by dogs (controlled canine), and the utilization of various equipment to gather evidence.

It is important to use sealed containers due to their ability to prevent the evidence from damage and their inflammable nature while keeping them separate will prevent the samples from being mixed (Siegel & Mirakovits, 2015). After that, it is essential to collect samples of the volatile flammable accelerant since it will help identify potential causes of the fire by conducting a chemical analysis of the sampled liquid. In the instances of using gas, samples have to be collected from their possible location of purchase (Siegel & Mirakovits, 2015). In the end, the samples will be evaluated in the laboratory to determine the actual causes of the fire.

References

Siegel, J. (2016). Forensic science. London, UK: Oneworld Publications.

Siegel, J., & Mirakovits, K. (2015). Forensic science: The basics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Serial murders are difficult to investigate because they usually turn out to be complicated puzzles with many crucial parts missing. Those criminals who commit them are often very mobile, they may not know their victims and may act in a particular way because of psychological disorders. As a result, it is rather difficult to catch them, which frightens the community. Thus, it is vital for professionals to utilize both reactive and proactive approaches to streamline investigation and save people.

Reactive investigation begins when police receive a call and find out that something has happened. For a long time, this was the only way they got to know that there was something to investigate. According to it, they rely on the outside sources of information and start acting only when they acknowledge that a murder was committed. However, when dealing with serial killers, it is vital to predicting their next steps. Focusing only on reactive approach and investigation of evidence found at the crime scene, professionals are not able to prevent future crimes and save potential victims, especially if they are selected randomly (Hoffman, 2012).

The proactive investigation provides an opportunity to presuppose or even find out what a serial killer will do next. For such purpose, intelligence, informants, and surveillance are used. Information is stored in different databases and accessed when needed. Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is often used to identify victims, criminals, and other people involved in crimes. It is a combined DNA system that can be used only by particular agencies, including police of course. It consists of those samples that were provided on a voluntary basis or obtained in the framework of the previous investigation. CODIS is used for identification when blood, fluids, and human remains are found at the crime scene.

Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS) is similar to the CODIS database, but it consists of people’s fingerprints instead of DNA. These samples are usually gathered at police offices during an investigation or at the very crime scene so that they can be linked and identified. Local police forces received an opportunity to use this system at the end of the 20th century. However, it was impossible to share information between cities and states for almost 20 years. AFIS became a national system only in 1999, but it has already provided an opportunity to catch numerous criminals and save people’s lives. It is also important to mention that fingerprints of military and government employees can also be found in this database.

National Integrated Ballistics Identification Network (NIBIN) is also often used while investigating serial murders. Unlike previous databases, this one is focused on bullets and cartridges. It is an imaging system that provides an opportunity to compare evidence from different crime scenes. With its help, professionals can find out if a murder was committed using one and the same weapon, which allows presupposing that a particular criminal is involved (FBI, 2017).

Thus, different investigative approaches can be used when working with serial murders, which allows overcoming those difficulties that are involved in this task. Traditionally, police resort to reactive investigation and respond to the committed crimes. However, a proactive approach is necessary when serial killers are involved because it is significant to prevent future crimes, predict their next steps. For this purpose, police can resort to informants, intelligence, and various databases that provide information related to the case.

References

FBI. (2017)

Hoffman, M. (2012). Reactive and proactive investigative approaches.