Category: Corruption

Introduction

Corruption is the abuse or misuse of public resources, power and or office for financial or other personal gains. It is the use of illegal and illegitimate means to acquire advantage in private or public positions. Corrupt people lack the virtues of integrity, honesty and moral principle.

Corruption has greatly increased in the world since the late 80s and the early 90s with many post-communist countries being greatly affected. There has been a lot of debate on the causes of corruption and factors that have led to its spread and increase around the world.

Factors contributing to corruption

Neo-liberalism and corruption

One of the major factors that contributed to the apparent rise and spread of corruption and which is a subject of debate is neo-liberalism which started in the 1970s and the 1980s. Neo-liberalism is mainly about promoting free markets and trade, competition, consumption, reduction state regulation, control and other roles, more importance is placed on the end than the means.

There is lack of conceptuality and less emphasis on the rule of law in most corrupt societies where the process of liberalization has led to the weakening and delegitimizing of state powers and control. There have been many arguments about the relationship between neo-liberal measures and policies of free trade and investment and corruption especially in post-communist countries (Holmes, 1999).

Neo-liberalism has been highly credited with economic growth and increased investment; it is seen as an important factor for development in many countries.

However as globalization takes effect and local and international enterprises compete for new markets and business ventures, corruption practices are inevitable. There are restrictions, obstacles and barriers within bureaucratic systems of countries and international markets that can lead to these practices.

International quarters and trade tariffs which lead to varying prices of goods and other special treatments can lead to enterprises bribing in order to take advantage.

According to Williams and Beare (1999), the administration of exemptions and restrictions within countries involves complex and complicated procedures and only bureaucracies can perform such duties as a result this can encourage corruption practices in government offices.

Although there are organizations and agencies which act as watch dogs, without regulation and follow up, a lot can still be done to reduce the spread of this vice. The systems of corruption form a big web which includes local and international participants and it is hard to completely trace its course especially in developing countries, where efforts of fighting corruption are underfunded and not taken seriously.

Poverty

Another factor that leads to corruption in most developing economies is poverty. The prevalence of poverty leads to lack of education, health and other basic necessities. This means that poor people do not have knowledge of their rights they are not aware of the responsibilities of the authorities.

Most of them are apathetic toward economic and social developments in their countries because they have to first deal with their own domestic challenges.

In many communities where public infrastructure and service delivery is extremely poor, mushrooming of the private enterprise leads to the exploitation of the meager resources of the poor as they seek better services especially in the health and education sectors. For example a doctor in a public health center receives salary every end of the month but only comes on appointment because he has his own private clinic (Das, 2006).

Most corrupt practices in poor countries take place without anyone reporting, either because nobody realizes it happening or people have the will to stop it but they are not strong enough to face the forces behind the vice.

Conclusion

The debate on the factors that lead to corruption and the ways through which it can be controlled continue across the world.

Measures that have been taken include controlling of the flow of foreign investment and the reduction or complete withdrawal of aid from developing countries that have corrupt systems. National and International media together with monitoring agencies like Transparency International have also played a big role on exposing corruption.

Reference List

Das, R. (2006) Poverty and hunger: causes and consequences. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons.

Holmes, L. (1999) ‘Corruption, weak states and economic rationalism in Central and Eastern Europe’, Central European University Joint Conference on Corruption. Princeton University, Budapest, Hungary. Web.

Williams, J. and Beare, M. (1999) The business of bribery: globalization, economic liberalization and the “problem” of corruption’, crime, law and social change. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.

Introduction

Corruption denotes improper utilization of public office for personal gains. Widespread corruption is a clear indication that a given government is malfunctioning. A public policy created in this context regards anti-corruption. It is important to endorse a public policy, which advocates that no individual or any public/private office should indulge in corrupt dealings of any form. In most cases, characteristics of corruption are practiced in markets or organizations.

A lot of studies carried out indicate that corruption does not only reduce economic growth but it also lowers investments. This indicates why the proposed public policy is necessary. Corruption leads to reduced private savings and also destroys political stability. Foreign investors have also shown little interest in countries showing high prevalence of corruption. Studies also indicate that the level of corruption in countries importing goods have a negative effect on the business structures (Kellow, 2007).

A number of scholars have greatly contributed toward the analysis of corruption. The major reasons why corruption exists are low pay and poor monitoring system. Despite, an anticorruption policy will be viable in this context. Consequently, to create reliable policies on corruption, the government and the public should cooperate in eliminating such vices. In addition, action should be taken against those who violate these laws.

Details of the policy based on the Rational Model

This policy is going to affect all shareholder and employees. In addition, it will be applied to all the directors and officers in every institution. Going against the policy will lead to a severe punishment and disciplinary measures. An individual found corrupt will not only be sucked from his or her job but will also be referred to the relevant authority for castigation. With regard to the rational model, implementing this theory will experience some challenges.

In addition, some of the policymakers will not completely contribute to its implementation when they realize that it may affect them later. For example, a corrupt politician will be against the enforcement of this policy. However, to obtain zero tolerance on corruption, the following policies are required.

Employees are not allowed to take or give bribes for their own personal gains. Conversely, it is also illegal for employees to make some donations in form of payment with an aim of gaining. They are also prohibited from facilitating payments. According to the proposed anticorruption policy, it is also illegal for them to give gifts to clients and government officials.

In addition, when carrying out company business, an employee is not allowed to provide any gifts and entertainments to influence the rationality of such individuals. Records on the other hand must also be properly kept, all expenses are required to be adequately documented and maintained for long (Mbaku, 2007).

Before doing any business with a third party, an employee should ensure that the involved official meet the record keeping standards with regard to expenses connected with government officials. A written approval is generally needed when a given threshold has been exceeded. Before making any contracts with an organization, the employee must make sure that he or she is aware of the company’s background.

In addition, the employee should also have some information on the reputation of the company and its business capability. However, such acts must also contain provisions on anti-corruption. Finally, to ensure that there is compliance, proper training with regard to policies on anti-corruption as well as their roles must be carried out to the employees. When it comes to implementing these policies, some policymakers will not fully contribute to it due to their selfish interests.

The rationale of the policy

The rationale of this policy is to eliminate corruption. Internationally, corruption is hardly accepted. Factually, the vice slows down growth and development within institutions. Conversely, the policy intends to create viable provisions meant to deal with various aspects of corruption. This will be applicable to both public and private sectors. It is crucial to agree that the atrocities created by corruption are numerous. Nonetheless, it is possible to curb this menace despite the looming challenges.

How the model will assist policymakers in decision-making and implementation processes

This model is going to ensure that there is no biasness when it comes to the establishment and implementation of the concerned policy. In addition, people with self-interests will also be accommodated (Sapru, 2010). Besides, this model will ensure that there is universality when it comes to the application of these policies. Every policymaker will equally contribute to putting these policies into practice. Consequently, full transparency will be observed.

Evaluating the Rational Model

Contextually, the model monitors adherence to virtues concerning anti-corruption policies. This concerns the formulation of credible public policies. Additionally, the model exhausts all provisions of the policy-making criteria. It recognizes every aspect of viable public policies. Rationally, the model identifies the provisions of self-interest and biasness that might occur during the formulation of the previously mentioned public policy (anti-corruption policy).

It is important to report any suspected violation of anti-corruption policy to the concerned authorities as required by the model (Nicholls, 2011). Precisely, this model provides credible structures helpful in establishing, implementing, and evaluating the concerned policy. Hence, this indicates the viability of this model in formulating functional public policies.

References

Kellow, A. J. (2007). Science and public policy: The virtuous corruption of virtual environmental science. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Mbaku, J. (2007). Corruption in Africa: Causes, consequences, and cleanups. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Nicholls, C. (2011). Corruption and misuse of public office. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sapru, R. (2010). Public policy: Art and craft of policy analysis. New Delhi: PHI Learning.

Abstract

The American society has gone through difficult times due to police brutality and misconduct mainly because of corruption that has threatened to interfere with the very survival of society. In the mid 19^th century to early 20^th century, clandestine police forces were popular and the representatives of Pinkerton’s and other police forces available for hire were infamous since brutal employers utilized their services to quell violence against striking workers.

Heavy-handed law enforcement coupled with illegal groups such as Ku Klux Klan acting through vigilantism denied individuals their civil rights formulated in the 1871. The law provided that it was illegal for state law to interfere with an individual’s constitutional rights under the national rules. In early 21^st century, section 1983 of the 1871 act became one of the important instruments of fighting police brutality and injustice in society (Klockars, 2000).

The 20^th century witnessed lawful, organizational, and scholarly models to the issue. Some developments in the state fought the criminality of the state machinery indirectly, such as the endorsement of the civil rights in 1964. The passage of the act protected individuals who had undergone psychological and physical pain due to police misconduct.

Furthermore, the landmark rulings by the Court gave the public powers and authority against the actions of police officers. For instance, the Fourth Amendment prevented police officers from searching and seizing and individual without court permission (Goldstein, 1975). Even though legal protection and well-planned reforms exist, police brutality has persisted and people are still suffering in the hands of the state machinery.

Furthermore, the extent at which people encounter police brutality is unknown to the public due to a number of reasons. Misconduct issues among police officers are usually quantified based on each city even though information provided is subjective (Klockars, 2000). Furthermore, the levels of corruption are even harder to measure. The studies should be undertaken to determine the levels of corruption in the police force.

To do this, a number of research hypothesis are to be formulated. Again, the researcher should undertaken a research to determine the effective utilization of personality measures to identify officers who are prone to corruption. Finally, the researcher would suggest some recommendations on how to end the problem. For all these to happen, the problem statement is to be defined clearly at an early onset of research.

Introduction

Corruption is a variable that has been defined variously by many scholars. On one hand, it has been defined as the violation of regional and national laws. Others view it as the violation of personal rights contained in the constitution by police officers. Another group of scholars perceives it as the commitment of crime by police officers to achieve personal interests. In general, corruption refers to police misbehavior and abuses of police authority.

From the definitions, the term refers to a number of technical, illegal and civil infringements. In this respect, misconduct is the broad category of civil violation. Misconduct becomes technical in case it is used to refer to police officers who go against the policies and rules of the police service.

The term is used to criminal in case it is utilized to refer to violation of state and national laws by police officers. Finally, it is used to refer to unconstitutional in case the rights and freedoms of citizens are contravened by police officers in any state or in any part of the country. There are a number of police misconducts including excessive utilization of physical or lethal force, prejudiced arrest, physical or verbal pestering, and discriminatory enforcement of law (Rozella, 2003).

The law protects citizens from police brutality but the issue of corruption and misconduct still exist in society. In fact, the department of police has always strived to produce quality police officers through setting up of the professional codes of conduct, reviewing the training needs of officers and conducting credible investigations and subsequent punishment of officers in case found guilty.

However, these have never stopped corruption among police officers. This paper will therefore conduct a research to establish the why corruption is a commonplace in the American society. The paper employs research methodologies to determine measure carefully the existing problem. From the collected data, the paper comes up with conclusions and recommendations that would change the state of affairs as regards to corruption.

Problem Statement

Since 1999, the American society has witnessed various police misconduct issues. In the same year, there was a worst scandal ever involving the Los Angeles Department’s Rampart borders and certainly, its elite anti-gang unit referred to as the CRASH (Community Resources against Street Hoodlums). Upon investigation, both local and state, CRASH was banned and seventy officers were taken in for investigations.

A number of police officers were found guilty of misconducts while several of them were convicted mainly because of drug trafficking, larceny, promoting mugging, tempering with arrests and filing bogus reports. The Rampart humiliation brought about many problems to the police force. It bore heavy costs to the policy makers in the force, which were both financial in nature and psychological. Much criminal fervor accredited to the work of corrupt individuals in the work force was overturned by the court.

By 2003, the police force in the city had already lost over $40 in lawsuits. Consequently, the 2000 agreement between the Lo Angeles city council and the federal government put the police in the city under the custodianship of the judge for five years. The judge was to monitor reforms and evaluate the activities of the police.

Compared to other agencies in the country, the Los Angeles police force is no exceptional. In 1990s, the New York City’s wide-ranging reforms were put into sport light following the high-profile cases involving police misconduct (Giuliani, 1995). The New York cases proved that it was difficult to handle cases involving police misconduct. The first case was put forth in 1997 where a Haitian migrant was thoroughly beaten under police custody.

The foreigner was said to have been harassed sexually since cases of sodomy were also reported. In 2000, the police officers were jailed for interfering with individual freedom and justices. However, the court overturned the ruling in the United States v. Schwarz. The second New York hullabaloo pertained to the killing of an unarmed man in 1999. The undercover officers allegedly shot the Guinean migrant 41 times.

Citizens protested against the actions of the police unit referred to as the Aggressive Street Crimes. The officers were set free in 2000 controversially. The police brutality and rampant corruption has led to public outcry where demonstrations have been mounted to disown the misconduct of the police. In the contemporary world, police have accused of beating and harassing a black American citizen who was found in the street.

In 2001, the court set free one police officer who was allegedly accused of shooting a black man. The American populace blames police brutality on defective policies that insist on aggressive policing on matters pertaining on drugs, street crimes and street gangs. Police department is of the governmental agencies that are known to resist change in society.

Due to these problems, city council authorities, the ministries of justice and state security, and renowned criminologists have launched studies to establish ways that can bring about reforms in the police service.

Upon this realization, this paper sets out to reinforce the findings of other scholars as they attempt to find solutions to the existing problems. Therefore, the paper collects data in order to analyze the same data to reach at important conclusions and recommendations.

Variables

In this research paper, the researcher is interested in testing variables such as crime rates, crime reporting, personality traits of officers, and police corruption. The research tests various hypotheses that are associated with the interaction between them. The hypotheses may perhaps be combined to arrive at various equations. For instance, the following equations can be arrived at.

Crime= f (corruption in the police force, crime reporting, A, B1)

Crime reporting = g (Corruption in the force, crime A, B2)

Police corruption=h (Crime rates, reporting of crime A, B3)

Each category of the equations above consists of exogenous variables A, which are universal to all statements. Exogenous variables B are particular to each equation. In other words, variables B refer to those tools that assist the researcher to classify the systematic factors.

Factors in the exogenous variables X, which affect the operations of police in each state may include low incomes and inequality in terms of salaries, the level of education attained by officers and ethnic/racial disparities. Scholars view these factors to be responsible for crime. Results expected after measuring these variables would: the rates of crime increase when inequalities increase. Furthermore, urbanization and racial disparities tend to increase the rates of crime in any city.

In case police officers are taken through rigorous training system with better equipments and clear curriculum, corruption would decrease. The rates of crime would also decrease. In other words, this shows that the crime reporting rates tend to be positively correlated with the level of training. In this regard, it is negatively correlated with the salary inequalities among civil servants.

Urbanization tends to affect crime reporting positively since people are aware of their rights in an urban setting. Ethnicity and racial differences affect crime-reporting practices negatively, especially when communities distrust each other. Consequently, police corruption would definitely reduce in case the population is educated. Corruption is high in case ethnic differences and income inequalities are allowed in society.

In any research study, variables must be measured. The researcher would not have achieved his or her mission in case variables are not measured. In this study, income equality is measured using the Gini coefficient. Furthermore, the level of education is measured using the literacy rate scale.

The researcher opted for the literacy rate scale as opposed to inquiring about the number of years an individual has been attending classes because the former covers many states. Ethnic/racial differences are measured using the ethno-linguistic fractionalization index as suggested by Creswell (2003). According to this measurement instrument, two individuals taken randomly are expected to belong to different ethnic/racial groups.

Moreover, it is a fact that endogenous variables are expected to affect other variables in any research. In this case, it is important to tackle all issues related to corruption in the police force and the issues related to reporting crimes. These variables are used to calculate regression in the equations.

It is surprising that finding appropriate measurement instruments for endogenous variables is problematic. For a variable to be measured, it should be exogenous, correlated with endogenous variables and be in a position to manipulate the dependent variable in any study. The following equations are used to show how exogenous variables play off in research.

B1 (crime) =the extent of punishment, the age of the population, the attitudes of the populace as regards to crime, the provision of the constitution regarding corruption

B2 (crime reporting) =activism, the composition of human organizations

B3 (police corruption) =attitudes of the officers and the public towards bribery and the influence of diplomats and other officers in government with high ranks and political influence

Hypotheses

Every research in social sciences attempts to prove that a specific phenomenon occurs due to a specific reason. Conducting a research is like a walk in the desert without a guiding map to show clear directions that should be taken in order to reach the desired direction.

Hakim (2000) warns that care should be taken by every researcher when conducting a research to ensure that he or she does not wonder off the focus of the study just by the sheer wonder of the research in question. A path should clearly be set, upon which the research would take.

Research hypothesis always provides solution to this. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) define hypothesis as a proposition made by the researcher about the research upon which the research would try to determine if it is true or otherwise. Hypothesis is a kind of a proposal or a guess that the findings of a particular research would be in a particular way.

As Hakim (2000) notes, a research would always have two hypotheses for every single desired result. There is always the null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis. The null hypothesis would always refute the claim by saying that the proposition does not hold. On the other hand, alternative hypothesis would always try to affirm that the proposition set by the researcher holds.

A test would always be conducted on the null hypothesis with an aim of rejecting it. By rejecting a null hypothesis, the research would be accepting the alternative hypothesis. It is always every researchers desire to reject a null hypothesis because when a research accepts a null hypothesis, it would render the whole research unnecessary. It would be rejecting the proposition made by the researcher, a fact that would render the research null and void. The following hypotheses would be designed to guide the research.

H1: Corruption is the police force would possibly lead to higher rates of crime in various parts of the country. This is because criminals are able to buy justice, merit might not be considered in the police force and police forces might turn out to be gangs.

H2: Crime augments corruption in the police force since the level of criminality may infect the police. In this case, the criminals might compromise the police to arrest innocent people in society.

H3: Crime reporting is always expected to reduce the rate at which corruption takes place within the police force. In case a crime is reported, it is impossible for a police officer to set free a criminal. If reported, corrupt officers might be punished by the state.

H4: Cases of corruption in the police force reduces the trust held by the public towards the agencies in charge of law enforcement. This would even discourage the culture of crime reporting.

H5: Reporting criminal activities to the state authorities reduce crimes since lawbreakers fear being caught.

H6: Increased cases of crime tend to discourage the culture of reporting crimes since the people feels demoralized, as criminals are set free. This would lead to cases of mob-justice as the only way of ensuring justice.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approach

Political science and Public Administration investigators generally employ two categories of exploration processes. First is quantitative study, which utilizes mathematical indicators to determine the relative magnitude of a certain political or bureaucratic occurrence. The second category of exploration process is qualitative study, which uses symbols and expressions to point out the occurrence or lack of an event or classify them into various forms.

Quantitative and qualitative annotations offer public administration canvassers a number of ways as regards to Operationalization of concepts and calculation of hypothetical constructs, as well as realistic conception (Crotty, 2003). Whereas quantitative techniques can offer a high level of quantity accuracy and arithmetical supremacy, qualitative techniques can provide a superior intensity of information concerning the nature of administrative progression in a certain study environment.

The well-designed or positivist archetype that steers the quantitative method of analysis is based on the supposition that public truth has an objective ontological configuration and that people react to this objective setting. Data collection in quantitative study is through questionnaire.

The researcher seeks to solicit information by posing questions to the respondents. The major aim of the quantitative prototype is to ensure reliability, validity and generalization of a problem in its patent prediction of cause and effect. Validity is utilized in establishing whether a study measures what it is projected to measure and to estimate the truth of the outcomes. The researcher ensures that both internal and external validities are observed in the study. Internal validity is catered for through careful manipulation of the results.

Qualitative study shares the hypothetical postulations of the interpretative model, which is based on the view that public truth is shaped and upheld through personal knowledge. Qualitative investigators are apprehensive in their investigations while trying to precisely illustrate, translate and understand the meanings of occurrences taking place in their normal public perspectives.

Qualitative researchers are focused on scrutinizing the difficulty, legitimacy, collective subjectivity of the investigator and the respondent as well as minimization of misapprehension (Russell & Ryan, 2009). Data collection methods include observation and use of interviews. Observation allows the researcher to analyze the causes of human behavior. Validity in qualitative research is ensured through triangulation of methods, techniques and tools.

This study employed a quantitative approach in order to arrive at strong results and conclusions. While quantitative techniques may function well in separating and categorizing the correlates linked to discrepancy at particular periods, qualitative methods are mainly superior at achieving insight as regards to processes and actions that causes practical deviation and have the main benefit of giving sudden insight.

Creswell and other scholars made intuitive theoretical structure pertaining to mixed methods, mainly concerning issues of excellence (Creswell, 2003). Mixed methods not only enlarge the study toolbox, they as well offer the chance for fusion of study customs and offer the researcher extra viewpoints and insights that are past the span of any solitary method.

Research Design

There were two key methods used to gather information in this report. The first one was through a questionaire, which was administered online to the staff at police department. The questionaire sought to capture various attutudes of staff at the police department regarding their performance and isses related to corruption.

The second source of information used for the research was literature on various aspects motivation. The focus of the literature review was to find information on the application of corruption determent techniques and also to determine the current state of research in the use of curruption prevention instruments.

The questionnaire had four Parts. The first part sought to capture the biodata information of respondents. The second part dealt with the demography and gender of the respondents. This was to ascertain the prevalence of views in varoius categories in order to ensure that if any differences came about, then they would be captured in their demographic space.

The third part dealt with academic credentials and work experience. The motivation for this section came from the understanding that different sections of population respond differently to motivators, based on age and academic credentials. The fourth part delved into the specific issues relating to curruption, starting from the understanding of the concept to the possible effects it would have on police officers (Leedy, & Ormrod, 2005).

The questionaire also employed a mix of open ended and closed ended questions to capture different aspects of issues studied. Open ended questions were used because thay give respondents more time to figure out their opinions, which would make them volunteer more information related to feelings, outlooks and comprehension of the subject. This would allow the researcher to understand the position of respondents as regards to feelings.

Open ended questions minimize some errors that could have been created in the course of research. Respondents rarely forget answers if given an opportunity to respond freely. Furthermore, respondents cannot ignore some questions because they must go through all of them. Open ended questions generate data that can be used in data analysis by other researchers. In other words, they allow secondary data analysis. On the other hand, closed-ended questions are analyzed easily. That is why they were used in this study.

Each response can be coded for statistical interpretation. Nonetheless, closed-ended questions are compatible with computer analysis package. The technique is more specific meaning that its answers are consistent in all conditions. This aspect is impossible with open-ended questions because each respondent is allowed to use his or her own words. Finally, closed-ended questions take less time to administer unlike open-ended questions, which are detailed hence time consuming.

The questionnaire was sent to respondents through the internet that is, the researcher mailed the questions to respective police respondents. The researcher arrived at this decision after considering time and reseources.

The method is costless and less time consuming. Furthmore, the method allows respondents to reflect on the questions and answer them accurately. Employing research assistants would be problematic because of the sensitivity of the study.

Many people would be reluctant to give their views freely. The method is ineffective because answers are not independent. The respondent might not have filled the questions him or herself. Moreover, the method is affected by the respondent’s level of literacy. One big disadvantage of the technique is that there is no interaction between the researcher and the researched.

This means that respondent’s reactions are not captured. Reactions are important because they give more information regarding to the feelings of respondents. Generally, the technique is more applicable where the researcher is interested in numbers, not deep feelings of the respondent. In this study, the researcher is interested in identifying the number of employees who feel performance related pay is the suitable method of stimulating employees.

The use of the questionaire made it possible to capture issues that are unique to the department of police. This is because there was no accessible literature with required degree of relevence to the subject matter about the department of police. The targeted staff responded to the questionaire online.

The availability of staff influenced the choice of this method because the police operates throughout and therefore it is not possible at any one time to find all officers in one place. An online questionaire reduced the costs of data collection, assured confidentiality, and was available throughout for the staff for a fixed period. After collection, the data went through analysis, culminating to the conclusions and findings discussed in the subsequent sections of this paper.

Findings

Through analysis, it was estblished that police corruption in the US is caused by a number of reasons. Furthermore, respondents argued that some policies should be formulated to contain the vice, which is very common in the force. It was found out that corruption in the police force is caused by cultural practices among the members of the force.

This is what some police chiefs referred to as “the bad or rotten apples”. The rotten apples are mostly weak individuals who might have entered the force through corruption hence failing to go through the usual screening process. Going by the views of police chiefs, only a few individuals are corrupt in the police force. Contrary to the opinion of police chiefs, critics of the force claim that the whole force is rotten.

It can also be established that irresistible chances offered to police officers make them corrupt. These factors include low wages and salaries, pessimism sorrounding the pay system and promotion, socialization process in the police force, political culture in various states that support corruption, non-reproting of crimes among the public and ineffective leadership on the side of government. The constituion gives the police a blank check as regards to individual freedom. This makes the public seek for an alternative way of compromizing the work of police.

Peratning to solutions to the problem of corruption in the police force, respondents gave various views. Some members respondents underscored the fact that police corruption have numerous effects in society.

Firstly, it affects public trust where the members of public try to use unscrupulous means of obtaining justice such as mob-justice. Furthermore, other organs of government tend to ape the behavior of police officers. Therefore, the findings of the research suggest that the main way through corruption can be avoided is offering police officers a good salary package.

Furthermore, the federal government, in collaboration with various states, should come up with training programs aiming at instiling ethics to the officers. Furthermore, the research reveals that police officers tend to shy away from misconduct in places where they are new. Therefore, the federal government should always ensure that tranfers are held after every six months. Finally, the government at both levels should come up with departments that handle public complains.

Conclusion

Corruption in the police service is a problem that has existed since time in memorial. It is found in almost all police departments. In society, lawa enforcers have the responsibility of ensuring that justice is achieved. The police agency holds the trust of the public. However, research shows that the trust can be lost in case police officers engage in corruption. This would lead to cases of non-reporting, which might even even crimes in the country.

It is therefore advisable that the police department handles the issue of corruption with the seriousness that it deserves. In case an officer is suspected to have engaged in corruption, thorough, independent, and credible investigations should be conducted. The state has the sole responsibility of ensuring that the security of citizens is mainatined at all costs. Corrupt officials should not be allowed to serve in any public office.

References

Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Crotty, M. (2003). The Foundations of Social Research: meaning and perspective in the research process. London: Sage.

Giuliani, R. (1995). Police Strategy No.7: Rooting Out Corruption; Building Organizational Integrity in the New York Police Department. New York: New York Police Department.

Goldstein, H. (1975). Police Corruption: A perspective on its nature. Washington: Police Foundation.

Hakim, C 2000, Research Design: Sucessful Designs for Social and Economic Research, Routledge, New York.

Klockars, C. (2000). The Measurement of Police Integrity. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice.

Leedy, P., & Ormrod, J. (2005). Practical Research: Planning and Design. Prentice Hall: Pearson.

Rozella, F. (2003). Fighting Police Abuse: A Community Action Manual. ACLU Department of Public Education, 3(1).

Russell, B., & Ryan, G. (2009). Analyzing Qualitative Data: Systematic Approaches. London: Sage.

Inefficient Public Policy in Sub-Sahara Africa

An efficient public policy in Sub-Saharan Africa stands as an elusive solution to mismanagement of resources amid chronic poverty. In an age when the rise of Africa to the middle-income status looks imminent, authorities must invest efforts to provide solutions in public policy.

Corruption that stifles development and the culture of impunity thriving across Sub-Saharan Africa must subside if the gains of imminent rise will suffice. Authorities must make efforts in curbing corruption and supporting reforms in social norms by providing necessary facilitation. In this regard, prominent anticorruption steps suitable for prescription, strengthening institutions, civil service, and economic reforms must appear in the public sector.

Strengthening Public Institutions

Public institutions suffer the blunt of corruption and impunity from an inefficient public service system. Therefore, weaker regulations must pave the way to vibrant systems that add value to the economies in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Political processes enshrined in democratic values of integrity and accountability must continue to shape the institutional framework in the region. Instability in political transition across many jurisdictions in the region poses inherent weakness in public institutions due to the vacuum in political goodwill (Okogbule 92). The author proposes effective civilian administration with strong democratic systems such as legislation for laws curbing corruption.

Civil Service Reform

Corruption thrives in the absence of checks and balances occasioned by a vibrant civil society, making civil services a necessity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Democratic space witnessed in the west supports the civil service activities that facilitate constant checks in the public sector. Cases of corruption subside in an environment with a vibrant civil service, which must guide reforms needed in Sub-Saharan Africa (Fearon 114).

Unionism and activism for various reform issues, especially with regard to integrity and accountability will prove influential in introducing reforms. Gains achieved among emerging democracies in Sub-Saharan Africa such as Kenya and Ghana rest in the hands of civilian watch. Therefore, involvement of civilians in transformation of the society will continue to provide desired social changes devoid of corrupt tendencies (Otusanya 176).

Economic Reforms

Economic processes in Sub-Saharan Africa require transformations to correspond with the rest of the global economy. In view of the needed economic reforms, bottlenecks in economies must not stand in the way of elimination of corruption opportunities. Bureaucracies provide bottlenecks in the smooth running of economic policies, which creates leakages of national resources into pockets of a few individuals.

Trade tariffs, on the other hand, restrict free trade among Sub-Saharan Africa nations, opening routes for lucrative contraband dealings among corrupt officials. Unified markets and fewer restrictions in the region continue to evade realization of open business opportunities for African nations. Corrupt trade officials taking charge of inefficient systems pose an enormous challenge in the introduction of credible practices to benefit the entire region.

In the case of Sierra Leone, one of the strongest challenge facing social change and accountability perhaps, relates to the lack of strong institutions. The lack of strong anti-corruption institutions conspicuously manifests in the lack of support from enforcement environment in different corruption loopholes. As studies conducted by Rodgers (268) indicate, illegal mining and dealing in gold occasioned the gruesome rebel war in Sierra Leone.

In view of the inefficiencies witnessed in the illegal diamonds trade, prescription for sufficient remedy comes from the presence of institutional oversight. Political and civil institutions in Sierra Leone could stop the escalation of illegal trade to a full-blown rebel war. The choice of this prescription supports the premise that strong institutional background will stop illegal trade processes at some stage and eliminate corruption.

Works Cited

Fearon, D. James. “International Financial Institutions and Economic Policy Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Modern African Studies 26. 1(1988): 113-137. Print

Okogbule, S. Nlerum. “An Appraisal of the Legal and Institutional Framework for Combating Corruption in Nigeria.” Journal of Financial Crime 13.1(2006): 92-106. Print

Otusanya, J. Olatunde. “An Investigation of the Financial Criminal Practices of the Elite in Developing Countries: Evidence from Nigeria.” Journal of Financial Crime 19.2(2012): 175-206. Print

Rodgers, J. Elizabeth. “Conflict Diamonds: Certification and Corruption: A Case Study of Sierra Leone.” Journal of Financial Crime 13.3(2006): 267-276. Print

Introduction

Corruption is a highly widespread phenomenon, which normally occurs in the situations of political and social dominance of one individual over another and when regulations and policies poorly function. This definition applies to the case of police corruption since law enforcement officers can exercise both legal and physical power to gain personal and financial benefits at the expense of citizens. Noteworthily, along with other types of corruption, police corruption is considered to be more common in less developed and less democratic countries (Aymaliev & Kosals, 2016). A possible reason for such an outcome is that less democratic states provide greater opportunities for involvement in corruption due to administrational failures to deal with the problem.

As a developing democracy, Russia has high corruption levels that have been reported in numerous international studies (Gerber & Mendelson, 2008; Semukhina & Reynolds, 2013). Acknowledging the severity of the problem, president Dmitry Medvedev began a process of police reform in 2011 aimed “to improve the work of Internal Affairs Authorities of the Russian Federation” (Gladarev, 2012, para. 1; Galeotti, 2012).

While many researchers question the results of the introduced initiatives, the causes for the insignificant effect of the recent Russian police reform remain understudied. Therefore, the present research project will explore the determinants of police corruption that the reform aimed to target from the perspective of institutional theory, which captures both individual and organizational factors of corruption. The police reform in Russia will also be contrasted with measures undertaken with a purpose to curb police corruption in other countries, including Australia and Georgia.

Research Question

Which individual, institutional, and organizational factors of corruption did Medvedev’s 2011 police reform target, and how successful was it in eliminating the practice of corruption among law enforcement officers in Russia compared to other states?

Aims

To evaluate the factors of in/effectiveness of Medvedev’s 2011 police reform while contrasting the undertaken measures with those from other countries (Australia and Georgia).

Objectives

The formulated research aim will be achieved by meeting the following objectives:

• to critically evaluate the existing literature on factors predisposing individuals and public bodies to corruption by focusing on the institutional theory perspective.
• to appraise the literature on the police system in Russia, identifying its inefficiencies that could be linked to a high prevalence of corruption among law enforcement officers.
• to evaluate the existing literature on anti-corruption measures in several countries with varying police corruption levels while applying the institutional theory perspective.
• to conduct a comparative analysis of findings on the efficacy of anti-corruption measures in Russia and other selected states.
• to discuss the implications of the carried-out analysis with the purpose to provide some practical recommendations.

Why Is Research Worth Doing?

Corruption has multiple harmful effects at many levels: individual, social, and economic. When speaking of police corruption, it increases the vulnerability of citizens to unjust treatment and leads to significant individual and public distrust in police (Lewis, 2017; Tankebe, 2010). In its turn, a low level of trust prevents community members from collaborating with law enforcement personnel, which undermines the ability of police to solve crimes (Tankebe,2010). These negative effects of corruption indicate that there is a need to find ways to curb this phenomenon to increase the effectiveness of law enforcement activities and promote community resilience.

One of the best ways to attain this goal is through the investigation of factors determining corrupt behaviors and the analysis of real-life cases. By applying the concepts of the institutional theory of corruption and evaluating the experience of Russia, the present research will aim to elucidate which measures can be efficient in combating police corruption. As a result of critical and comparative analysis, it will be possible to identify some policy implications that could be considered while re-designing anti-corruption regulations in Russia. The findings of the proposed research could also be applied to the experiences of other countries.

Literature Review

Key Literature

The reasons why a former Russian president, Dmitry Medvedev, decided to implement a police reform were the ineffectiveness of law enforcement services in the country and a strong public distrust. As stated by Galeotti (2012), local and international human rights organizations received about 5000 complaints every year on the cases of power abuse by police officers, including torture and bribes. Predatory policing is regarded as one of the most common types of power abuse by Russian law enforcement officers. This term is synonymous with bribery since it implies the use of authority with the purpose to maximise personal gain (Chistyakova & Robertson, 2012).

According to Light, Prado, and Wang (2015), predatory behaviors among Russian police officers are primarily motivated by officers’ self-interests of financial character rather than by the interests of those in higher professional and political positions. In line with this observation, the police reform initiated in 2011 mainly aimed to address the financial interests of law enforcement personnel.

Before 2011, the average monthly wage of police officers in Russia was low. At that time, it equaled approximately 600 EUR but, after the reform, increased to at least 1000 USD per month (Gladarev, 2012; Semukhina, 2014). Internal assessment and promotion systems have also changed to increase accountability, eliminate incompetent team members, and improve policing effectiveness (Semukhina, 2014). However, regardless of the undertaken measures, it is considered that Medvedev’s reform did not lead to desired results.

While the introduced initiatives helped to increase the level of job satisfaction among law enforcement officers, there is no evidence that the level of police corruption has declined in Russia (Semukhina, 2014). According to Kakachia and O’Shea (2012), the level of public fear and distrust in the police did not change as well. At the same time, police reform that was undertaken in Georgia after 2003 helped to increase both police effectiveness and the overall public image of law enforcement personnel (Kakachia & O’Shea, 2012).

As stated by Kakachia and O’Shea (2012), the main reason for that was the alignment of Georgian police reforms with the overall state-building and political renovation efforts that took place during the Rose Revolution. That period was associated with significant cultural and regulatory changes in Georgia, and they could contribute to the success of changes in the local police system as well.

When comparing the recent Russian police reform with the case of Australia, Aymaliev and Kosals (2016) also suggested that the overall political culture and excessive bureaucratic pressure could inhibit the attempts to curb corruption. To achieve better outcomes, Russian police may need to eliminate institutional distortions, implement community policing, enhance hiring practices and accountability (Aymaliev & Kosals, 2016; Kakachia & O’Shea, 2012). However, to make decisive conclusions and recommendations, further research of causes for the ineffectiveness of the Russian reform is required.

Key Theories

Traditional corruption models primarily look at the problem from an economic perspective. However, classic theories of corruption that focus on individuals’ self-interest and regulative factors have been unsuccessful in explaining the phenomenon of corruption fully and suggesting strategies aimed to eliminate it (Pillay, 2014). According to one of the rational choice perspectives on corruption, the principal-agent approach, major parties: the citizen, the principal (the government), and the agent (a public official) who connects the former two parties (Pillay, 2014).

Agents frequently enjoy the monopoly of power yet their inclinations towards corrupt exchanges depend on the degree of their freedom of action in exercising the power, as well as the strength of information barriers between them and the principal (Pillay, 2014). It means that corruption takes place when agents have a substantial level of control and freedom in decision-making and when strict accountability measures are absent.

The principal-agent perspective seems to be valid, yet it does not fully take into account factors that serve as moral constraints or facilitators towards one’s engagement in corrupt exchanges. In its turn, the institutional theory of corruption explains corrupt behaviors while focusing on different environmental (organizational and institutional) factors leading to or inhibiting fraudulent behaviors. According to the model created by Luo (2005), the level of agents’ involvement in corruption is determined by a combination of behavioral, structural, and cultural determinants.

When developing his theory, Luo (2005) primarily focused on the elements in the task environment (oligopoly, regulatory control, and structural uncertainty) and the institutional environment (institutional transparency, fairness, and complexity) and proposed that with changes in any of them, employees’ involvement in fraudulent behaviors either increases or decreases. For example, when task uncertainty, institutional injustice, misunderstanding of regulations, and other of the mentioned environmental elements intensify, employees feel more pressure to engage in corruption.

Based on the abovementioned explanation, effective anti-corruption measures should target structural and regulatory systems in organizations. At the same time, Luo (2005), Sudibyo and Jianfu (2015), and Misangyi, Weaver, and Elms (2008) indicate that organizational culture plays a vital role in preventing immoral behaviors of employees. Organizational culture is defined as “the tradition where decision-making is morality-based;” it comprises a multitude of values, norms, and behavioral standards that either encourage or discourage any form of unethical decisions and actions among team members (Sudibyo & Jianfu, 2015, p. 819; Misangyi, Weaver, & Elms, 2008).

Thus, to understand corruption from the institutional perspective, it is not enough to evaluate only the organizational architecture and regulatory system. It is also essential to take into account the cultural dynamics of corruption since they affect individual behaviors to a large extent.

Gaps in Knowledge

While the reviewed studies indicate that Medvedev’s reform resulted in small or no changes in terms of corruption incidence among police employees, they did not provide a comprehensive overview of factors that could determine a low level of the reform’s impacts. Some of the studies focused on the review of general political culture and changes in macro-regulations as part of police reform (Kakachia & O’Shea, 2012), while others criticized the inefficiency of internal organizational practices and structures, including human resource management and accountability (Aymaliev & Kosals, 2016).

Nevertheless, a comprehensive overview of the matter did not take place. Additionally, although articles comparing the experience of Russia with countries that were more successful in curbing police corruption are available, previously no research was conducted to evaluate the 2011 police reform in Russia from the institutional theory perspective and to identify a specific individual, institutional, and organizational determinants of corruption. Thus, the proposed study will aim to unify the existing sporadic evidence on the topic of interest, while also analyzing the issue from an original theoretical perspective to develop new knowledge and, in this way, contribute to the existing body of literature.

Methodology

Primary Method

Considering the infeasibility of collecting primary data on the topic of police corruption in Russia, the proposed study will utilize merely the secondary data gathered from various high-quality academic and governmental sources. Due to the chosen data type, the main study method that will be employed in this research project is a literature review, which involves a comprehensive and critical analysis of available and relevant information on a matter of interest.

In general, the main objectives of this methodology are the evaluation of relationships and associations between different variables and trends identified in the literature, and the detection of various gaps and controversies in the existing body of research (Charles Sturt University, 2019). Overall, the chosen approach is expected to serve as a basis for an in-depth interpretation of evidence on the content and effectiveness of the Russian police reform.

It is, however, worth noting that a traditional literature review may not be enough to draw valid conclusions regarding the chosen problem since the method usually has the purpose of merely providing an insight into the current knowledge. According to Snyder (2019), traditional or narrative literature reviews may frequently be insufficiently thorough and rigorous. Therefore, to increase the quality of findings, a more systematic approach to the review of evidence must be utilized.

Systematic literature reviews imply the evaluation of primarily quantitative and empirical studies located by using strict and narrowly focused inclusion criteria and, thus, allow gathering evidence about effects that has practical and policymaking implications (Snyder, 2019). Nevertheless, since the number of accessible empirical studies on the effectiveness of police reform in Russia is currently small, the integrative literature review approach will be employed.

Unlike the systematic review, integrative reviews assist in the research of topics that have been previously investigated across disparate disciplines and do not require the selection of only empirical research articles in the sample (Snyder, 2019). Besides allowing the identification of various themes in literature, this type of review provides an opportunity “to overview the knowledge base, to critically review and potentially re-conceptualize, and to expand on the theoretical foundation of the specific topic as it develops” (Snyder, 2019, p. 336). Another considerable advantage of integrative reviews is that they can address emerging and under-researched topics (Snyder, 2019).

Overall, the method allows for a more creative way of data collection and combination and synthesis of knowledge from distinct fields. An expected outcome of the given approach is the development of fresh insight into the new topic of study, that is the factors of (in)effectiveness of police reform in Russia.

Analytical Approach

Patterns in evidence that will be detected through the integrative literature review will be analyzed with the help of the thematic analysis approach. Thematic analysis is traditionally employed in qualitative study designs and comprises several steps. Besides becoming familiar with evidence and data located for the study, as part of the analysis process, researchers are expected to generate and define themes (Scharp & Sanders, 2018). After that, one must select the appropriate exemplars from the datasets.

Themes as such can be defined as certain commonalities in reviewed information from disparate sources. In the present research project, the themes and categories will be primarily defined by using the concepts derived from the institutional theory of corruption. This theoretical framework will then guide the location of relevant exemplars (pieces of evidence) from the selected articles, as well as the process of categorization of major ideas related to the matter of interest.

Overall, the thematic analysis framework will be employed both to make the review of literature more coherent and to synthesize the theoretical concepts with evidence retrieved from the chosen primary sources. It may be argued that as a result of such an approach, it will be possible to make meaningful and credible conclusions regarding the factors inhibiting or determining the success of the anti-corruption reform in Russia.

Search Strategy

It is valid to say that within a few past decades, international researchers conducted and published a large number of materials on Russian police. According to Gladarev (2012), some of the most frequently covered themes in those studies are citizens’ attitudes towards police, police corruption, and human rights violations. Therefore, it will be relatively easy to locate background information on the topic. However, the number of publications on the effects of the recent police reform in Russia may not be that big, and the scarcity of empirical data may affect the final quality of study findings.

The total sample for the study will comprise at least twenty articles, and approximately half of them will be dedicated to the analysis of the effectiveness of anti-corruption policies in Russia and other states. To find the necessary materials and data sets, only online sources will be used, including such databases as JSTOR, ProQuest, and EBSCO. These databases provide access to a significant number of peer-reviewed and full-text scholarly articles on a great variety of subjects and areas of knowledge. A few examples of journals that contain the necessary evidence for the proposed research and that can be located through the identified databases are The Journal of Power Institutions in Post-Soviet Societies, Law & Society Review, and Policy and Society. More databases may be searched further to locate additional sources and increase the variety of materials to select from.

Keywords and Eligibility Criteria

To locate the relevant studies, the following keywords and key phrases will be used: “police corruption in Russia,” “Medvedev’s police reform effects,” and “2011 police reform in Russia.” The studies that will be included in the review are published within the period of the last twenty years. They focus on the evaluation of the Russian police system in terms of corruption, analysis of reform content and effects, and comparison of policy measures in various countries. While the preference will be given to empirical studies, secondary studies and literature reviews will be considered eligible for the present research as well due to a limited number of publicly available articles dedicated to the exploration of the effectiveness of Medvedev’s police reform.

Ethical Considerations

Every research project conducted with the use of human subjects requires a preliminary ethical review and approval by a human research ethics committee. Such measures are necessary to prevent any harm to study participants, show respect to people involved, and ensure research integrity (Newson & Lipworth, 2015). Therefore, elimination of any potentially unethical components from the study design ensures a better quality of procedures and, consequently, higher credibility and validity of findings.

When it comes to a research project that does not require the use of human subjects, a full ethical review is not needed. When utilizing data published by others, a researcher usually does not have access to sensitive and confidential information and, therefore, there is no risk of harm to anybody’s identity (Tripathy, 2013). However, while using such types of data, it is still essential to comply with ethical codes and principles. Firstly, the ownership of the original evidence must always be acknowledged since plagiarism is a major sign of researchers’ unprofessionalism (Tripathy, 2013).

Secondly, it is important to critically evaluate the retrieved data in terms of ethics and accuracy because any problems of that character may compromise the quality and trustworthiness of final research findings (Tripathy, 2013). Overall, work under ethical codes is a basic prerequisite for research fairness and integrity regardless of whether one collects empirical data or not. Thus, in the present study, authorship will be respected and publicly available information will be utilized responsibly.

Timetable

References

Aymaliev, I., & Kosals, L. (2016). Applying Australia’s experience to Russia’s anti-corruption policies in the police: An event structure analysis of an Australian corrupt network. 2016(2), 98-122.

Charles Sturt University. (2019). Literature review: traditional or narrative literature reviews. Web.

Chistyakova, C., & Robertson, A. (2012). YouTube cops and power without limits: Understanding police violence in 21st century Russia. Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, (13). Web.

Galeotti, M. (2012). Purges, power and purpose: Medvedev’s 2011 police reforms. Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, (13). Web.

Gerber, T., & Mendelson, S. (2008). Public experiences of police violence and corruption in contemporary Russia: A case of predatory policing? Law & Society Review, 42(1), 1-44.

Gladarev, B. (2012). Russian police before the 2010-2011 reform: A police officer’s perspective. Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, (13). Web.

Kakachia, K., & O’Shea, L. (2012). Why does police reform appear to have been more successful in Georgia than in Kyrgyzstan or Russia? Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, (13). Web.

Lewis J. (2017). Social impacts of corruption upon community resilience and poverty. Jamba, 9(1), 1-8.

Light, M., Prado, M. M., & Wang, Y. (2015). Policing following political and social transitions: Russia, Brazil, and China compared. Theoretical Criminology, 19(2), 216-238.

Luo, Y. (2005). An organisational perspective of corruption. Management and Organisation Review, 1(1), 119-154.

Misangyi, V. F., Weaver, G. R., & Elms, H. (2008). Ending corruption: The interplay among institutional logics, resources, and institutional entrepreneurs. Academy of Management Review, 33(3), 750-770.

Newson, A. J., & Lipworth, W. (2015). Why should ethics approval be required prior to publication of health promotion research? Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 26(3), 170-175.

Pillay, S. (2014). An institutional theory perspective on corruption: The case of a developing democracy. In S. Pillay (Ed.), Development: Corruption in South Africa (pp. 77-104). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Scharp, K. M., & Sanders, M. L. (2018). What is a theme? Teaching thematic analysis in qualitative communication research methods. Communication Teacher, 33(2), 117-121.

Semukhina, O. (2014). From militia to police: The path of Russian law enforcement reforms. Russian Analytical Digest, 2014(151), 2-5.

Semukhina, O., & Reynolds, K. M. (2013). Russian citizens perceptions of corruption and trust of the police. Policing and Society, 24(2), 158-188.

Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333-339.

Sudibyo, Y. A., & Jianfu, S. (2015). Institutional theory for explaining corruption: An empirical study on public sector organisations In China and Indonesia. Corporate Ownership and Control, 13(1), 817-823.

Tankebe, J. (2010). Public confidence in the police: Testing the effects of public experiences of police corruption in Ghana. The British Journal of Criminology, 50(2), 296-319.

Tripathy J. P. (2013). Secondary data analysis: Ethical issues and challenges. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 42(12), 1478-1479.

Introduction

The contemporary world experiences sharp contradictions between corruption and integrity dominance in society. These two phenomena are considered to be of great importance in the contemporary global economy. It should be stressed that a lot of modern national companies suffer serious cultural problems connected with corruption issues. Corruption distorts government policy away from the population interests and its principle goals and as a result it leads to the waste of resources. The efforts and energies of citizens and public officials are directed to easy money rather than productive activities. Corruption can be observed in any country of the world but it reaches the most devastating effects within economies being highly developed hindering possible advances in democracy and economic growth.

The Most Corrupt Countries: Iraq and Afghanistan

Corruption takes place in almost half the world’s countries being completely intensifying and affecting nearly all the spheres of human activities. The forms of corruption can be quite different; they can cover judicial systems and the police together with business contracts enforcement and commercial litigation. Iraq and Afghanistan are considered to be among the most corrupt world countries.

Iraq is regarded to be the third most corrupt country according to the statistic research carried out by Transparency International group. In the territory of the Middle East this country takes the first place in corruption; the analysis of the corruption issues in the country carried out based on recent tragedy happening to Radhi al-Radhi being responsible for anti-corruption strategies of the country. He had to flee Iraq for the US a year ago; the investigations carried out showed that this step was taken for family escape. The US government puppet al-Maliki squirreling away billions of dollars and London and Switzerland real estate holdings; his assassins appeared to be rather brutal and 12 investigators of al-Radhi, being the Head Public Integrity Commission in Iraq, were found being tortured and murdered having drill holes in bodies. This example proves the development of corruption in Iraq covering every sphere of people’s life and activities and being especially popular among the officials and governmental representatives. The level of corruption in Iraq is merely natural and advanced by the puppet Maliki regime. It should be stressed that the Iraqi level of corruption is closely connected with oil production being turned over to foreign companies by the Maliki regime. As a result the country failed to account for its revenues properly and managed to ignore the most principle account procedures. The research of Iraq’s anti-corruption system has shown that all the steps of the developed program are aimed at corruption stimulation rather than the opposite. The government of Iraq siphoned about 23$ billion; about five percent of Iraq’s financial funds are transferred to intended recipients while all the rest money is put in the pockets of the governmental representatives (Madsen, 2008).

Similar situation of corruption development can be observed in Afghanistan. The score of this country is about 2.5 according to Transparency International. Corruption is considered to be a growing problem and the country’s economy is the principal source for it. Nevertheless some other factors are influencing the spreading of corruption such as international assistance inflows and pressures connected with the quick spending of money. The level of corruption is connected with the governmental roles in various regulations and service delivery. Taking into account the political system of the country one should stress that despite its progressive development the risk of political corruption is rather high. The effects of corruption in Afghanistan are very serious being connected with security forces victimization and intimidation, various financial threats:

• Higher costs of public services and international contracts;
• Misuse and theft of government assets and facilities resulting in public funds loss.
• Corruption is considered to be a critical issue in Afghanistan as well as in Iraq. This problem caused the development of various strong building blocks aimed at corruption solutions. Some of the methods of problem solving are:
• The establishment of anti-corruption agencies;
• The growth of fiduciary standards;
• The development of measures based on sound management promotion within the countries;
• Strategies aimed at investigation of various individual corruption cases for their prevention in the future. (Stanikzai, 2008)

The nature of the corruption problem lies in deep understanding of its context and dynamics. The governments of the countries are to solidify commitment against the problem; it is of great importance to carry out basic cross-cutting reforms reducing the level of corruption: judicial reform, external accountability strengthening, public administration reform and counter-narcotics strategy. All these steps together with international support fostering would result in a rapid reduction in corruption development.

It is important to underline the fact that corruption leads to the instabilities not only of private and public sectors but also of the security ones. Over the last years the problem of corruption appeared to be a part of a triad containing such components as opium economy, corruption itself and terrorism. All these factors result in national instability and unpredictable situation developing in the countries where the problem is especially centralized (Corruption Survey, 2008).

The Least Corrupt Countries: Denmark and Finland

According to the latest survey conducted by Transparency International the least corrupt countries are considered to be Denmark and Finland. The analyzed situation in these states is brilliant: both of them have stable economies and are almost corruption free on the international level.

Denmark takes the first place among the countries being the least corrupt. The deep analysis of the country shows this it is one of the most peaceful and favorable for investing in Europe. The development of state economy is in the high level but despite this the only problems faced by Denmark are closely connected with population growth and climate change. The control of water resources is fulfilled through the world corruption. It should be noted that Denmark developed extensive water technology know-how; it main strategies are aimed at the development of new technology for the purpose of clean water providing, waste water purifying and flooding forecasting. All these factors make the country be favorable for foreign investors perceiving it as a beneficial business sector. The absence of corruption attracts international companies for cooperation providing positive business conditions for international operations.

It is an open secret that corruption is the basic threat to the economical development, business practices and democratic processes. The level of corruption in Finland is very low. It is connected with the fact that the country is small enough, only 5,3 million people. According to the data provided by Transparency International Finnish society is one of the most corrupt free though having high ratings. It can be explained by general welfare of the country where the principle model of the population has tax revenues maintenance and is comprehensive being directed at the welfare of all the citizens. (Corruption Survey, 2008)

The increase of corruption can be observed in case ethical codes and guidelines are not clearly stated or not followed. It should be noted that countries with low level of corruption may face some problems in ethical values stability. Thus, perfect administration of the state is to represent opposition to mismanagement and misbehavior taking into account ethical principles of the society. Ethical values are aimed at control of the corruption promotion within the society. The basic principle for the country government is to get trust of the nation for the corruption being not developed. Taken into account this fact one can observe certain contradictions in the analysis of the least corrupt countries. Finland and Denmark researches carried out by central governmental institutions showed that the population of the states criticized the public servants’ professional ethics. The Government and the judicial systems of the countries appeared to be the least trusted by the population. As a result the countries suffer the codes violations. The anti-corruption mechanisms of the states are aimed at recovering of political and governmental ethical norms in the society. (Salminen, 2008)

The civil service integrity is the background of corruption control system. In case integrity is not supported by management and civil servants correspond to the following criteria, the low corruption level can threaten to public organizations:

• The office requirements are not followed;
• The capacity of self distinguishing from office is completely lost;
• Lack of pay and respect;

For example, the low corruption in Finland is based on the traditions of Russian and Scandinavian cultures. The Finnish political system and public service is merely dominated by legal professions and lawyers. Scandinavian contribution to the Finnish ethics lies in compassion and uniformity connected with the establishment of the welfare state.

It is important to underline the fact that the least corrupt countries such as Denmark and Finland have beneficial positions in the economical development though they contain some ethical problems in the society in comparison with such countries as Iraq and Afghanistan being the most corrupt in the world. (Corruption Survey, 2008)

Conclusion

The analysis of the corruption system in the world has shown that corruption refers to the sharpest dangers for the economy of any country. It should be stressed that the corruption is especially intensive in the countries with high developed economy; though in poor countries the development of corruption can mean “the expression of life and death difference.” The establishment of anti-corruption mechanisms is greatly needed for the balancing spheres of human activities. The comparative analysis of the most corrupt countries such as Afghanistan and Iraq with the least corrupt ones – Denmark and Finland – proved that the level of ethical norms formation and governmental ability to run the country depend on the way it fights corruption. Free corrupt countries are of greater interests for the international partners and stimulate the development of economical fields.

References

1. Madsen, W. 2008. Iraq is now the third most corrupt country in the world. Online Journal Contributing Writer.
2. Stanikzai, A. B. 2008. Corruption and Warlordism: A critical review of Corruption situation in Afghanistan. RAWA News. Web.
3. Salminen, A. 2008. The control of corruption in Finland. University of Vaasa, Finland.
4. Corruption Survey. 2008.

Introduction

In the culturally diverse settings that characterize the contemporary society, engaging in ethical behavior is crucial for the sake of promoting individual and collective growth and development. However, socio-economic and political vices such as corruption threaten the pace at which parties attain success. For this reason, advocating anti-corruption practices would bolster the move towards a morally upright society (Weaver & Clark, 2015).

Therefore, based on the speaker’s insights, this paper identifies the best practice for combatting the corruption issue that undermines effective interactions in the cross-cultural context that would also enhance personal and career growth. Further, pinpointing the necessary aspects that foster the development of the skill besides assessing the influence of faith and spirituality in the reinforcement of the quality would be the concentration of the paper. Moreover, the paper analyzes the essence of assuming the responsibility of gaining cultural intelligence on the individual’s career development.

The Speaker’s Major Idea

The corruption issue entails fraudulent and dishonest engagements mainly involving bribing individuals in authority. The corruption trend has resulted in the prevalence of discrimination besides other forms of inequalities in the world. For this reason, the culture of corruption has propped up misunderstandings between diverse groups who have incompatible perspectives regarding issues bribes to attain certain objectives and goals.

Notably, the vice has affected various sectors of the modern society as individuals and professionals in different and multiple organizational settings engage in the unethical behavior to pursue their individual interests. Thus, engaging in corrupt activities undermine the realization of a culturally diverse society dominated by equal opportunities for growth and development (Karhunen & Ledyaeva, 2012). Therefore, mitigating the practice is crucial for streamlining the attainment of impartial opportunities for growth and development in the culturally different atmospheres.

In that light, the anti-corruption idea caught my attention significantly owing to its contribution towards the attainment of a morally upright society. Mainly, advocating for the adoption of practices that undermine the growth of the corruption malignancy would ensure that the public contributes to the attainment of good organizational governance in the multiple structures of the socio-economic and political systems. Furthermore, addressing the corruption issue is essential since it raises awareness regarding the individual’s role and responsibility associated with monitoring the conduct of powerful officials.

Besides, the anti-corruption idea improves the participation of the public in decision-making protocols that seek to combat the challenge (Huberts, 2014). Additionally, combatting corruption issue facilitates an understanding of diverse communities and cultures amid the challenges that bar the eradication of corruption. Moreover, the highlighted idea reveals the available tools that enhance equality and thus, mitigate corruption. In this regard, the addressed issue is of the essence in a society that seeks to sustain itself through the prevalence of equality in the culturally sundry settings.

The Relevance of Practicing the Virtue of Integrity to Curb Corruption

In the wake of the unprecedented cases of corruption, upholding the virtue and practice of integrity reinforces the virtue in the attributes of an individual thereby, promoting transparency. Principally, advocating for the embracement of integrity as a way of curtailing the predominance of the corruption trend in the modern society would instill a culture that supports good governance characterized by transparency (Weaver & Clark, 2015). Therefore, upholding the practice of integrity would consent individuals, groups, and communities to conduct their engagements within the acceptable anti-corruption code.

Likewise, the integrity quality plays a significant role in fostering individual growth and development. Importantly, the practice instills a sense of responsibility in the individual to conduct their roles and functions in the most transparent and efficient way in realizing the set objectives and goals (Karhunen & Ledyaeva, 2012). Therefore, executing my professional roles in an environment that branded by culturally different workmates and clients would ensure that I consider their unique and dynamic needs satisfactorily while interacting.

Furthermore, upholding the quality of integrity fosters professional growth since it creates a sense of trust among individuals in the organizational setting. As such, the possibilities of assuming high-level responsibilities increase since seniors and colleagues in the professional environment gain trust in an individual who values integrity.

The development of the integrity practice in the individual skillfully requires the incorporation of several qualities in the individual. Importantly, maintaining honesty by questioning one’s motives besides avoiding excuses is key for building the practice of integrity since it not only allows one to be honest to themselves but also to others. Additionally, staying focused is relevant for sustaining the integrity quality since it ensures that one also stays on track and maintain a balance in the different aspects of their life. Moreover, interacting with people who can influence one positively is essential for fostering a culture of integrity. People of influence inculcate a sense of responsibility besides providing the necessary inspiration for handling individuals from diverse backgrounds ethically (Karhunen & Ledyaeva, 2012).

The Role of Faith and Spirituality in Reinforcing Integrity

Religion and spirituality could also provide the essential inputs necessary for promoting the growth of the quality of integrity. Notably, the world’s entire religions regard integrity as its principle spiritual virtue (Marquette, Pavarala, & Malik, 2014). Essentially, faith and spirituality provide individuals with worldviews that influence the adherents to perceive certain issues in a particular way. Notably, the incorporation of the integrity quality and its practice involves the moral aspect of religion. Mainly most religions associate their deity with morality, and thus, the followers ought to maintain ethical standards in their engagements. In this regard, considering religion and spirituality values could also facilitate the efforts towards combatting the corruption issue.

Faith influences the individual to live within the eternal spiritual laws in a harmonious way. Thus, regarding corruption as a factor that breaks the spirituals laws, the individual strives to conduct their undertakings in a way that would secure their eternity like in the case of Christianity. In Buddhism, for instance, integrity entails acting in a morally upright way by considering the aspects of understanding, though, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration (Pavarala & Malik, 2012). Therefore, faith and spirituality provide the moral guidance requisite for nurturing the quality of integrity, an essential practice for curbing corruption.

In this light, faith and spirituality complement the factors that facilitate the development of integrity including honesty, focus, and association with positive influencers. Therefore, since religion in the various cultures fosters a sense of morality, applying it in anti-corruption initiatives is relevant. As such, besides providing spiritual nourishment, the multiple and different faiths facilitate the realization of a morally upright society and thus, combat corruption.

Cultural Intelligence

Since globalization has influenced the complexity, dynamism, and competitiveness professionals ought to portray cultural intelligence in the modern society that witnesses heightened cases of cross-cultural interactions. Essentially, cultural intelligence infers to the ability of the professional to execute their duties remarkably in varying cultural contexts. Thus, adopting cultural intelligence as a personal responsibility is vital for professional growth in the culturally diverse organizational atmospheres.

Cultural intelligence facilitates the linking of divides and knowledge gaps in the organizational setting (Ang & Van Dyne, 2015). Thus, for professional growth and development to occur, the individual needs to eradicate any issues that undermine harmonious interactions in their professional undertakings. Further, filling the knowledge gaps that undermine an expert’s decision-making capabilities is essential for career advancements. Therefore, the professional needs to assume the responsibility of incorporating cultural intelligence for the creation of harmony and informed cross-cultural interactions.

In the multicultural workplace environments, the establishment of interpersonal relationships and connections is crucial for streamlining the organizational processes (Ang & Van Dyne, 2015). Essentially, interpersonal interactions foster the individual’s professional growth and development since it supports inter-professional and collaborative working. Furthermore, such connections cultivate the creativity and innovativeness of an individual in the organizational resulting in the growth of their career besides improving the performance of the organization. In this regard, the individual needs to assume the responsibility of building their cultural intelligence since it facilitates their ability to incorporate diverse perspectives and resources in their professional undertakings.

Conclusion

Efforts geared towards curbing the prevalence of the corruption issue in the contemporary society hold considerable relevance. Importantly, practicing the virtue of integrity in the cross-cultural interactions is crucial since it ensures that every individual or group experience equal opportunities especially in the organizational setting. As such, nurturing the virtue through the incorporation of honesty, interacting with positive influencers, and upholding religious values among other strategies is crucial for promoting anti-corruption campaigns. Moreover, for the sake of bolstering one’s career growth, assuming the responsibility of developing cultural intelligence holds water.

References

Ang, S., & Van Dyne, L. (2015). Handbook of cultural intelligence. London, UK: Routledge.

Huberts, L. (2014). The Integrity of Governance: What it Is, what We Know, what is Done and where to Go. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Karhunen, P., & Ledyaeva, S. (2012). Corruption distance, anti-corruption laws and international ownership strategies in Russia. Journal of International Management, 18(2), 196-208.

Marquette, H., Pavarala, V., & Malik, K. (2014). Religion and attitudes towards corruption in India: A collective action problem? Development in Practice, 24(7), 854-866.

Pavarala, V., & Malik, K. (2012). Social constructions of religiosity and corruption. Economic and Political Weekly, 47(1), 61-68.

Weaver, R., & Clark, E. (2015). Behavioral ethics, behavioral governance, and corruption in and by organizations. In P. Hardi, P. Heywood & D. Torsello (Eds.), Debates of Corruption and Integrity (pp. 135-158). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Corruption involves a slight deviation from what is expected from an individual, institution, or organization in terms of trying to acquire or sell something without following the required procedure. It is unethical to be corrupt as it involves bending of the engineers’ code of ethics.

I chose this topic because corruption is a moral ill in society, especially among engineers and in the recent past it has led to deadly consequences such as the death of people, destruction of the environment and harm to public health. The vice has grown so deep in society that fighting corruption is a nightmare for both developed and developing countries. It is known that engineers are the drivers of any economy, and thus their involvement in corruption leads to loss of enormous wealth as well as stalling of development.

Corruption does not have any pros to public health and the ecology. It only benefits the individuals practicing the vice as well as their families and cronies since they are the ones who gain from the numerous acts of bribery, kickbacks, and nepotism.

Corruption has many cons as it is a social vice shunned in the engineering fraternity since it goes against the fundamental canons of the engineers’ code of ethics (National Society of Professional Engineers, 2014, Col. 1).

An engineer involved in corruption acts out of deception and does not conduct themselves honorably as required in the engineers’ code. Furthermore, a corrupt engineer is not able to perform their professional obligations in line with the code of ethics since they are influenced in the course of their duties and they may even end up disclosing client information if they are bribed.

More so, an engineer taking part in corruption risks losing their license to practice engineering as well as face legal implications since corruption is identified as a civil crime in many countries and in some instances it is a criminal offense. The fundamental canons of engineering abhor corruption and all the six canons directly discourage any licensed engineer from taking part or promoting acts of corruption (Klitgaard, 2011, p.45).

Corruption causes the construction of poor designs that cause design flaws in an effort to save money. Thus, the engineer may deviate from the original design and end up using cheap counterfeit materials that are not durable in construction. This leads to scientific uncertainty since the design parameters are not followed, and the repercussions are not predictable.

For instance, take a case of constructing an oil pipeline, leakage may take place after some time and pollute the surrounding environment due to the use of substandard pipes. More so, if the pipeline passes underwater leakage can lead to the death of aquatic life, causing an ecological imbalance and severe public health consequences to humans and animals if they consume the water.

Whistleblowers are the people who notice the discrepancies in the designs, construction, and the works conducted by the engineers and inform the public (Senior, 2010, P.56). Their place is like that of a watchdog taking care of the public’s interest. Thus, without such people, human life and the ecological balance are at stake due to increased cases of corruption by engineers who want to get rich quickly.

In conclusion, corruption is unethical as it causes harm to public health, ecology, and nature. It is a vice that should be completely done away with and the punishment of one being de-licensed if found guilty by the engineers’ registration body is not enough to deter corruption. Thus, an engineer should always maintain a high standard of honesty as well as protect public health, safety as well as welfare.

References

1. Klitgaard, R. Controlling Corruption. Berkely, CA: University of California Press, 2011, p.45 (Book)

2. National Society of Professional Engineers, 2014, Col.1. (Online article)

3. Senior, I. (2010). Corruption – The World’s Big C. London, UK: Institute of Economic Affairs, 2010, p.56

Introduction

Corruption does not fit in the singular type of behavior nor does it fit in the common kind of behaviors. According to Jacobs and Anechiarico, the term corruption does not mean that the conduct in question is illegal but it serves the purpose of indicating to the laborer that the act committed is either unethical or immoral (Jacobs and Anechiarico, 1996, p. 3). Different people have different views on ethical and moral behavior hence creating room for argument on the labeling of corruption.

In modern times, public servants have been under scrutiny by the public on matters pertaining to service delivery. This has led to not only following of the laws to the latter but also avoiding the labeling of corruption in their work place. By limiting corruption to a term that is associated with conduct prohibited by law, the question of ambiguity and doubt pertaining to corruption will remain as an issue to tackle.

Corruption can take different forms of acts. Bribery for instance is considered as an official form of corruption. Officials in public offices are more prone to this kind of vice as some of them use their status in the public office for personal and private gains. In addition to this thievery is also described as one of the other form of corruption.

In thievery, the officials tend to misuse or steal government properties for personal gains. These officials go to the extent of committing fraud, undertaking personal work on the job and late arrivals at work while at the same time leaving early (Jacobs and Anechiarico, 1996, p. 3 & 4).

Integrity on the other hand indicates the quality of conducting one’s self by upholding the values, rules, and norms acceptable both politically and in the public domain. Integrity violation has resulted to a number of public misconducts, which include corruption, nepotism, sexual harassment, and bribery. Corruption has recently been described as an umbrella concept. This umbrella covers majority of integrity violation (Fijnaut and Huberts, 2002, p 2).

The least corrupt countries and their trends

According to Transparency international corruption perception index 2009, New Zealand and Denmark were ranked as the countries with the least corruption. According to Tarling, New Zealand has been shaped by its colonial past tradition. This tradition emphasizes gestures such as egalitarian approach and self-help. This hence cements their negative perception towards abuse of power. As a small community, the New Zealanders have the ability to remonstrate if necessary to achieve their point.

In a short summary, New Zealand can be described as a society of educated individuals, which condemns and at the same time does not tolerate unfairness and corruption. This perception plays a major role in maintaining the degree of corruption at minimal levels. Majority of corrupt acts are undertaken as illegal that results from breach of existing criminal laws.

This hence calls into action the New Zealand law enforcers who have the mandate to enforce the criminal law as well as the crimes act to the latter. In addition to this, matters of fraud that are complex in nature and numerous were directed to a particular Serious Fraud Office that was set up in 1990. The function of this office was to detect, investigate, and quicken the prosecution of fraud offenders (Tarling, 2005, p. 268).

In the past five years, the CPI-index suggests that the corruption levels are at their lowest. This has hence transformed the Danish community’s focus on cases abroad. In addition to this, an anti-corruption law was implemented and ratified by the Danish government. The law at that moment was perceived to be Europe’s toughest legal structure.

The risks involved in corruption that pertains to the both multilateral and unilateral economic support in the third world countries are normally considered by the political administration in Denmark. Lack of political and legal will by some European communities to combat corruption in business transactions conducted internationally has left the Danish industry with a major problem. Corruption should not be considered as a political issue as Denmark is a role model of working in a transparent manner (Beken, Ruyver and Siron, 2001, p. 110).

The most corrupt countries and their trends

The Transparency international perception index produced in 2009 indicates s Afghanistan and Somali as the nations that highly engulf with corruption. Corruption levels have been very high in Somalia since in the early 80s. This has not changed much as Somali is still ranked as one of the most corrupt countries thanks to the wars and piracy activities. In addition to this corruption did not spare the existing Transitional Federal Government as high-ranking officials of Puntland government were allegedly linked to piracy activities.

Corruption levels involved UN aid food that ran in millions of dollars. Syndicates of wealthy Somali business men are said to be involved in food flow as some are associated with militias. Apart from this, embassy officials are said to be implicated in fraud for allowing Europe’s visa permits to known pirates. These militias ended up receiving asylum in Sweden (Eichstaedt, 2010, p. 176).

Despite reforms been undertaken in the public and governance dimensions of Afghanistan improvement records, indicate something different. Corruption has not only increased but also spread throughout Afghanistan as a result of Taliban’s downfall. Anti-corruptions tactics employed have also suffered a setback due to lack of political will, disarray in institutions as well as the capacity of the magnitude.

Corruption in the Afghanistan state has been contributed by poor governance and hence it is described as cancer eating away the Afghanistan’s economy.

Other reasons as to why corruption is of high magnitude in Afghanistan include 1) existing amount of money present for corrupt activities; 2) Loss of the country’s legitimacy in the quarter century conflict; 3) lack of sound monitoring in spending of money; 4) Presence of a fragile political environment. In spite of this, the government has strongly reaffirmed its commitments in fighting corruption (Hayes, 2008, p. 105).

Major differences between the most and the least corrupt countries

War

War has been reflected as one of the major reason that is contributing or has contributed to the rising levels of corruption. On looking at the two countries that have been branded as most corrupt one cannot miss the fact that they are both struggling war scenarios. In Afghanistan, there is the Taliban war while in Somali there is the militia war against the transition government. In the least corrupt countries, there is a stable and peaceful environment as opposed to that of war.

Stability in Governance

Stability in governance is one of the major issues that crops up while comparing these two sets of countries. In the most corrupt countries, the stability in governance is a goal to be achieved, as the governments are busy fighting opposition from militias and the Taliban. On the other hand, the countries with the least levels of corruption have a stable government; thus, they can manage to focus on social issues like corruption.

Poverty

Poverty levels in the countries that are most corrupt are high as compared to countries that are least corrupt. This hence provides a wide opening for the poor people to engage in negative social issues like corruption. Least corrupt countries are equipped with employment opportunities thus reducing chances of corruption.

Culture in Business Ethics

Culture is a tool that can work in both negative and positive way depending on how it is used in the situation at hand. Ethically speaking corruption is an act that is morally not accepted generally in business ethics. On getting use to the culture of corruption, the trend never ceases to end but instead it expounds more and more. On the other hand, once the culture of condemning and not tolerating corruption is initiated issues of abuse of public office will have been dealt a blow.

Issues favoring ethical countries

Legislative Actions

Ethical countries undertake decisive legislative actions in order to streamline their institutions for the sole aim of avoiding corruption activities. Tougher laws are put in place that acts accordingly to the perpetrators in question thereby discouraging corruption. Some of these laws are suggested to be the toughest in all of Europe.

Anti-corruption bodies

Anti-corruption bodies are normally instituted in the ethical countries as compared the unethical countries. In relation to this, the New Zealand government for instance instituted a Serious Fraud Office that was designated special powers of detecting, investigating, and bringing to justice corrupt perpetrators.

Such kind of anti-corruption bodies help to eradicate the corruption activities and put perpetrators on their toes. This is different when discussing unethical countries, as some of them such as Somali do not have set mechanisms of establishing these bodies.

Recommendations of lessening corruption

Removal of Institutional Loopholes

In this case, the institutions are strengthened by identifying the loopholes that make it vulnerable to corruption and getting rid of them. This should be emphasized even if it means changing the existing laws to seal these loopholes.

Transparency

Transparency should be increased and encouraged especially in public institutions. By doing so, citizens and other public officials will be able to acquire the information required to make an informed decision.

Accountability

In accountability, mechanisms are put in place for ensuring the public officials undertake the duties they owe to the public. The relationship in terms of behavior between public officials, punishment, and rewards are spelt out for accountability to work. Accountability will hence be implemented in terms of internal monitoring and external monitoring.

Conclusion

Corruption can be defined by simplest of terms but its repercussion to the economy and society is what should be the topic of concern. While corruption is associated with abuse of office or power this then describes the behavioral pattern witnessed around the world.

Ways and means of dealing with corruption has become a topic of concern internationally thus making it a phenomenon found in various countries that have different economies and ideology. The Transparency international aggregates survey results, which assist in ranking countries according to their corruption perception index. These indexes are hence used to know the least and the most corrupt countries.

References

Anechiarico, F. and Jacobs, J. B. (1996). The pursuit of absolute integrity: how corruption control makes government ineffective. London: University of Chicago Press. Web.

Beken, T., Ruyver, B. and Siron, N. (2001). The organisation of the fight against corruption in the member states and candidate countries of the EU. Antwerpen: Maklu-Uitgevers NV. Web.

Eichstaedt, P. (2010). Pirate State: Inside Somalia’s Terrorism at Sea. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. Web.

Fijnaut, C. and Huberts, L. (2002). Corruption, Integrity and Law enforcement. The Hague. Web.

Hayes, G. (2008). Afghanistan: transition under threat. Ontario: Wilfrid University Press. Web.

Tarling, N. (2005). Corruption and good governance in Asia. NY: Routledge. Web.

Introduction

The modern world is characterized by the enhanced international relations between different agents. The tendency towards the globalization created the basis for the improved cooperation between states, companies, agencies, individuals, etc. and preconditioned the shift of priorities towards the global discourse as the most promising mean of cooperation. Along with the increased number of actors participating in the above-mentioned process, the complexity and sophistication of the patterns used to align cooperation at least doubled. Moreover, the great tension and constant torrent of information also gave rise to numerous frauds.

For this reason, the importance of the efficient and fair legal framework that would be able to control the given sphere and minimize risks became obvious. Thus, the current legal environment, both at the state and international levels, could be considered one of the most complex and all-encompassing the humanity has ever known. The given complexity is justified by the character of the modern challenges.

Besides, arbitration is one of the modern tools that belongs to this very legal environment and is expected to assist parties in solving disputes by suggesting a fair solution. Being a unique remedy that has a great potential, today it turns out to be inefficient in a number of cases. One of the main causes of such failures is corruption that turns out to be an ongoing issue for our society.

Background

Delving into the peculiarities of the modern business relations, a significant number of problematic concerns should be admitted. The fact is that the globalization of the world also impacted the majority of societys aspects. For this reason, a wide range of new perspectives appeared. Due to the character of the modern cooperation, the extremely high incomes could be expected. Therefore, this fact also preconditions the unprecedented level of rivalry as numerous actors try to guarantee their growth.

In this regard, the acquisition of a competitive advantage became a crucial aspect needed for a companys further survival. Unfortunately, very often unfair competition could be observed as it might guarantee more benefits at a shorter period of time. The combination of these aspects gave rise to corruption. In accordance with the latest statistic, nearly half of people “across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and India think bribery and corruption are acceptable ways to survive an economic downturn” ¹. Moreover, billions of dollars are spent to either support or undermine the functioning of a certain company using illegal approaches or other levers or influence².

The statistics are unsatisfying, and there is the tendency towards the further deterioration of the current state. For this reason, there are numerous appeals to alter the situation by introducing strict monitoring of the relations between actors³. Under these conditions, the arbitration is associated with one of the possible ways to eliminate the problem. However, the situation remains complex as arbitration also suffers from this social stigma.

Arbitrators

Delving into the peculiarities of the given institution and the role it plays in the struggle against corruption, it is important to define the term and outline its main peculiarities. Arbitration is a specific kind of alternative dispute resolution that is focused on the creation of a solution to a conflict outside the courts⁴. It means that the parties to a dispute do not want to use the traditional approach and agree to use arbitration by one or more persons who are allowed to do it.

These individuals are called arbitrators. Besides, the parties who engage in the process also agree to accept the arbitration decision and act in accordance with the course outlined by it. There is always a third party that is expected to investigate the case, review the evidence, and introduces a certain solution that should be accepted by the parties to a dispute and which is enforceable in the courts⁵. The given practice is created to take into account the main arguments presented by all parties and make the most appropriate solution.

History

Traditionally, arbitration has been one of the most efficient ways to resolve disputes without using courts or other bodies of power. The fact is that the majority of cases that are solved using arbitration have a unique nature that preconditions the exploration of arbitration as one of the efficient ways to make a compromise. For this reason, since the first stages of its creation, the arbitration has been remaining an efficient tool that helps parties to find a compromise solution and solve a dispute.

It is obvious that the modern arbitration differs from the past forms significantly. The evolution of the society and the approaches used by people to communicate and make deals preconditioned the increased complexity of arbitration that had to respond to the majority of challenges that appeared in the course of peoples interaction. Yet, the arbitration we have today could be considered a powerful tool with a great potential that could be used to resolve the majority of the conflicts that appear between parties.

Role

The given shift of priorities and empowerment could not but remain unnoticed. In the modern society, arbitration is often used as one of the main tools to resolve commercial disputes at different levels. Moreover, the increased number of opportunities for the international cooperation preconditioned the mass usage of arbitration in the context of the international commercial relations between corporations. Its role in the modern world could hardly be overestimated.

The majority of disputes between the parties are solved with the help of arbitrators. Moreover, the unique role it plays in the international relations could be evidenced by the fact that there is the tendency towards the further rise of its power and states attempts to improve the framework for its evolution as they introduce new ways to interact using arbitration. Furthermore, very often commercial disputes over billions of dollars are considered by arbitrators. The tendency towards the gradual increase of the amount of money involved in these disputes indicates the great reliability of the tool and unique role it plays in the modern society.

Legal framework for the functioning

Besides, the authority of arbitration rests on the specific legal framework that was created to support the development of the issue and precondition its improved ability to resolve disputes by assisting parties in their attempts to make a compromise. Besides, the modern arbitration is a part of the justice system of the majority of states⁶. Its functioning is limited by numerous laws that are created to introduce specific authority to arbitration and make it one of the tools used by the parties to a dispute.

The basic laws and regulations may vary in different states; however, the main sense and patterns used by arbitrators remain the same. In accordance with the current legal framework, it is able to consider the main arguments provided by the parties and make a final conclusion. The decision suggested by arbitral tribunal should be accepted and followed by the main actors. The given approach preconditions the multitasking peculiar to the arbitration system and its ability to solve the majority of the modern issues that appear in the course of the cooperation. Arbitration could be either voluntary or mandatory. Mandatory arbitration comes from a statute or a contract⁷.

Furthermore, non-binding and binding arbitration could also be distinguished. Non-binding arbitration is not that strong as the binding one as the decision could not be imposed on parties. For this reason, it remains a weak method to resolve the dispute, when binding arbitration could help the parties to make a compromise and solve their problems.

Financial issues

As it comes from the arbitrations nature, the given issue is closely related to the financial issues that appear in the course of the cooperation between different parties. Moreover, at the international level, the sums are even greater. For this reason, an arbitrator accepts a unique responsibility when making a certain decision. In accordance with the latest statistics, the recent most notable conflicts resolved with the help of arbitration operated about $4 billion⁸.

Besides, the greater the sum that is demanded as compensation to a certain problem is, the stronger the desire to win the disputed and obtain the reward could be. That is why very often arbitrators become the main aim of unfair agents who want to gather their support by suggesting certain benefits. It is evident that in case the transaction charge is very high, an arbitrator is tempted by overwhelming amounts of money. For this reason, the unique importance of the financial aspect of the functioning of the given system preconditions is vulnerability to corruption. Usually, one of the parties alleges corruption trying to obtain a competitive advantage. In such a case, the financial aspect of the functioning of arbitration contributes to its gradual corrupting and inability to act as a fair and efficient tool.

In the UAE

As for the arbitration in the UAE, the given practice is also topical here. In accordance with the latest alterations to the legal environment peculiar to the state, arbitration turns out to be an efficient tool that should be used by the parties to a dispute in case some problematic issues appear⁹. Due to the numerous efforts aimed at the improvement of the situation in the given sphere, arbitration became a popular method of dispute resolution in the UAE.

There is a specific legal framework that is created to support its functioning and assure that actors will remain in the legal environment. Besides, there are the following arbitral institutions in the UAE: Dubai International Arbitration Centre; DIFC London Court of International Arbitration; Abu Dhabi Conciliation and Arbitration Centre; Ras Al-Khaimah Commercial and Arbitration Centre, etc. ¹⁰

The appearance of these institutions is preconditioned by the increased UAEs engagement in the international affairs and its need for efficient tools to resolve conflicts. Thus, “recent trends have demonstrated a willingness of parties to arbitration, to submit to a broader range of general commercial matters, rather than just specialist disputes.” ¹¹ For this reason, the UAE joins the New York Convention that regulates the given sphere and establishes the similar legal environment. Unfortunately, it also means that the problems peculiar to the international arbitration system and corruption also become topical for the UAE.

Corruption

As we have already stated, the modern society suffers from a number of problems and corruption could be considered one of them. It is defined as illegal actions performed by an actor that possesses a certain authority. It often comes from patronage and is associated with immoral, incompatible, or wrong ethical standards and bribery. According to the latest investigations, corruption deteriorates the functioning of the modern society greatly, and in case an efficient solution to the given problem is found, the quality of peoples lives will at least double¹². The given fact evidences the scale of the problem and its widespread.

There is hardly a sphere of human activity not deteriorated by corruption. The problem becomes even more complex in case great amounts of money are involved. For this reason, the international relations could be considered one of the main issues that cultivate corruption because of numerous benefits that might result from the acquisition of a certain competitive advantage. Parties use unfair competition and other methods to impact authorities and alter their decision-making.

Origins

The origins of the corruption in the modern society could be traced back to the times when the existing model of the cooperation between parties and influential actors was established. The fact is that this question has always been an ongoing issue for the human society. However, the scale of the problem we observe today is unique. It could be considered a backbone of numerous mechanisms that determine the further evolution of the modern society. The fact is that the revitalization of the economy peculiar to the end of the 20th century gave rise to the blistering increase of incomes as well as the level or rivalry¹³.

Realizing the great potential of engagement in the international discourse, actors wanted to remain beneficial and acquire a certain competitive advantage. Different methods and approaches were used to attain success and corruption became one of the common things that were expected to promote the development of a certain business venture. This approach fastened this social stigma at the state level and preconditioned its further rise.

Causes

Among the main causes for the appearance of the corruption, investigators tend to consider the nature of patterns that are explored in the international relations, peculiarities of peoples mentalities, business models, drawbacks in the system that is expected to monitor the issue, peoples inclinations for alleging corruption, etc.¹⁴ Besides, delving into the issue, it is crucial to determine the most important factors that precondition the deterioration of the situation to be able to find an efficient tool to eliminate it. The fact is that the corrupted system gives rise to corrupted mechanisms.

The given chain is very difficult to break. Once having faced unfair competition or corruption, a person realizes that he/she is not able to go against it and starts to use the same patterns to become successful and obtain benefits using illegal schemes and approaches. Thus, to eliminate corruption, deep reorganization of the modern society and the main mechanisms that regulate its functioning is needed.

Laws

The same reasoning could be used to demonstrate the low efficiency of the laws that are created to monitor the functioning of different agencies and authorities and eliminate corruption. The fact is that the realization and observation of a certain law implies a human factor that could not be excluded from these processes. As practice shows, the power and authority deprave an individual, and he/she becomes vulnerable to corruption.

For this reason, the majority of the modern laws and approaches that are created to limit corruption remain inefficient. The funds devoted to struggle against the given problem are stolen and used for some private issues. The same situation could be observed in the sphere of arbitration. The unique importance of the issue and its ability to serve disputes characterized by great investments make it the main aim of individuals who allege corruption and use it to promote their own interests. Nevertheless, the majority of the investigators admit the fact that the anti-corruption laws remain inefficient as they do not alter the nature of the system.

Struggle

In this regard, the question of the struggle against corruption becomes one of the main issues of the modern society. The fact is that any state experience significant losses that come from the unfair competition, patronage, etc. Besides, statistics show that illegal business and other illegal actions cause great damage to the developing economy of different states and slow down the pace of their development¹⁵. The same statement could be applied to the sphere of arbitration.

The rise of corruption deprives actors of the opportunity to engage in the struggle for success using legal methods. For this reason, the struggle against corruption becomes the main priority that demands great resources and a well-thought-out plan that could be applied to guarantee the alteration of the situation in the sphere and its significant improvement within next several years. Only under these conditions, the further evolution of the society could be guaranteed. However, in case the problem is disregarded, the new forms of corruption could appear.

In the UAE

As for the UAE, the situation also remains complex. Like any other modern state involved in the international cooperation, it also suffers from the corruption that is used in different spheres to guarantee the acquisition of a certain competitive advantage. Besides, if to compare the situation here with other countries, the state could be considered the least corrupt country in the Arab world. The UAE is able to create a business-friendly environment that stimulates people to act not breaking the laws and trying to engage in the fair competition.

The UAE Penal Code also presupposes severe punishments for bribery, patronage, and other forms of corruption. However, foreign companies that work here should obtain the support of the local sponsors, and it could sometimes be difficult. Thus, the information about corruption in the state is not complete because of the censorship related to the issue¹⁶. However, considering the fact that the UAE joins the international efforts to eliminate corruption, the issue could be considered essential for the state.

International business. Current state

As it has already been mentioned, today arbitration is mainly used in the sphere of business to resolve disputes that appear between different actors. However, considering the tendency towards the globalization and appearance of global corporations, the international relations become the main sphere that explores the given mechanisms of dispute resolution. Besides, the current international business could be described as an extremely beneficial kind of activity which serves as one of the main sources of incomes both for private actors and states.

For this reason, the amount of money that is devoted to the given aspect of human activity could be compared to budgets of different states. In this regard, the probability of fraud and unfair competition increases significantly. Recent investigations show that the unregistered income could be even higher than the official one¹⁷. This becomes possible mainly due to the spread of corruption. The usage of illegal schemes in the international relations and arbitration contributes to the appearance of numerous problems in the sphere.

Incomes

Thus, the global corporations like IBM, Apple, etc. obtain multimillion incomes annually. The same goes with other corporations participating in the international relations and making deals. The given kind of cooperation presupposes the appearance of numerous disputes because of the clash of interests and increased rivalry. In other words, stable and high incomes result in the increased tension in the sphere and appearance of conflicts that should be solved using arbitration as the only tool to consider the parties arguments and provide an appropriate solution. In case the party fails to prove the credibility of its arguments and is not able to protect its position, the losses will be significant.

For this reason, arbitration is also considered one of the ways to win the dispute by making an arbitrator promote a certain companys position. There are different schemes that could be used; however, the result remains the same. Today, arbitration remains an integral part of the corrupted system that is explored to protect the interests of those companies or actors which have a certain authority.

Interests

The interests of the above-mentioned corporation also precondition the way the international business evolves today. The fact is that giant capitals and great authority contribute to the increased ability to impact the majority of the processes related to the international discourse. Arbitration is not an exclusion. Statistics show that in cases with one party holding more powerful position, the majority of solutions were favorable to this very party¹⁸.

However, it does not mean that its arguments were more convincing. Yet, it could indicate the fact that trying to protect its interests, an actor alleged corruption and gathered an arbitrators support by suggesting certain benefits in case the decision is favorable. Furthermore, the patronage among arbitrators became an integral part of the system that was expected to provide fair solutions and resolve conflicts in the most appropriate way. In this regard, we could observe the inability of the arbitration to protect interests of all actors in the most appropriate way.

Ground for corruption

On the contrary, at the moment arbitration serves as the ground for the further evolution of corruption in the sphere. The majority of actors facing unfair competition and unfair solutions made by arbitral tribunal almost have no opportunities to appeal to reconsider the results of the case and attain success. There are several reasons for this statement. First of all, the costs could be too high, and it is easier to accept the current decision.

Moreover, considering the great power of companies that try to promote their interests using arbitration, the appeal to reconsider results might be dangerous for a weaker actor as this authority could be used to create new barriers. In this regard, the unfair arbitration creates the ground for the further rise of corruption and even cultivate it as unfair decision alleges unfair competition and makes other actors follow the same pattern when trying to attain success and protect their interests.

Problems

For this reason, the following problems in the international business and arbitration system could be determined. First of all, great incomes precondition the appearance of the unfair competition aimed at the preservation of the advantageous state and promotion of the further companys rise. Moreover, the increased power of the international corporations and actors involved in the given discourse preconditions the further rise of corruption.

Under these conditions, arbitrators become vulnerable as they are impacted by numerous agents who want to gather their support. It is possible to assume that the current level of corruption peculiar to arbitration is one of the main problems of the international system or relations as fair solutions could hardly be expected. At the same time, there are numerous efforts to introduce efficient monitoring mechanisms that will be able to alter the situation in the given sphere and contribute to its significant improvement. Arbitrators play a significant role in this process as they are expected to reconsider the unfair patterns that are used to attain success.

Arbitrators in combating corruption

In general, the monitoring of the international financial relations and investments is not the main aim of the arbitration system. As stated previously, it was introduced with the main goal to attain efficient conflict resolution and introduce a solution appropriate for all parties. However, the complexity of the current situation preconditions the appearance of the additional function which is the observation of the main laws and regulations that exist in the sphere. Thus, the current legal framework implies arbitrators ability to eliminate corruption by indicating its cases and reporting to arbitral tribunals¹⁹.

Thus, in the majority of cases, corruption might appear in two ways. First, when one of the parties allege unfair competition by raising the issue and trying to impact an arbitrator. It is the first and the most obvious way. However, there is the second possible variant when arbitrators might become suspicious of certain arguments and conditions that are outlined by the parties to the arbitration²⁰. In both these cases, arbitrators possess enough authority to identify the case of corruption and perform certain steps to report and eliminate it. However, due to the above-mentioned peculiarities of the system, in real life conditions, arbitrators very often turn out to be inefficient when trying to solve this problem or just prefer not to notice them²¹.

Impact

Besides, the current arbitrators impact on corruption and the role they play in combating corruption could be considered insignificant. The fact is that possessing the needed authority, they still could hardly alter the situation because of their vulnerability and the tendency towards the deterioration of the situation in the sphere. For instance, in case an arbitrator refuses to accept the needed solution, he/she might be replaced by the parties to the dispute²².

The given practice contributes to the usage of illegal patterns and frauds. Moreover, very often arbitrators engage in unfair and illegal activities and promote interests of certain agents of companies. Considering these facts, it is possible to say that at the moment arbitrators contribution to struggling against corruption is minimal as they remain the part of the system and obtain benefits. However, there are some new tendencies towards the empowerment of their position and appearance of the attempts to deprive actors of an opportunity to use loopholes in the law or other opportunities for fraud.

Alterations

Besides, investigators of the issue state that the elimination of corruption in the international business relations is impossible without the reconsideration of the role and impact of arbitrators. The fact is that the long-term character of the issue and its ability to resist any alterations introduced to struggle against it, indicate the necessity of radical measures that will be able to shift priorities from actors increased impact to arbitrators ability to make decision independently, not suffering from the attempts to reconsider the results of a certain case or gather support. For this reason, the alterations should be aimed at the gradual reorganization of existing arbitral tribunals with the purpose to minimize the probability of threat.

The modern laws that regulate the functioning of the given sphere create the basis for this process. For instance, in accordance with the New York convention that was created to regulate the given sphere, arbitrators have to remain independent and impartial to be able to provide a fair solution. The alterations should be aimed at the limitation of contacts between an arbitrator and the parties to the dispute to eliminate any probability of fraud.

Tendencies

Furthermore, observing the current tendencies peculiar to the given sphere, we could admit the appearance of the first attempts to resist the overwhelming rivalry peculiar to the sphere. Thus, in the UAE, the existing governmental regulations contribute to the creation of the legal environment that could be used by parties to the disputed to resolve their problems using the arbitration as an efficient tool.

The given success was attained due to the high level of incomes peculiar to arbitrators as in such a case their vulnerability decreases²³. Moreover, the functioning of the above-mentioned agencies like Dubai International Arbitration Centre; DIFC London Court of International Arbitration; Abu Dhabi Conciliation and Arbitration Centre, helps to monitor the situation in the sphere and struggle the corruption. Another factor that slows down the pace of its spread is the great overall level of incomes peculiar to the state. Being one of the most fast-growing regions of the world, the UAE possess a large capital that is devoted to different issues. For this reason, the usage of illegal schemes to attain advantageous state is complicated.

Results

Besides, we could now admit the unsatisfying results peculiar to the sphere. The fact is that arbitration is not able to struggle against corruption in the form it exists nowadays. There are several reasons for this statement; however, one of the main aspects that deteriorate its functioning is the widespread of corruption and its ability to impact the majority of the processes that occur in the given sphere. In this regard, facing the cases of unfair competition or actors attempts to allege corruption, arbitrators are not able to respond properly.

They feel a certain lack of the authority as well as the unique pressure that come from actors which possess great authority. That is why the reconsideration of the current approach is crucial. There is a need for new more efficient schemes to create barriers for corruption and assure that arbitrators will be able to report any cases of this issues manifestation. Only under these conditions, some improvement could be observed.

Anti-corruption investigations

Nevertheless, the necessity of the alterations is obvious to numerous researchers who tend to investigate the sphere and suggest their own way of solving the given problem. Yet, the majority of specialists working in the sphere come to the conclusion that to improve the situation, arbitrators empowerment along with strict monitoring are needed²⁴. Moreover, these investigations also try to determine the most frequently used schemes that are used by those who allege corruption in the sphere as the enhanced comprehending of the issue results in the creation of efficient remedies to struggle against it.

Aim

Thus, the main aim of the greater part of these investigations is to outline the solution that could be used by arbitrators or specialists working in the sphere to improve the current situation and make it more efficient. Moreover, the majority of these solutions have a hypothetical character which means that their realization is hardly possible in the real-life conditions because of the need for numerous resources and radical alterations to the structure of the modern society and patterns used in the international cooperation and partnership.

Impact

For this reason, the positive impact of these researches in not obvious. On the one hand, they contribute to the enhanced understanding of the nature of the issue and its role in the modern society. On the other, no real solutions are suggested, and these investigations just demand additional funding. Furthermore, the impact of these instigations is also deteriorated by the lack of motivation among authorities to alter the situation and change the patterns that are now used in the sphere.

Arbitrators

As for arbitrators, they also could hardly benefit from increased number of investigations in the given sphere. There are numerous suggestions of the way an arbitrator should act to be able to eliminate corruption; however, they are detached from reality as the current legal environment leaves few chances for an arbitrator to attain crucial alterations in the behavior of certain processes. Moreover, he/she also suffers from the high pressure of authorities who dictate the rules.

Tendencies

Nevertheless, the tendency towards the increased number of investigations devoted to the sphere and funds used to eliminate corruption could be considered a good sign. It means that the society realizes the pernicious impact this social stigma has on the evolution of the international relations and tries to get rid of it by studying the main causes for its appearance and evolution. In this regard, the preservation of the tendency could help to attain success and achieve the at least slight improvement.

Conclusion

Altogether, today we could observe the increased topicality of corruption and its pernicious impact on the majority of the modern issues. Thus, the rise of globalism preconditioned the increased importance of the international business and arbitration as one of the attempts to regulate it and guarantee fair dispute resolution. However, the given tool turns out to be inefficient because of arbitrators inability to impact the situation and their engagement in schemes that presuppose unfair competition. Numerous investigations of the problem do not improve the situation as they do not suggest any efficient solution. For this reason, some radical approach is needed.

Bibliography

Cave B, ‘Bribery and Corruption in International Arbitration‘ (Lexology. 2015). Web.

‘Corruption Statistics’ (Transparency International). Web.

Fleury R, ‘Do Arbitrators Have an ex Officio Duty/Right to Self-Investigate Corruption?‘ (Kluwer Arbitration Blog. 2015). Web.

Llamzon A, ‘The Control of Corruption through International Investment Arbitration: Potential and Limitations‘ (2008) 102(9) ASOIL. Web.

Mujic E, ‘ Corruption in International Commercial Arbitration” The Right of the Arbitrator to Conduct Self-initiated Investigation of Corruption‘ (Department of Law, 2013). Web.

Uluc I, ‘Corruption in International Arbitration’ (2016) SJD Dissertations. Web.

‘United Arab Emirates Corruption Report‘ (Business Anti-Corruption. 2016). Web.

Footnotes

1. ‘Corruption Statistics’ (Transparency International). Web.
2. Inan Uluc, ‘Corruption in International Arbitration’ (2016) SJD Dissertations. Web.
3. Raul Fleury, ‘Do Arbitrators Have an ex Officio Duty/Right to Self-Investigate Corruption?’ (Kluwer Arbitration Blog. 2015). Web.
4. Bryan Cave, ‘ Bribery and Corruption in International Arbitration’ (Lexology. 2015). Web.
5. Ibid.
6. Aloysius Llamzon, ‘The Control of Corruption through International Investment Arbitration: Potential and Limitations’ (2008) 102(9) ASOIL. Web.
7. Ibid., 173.
8. ‘Corruption Statistics’ (Transparency International). Web.
9. Emina Mujic, ‘ Corruption in International Commercial Arbitration” The Right of the Arbitrator to Conduct Self-initiated Investigation of Corruption’ (Department of Law, 2013). Web.
10. ‘United Arab Emirates Corruption Report’ (Business Anti-Corruption. 2016). Web.
11. Ibid.
12. Corruption Statistics’ (Transparency International). Web.
13. Inan Uluc, ‘Corruption in International Arbitration’ (2016) SJD Dissertations. Web.
14. Emina Mujic, ‘Corruption in International Commercial Arbitration” The Right of the Arbitrator to Conduct Self-initiated Investigation of Corruption’ (Department of Law, 2013). Web.
15. ‘Corruption Statistics’ (Transparency International). Web.
16. ‘United Arab Emirates Corruption Report’ (Business Anti-Corruption. 2016). Web.
17. Raul Fleury, ‘Do Arbitrators Have an ex Officio Duty/Right to Self-Investigate Corruption?’ (Kluwer Arbitration Blog. 2015). Web.
18. Emina Mujic, ‘Corruption in International Commercial Arbitration” The Right of the Arbitrator to Conduct Self-initiated Investigation of Corruption’ (Department of Law, 2013). Web.
19. Aloysius Llamzon, ‘The Control of Corruption through International Investment Arbitration: Potential and Limitations’ (2008) 102(9) ASOIL. Web.
20. Ibid., 176.
21. Ibid., 176.
22. Bryan Cave, ‘Bribery and Corruption in International Arbitration’ (Lexology. 2015). Web.
23. Emina Mujic, ‘ Corruption in International Commercial Arbitration” The Right of the Arbitrator to Conduct Self-initiated Investigation of Corruption’ (Department of Law, 2013). Web.
24. Ibid., 12.