Category: Corruption

Themes such as war, guilt, murder, and corruption are common within many texts. These themes are always intertwined with each other throughout texts. two texts that contain these themes are ‘Macbeth’ by William Shakespeare and ‘The War Works Hard’ by Dunya Mikhail. The story of Macbeth is in medieval times, about a nobleman (Macbeth) who wanted the mantle of king, which was owned by his friend (King Duncan). At the beginning of the story, Macbeth and his friend Banquo find two witches who foretell that Macbeth will one day become king of the throne and Scotland. Macbeth returns to the castle and finds himself conflicted and indecisive as he is unsure whether he is to murder his friend for the throne or let the opportunity pass out. This is symbolized in Macbeth’s mind when he envisions a bloodied dagger before him, he is unsure whether to grab it or leave it be. He fights against the conflict and manages to find the audacity to murder King Duncan. Once this happens, the sons of King Duncan flee to England. Macbeth is then insecure as the witches prophesise that Banquo’s descendants will inherit the throne. Macbeth arranges Banquo and Banquo’s son Fleance’s deaths. Unfortunately, Banquo is murdered but Fleance manages to escape the assassins. Macbeth seeks guidance from the witches who still say that Banquo’s descendants will inherit the throne. Macbeth goes on a rampage, murdering many people including Macduff’s family. Macduff then seeks help from Malcolm, one of Duncan’s sons who fled the castle and persuades him to lead an army against Macbeth. Malcom’s army stays stealthy before they attack Macbeth’s castle, Lady Macbeth begins to sleepwalk and then commits suicide. During the battle Macduff challenges Macbeth, and Macbeth realizes that Macduff is the son of a cesarean birth. Macbeth acknowledges he will inevitably fail and summits to Macduff. Macduff takes the severed head of Macbeth to Malcom who is then crowned king. In The War Works Hard, Mikhail uses sarcasm, emotion, and metaphors to describe the effects of war. These texts illustrate corruption within characters in the texts. Both texts portray the results of these themes quite clearly and similarly, although these texts are also different from each other. Guilt is a common theme in both texts, the protagonist in Macbeth feels guilty of murdering King Duncan, correspondingly ‘The War Works Hard’ depicts this theme throughout the poem. War is also prevalent within these texts, in ‘The War Works Hard’ the main theme is war as it describes the results. War is also a key element when it comes to Macbeth, King Duncan rewards Macbeth for his recent success in battles and Macduff persuades Malcolm (a son of King Duncan) to lead an army against Macbeth. Murder is a continuous cycle within the play of Macbeth, an example of this is the murder of King Duncan. In ‘The War Works Hard’ murder is highlighted when the text mentions the killing of people in the war. Corruption is a key theme in both texts, in ‘Macbeth’ the Protagonist Macbeth is corrupted and murders his friends(King Duncan and Banquo). In the ‘The War Works Hard’ the author shows the corruption of war and how it ultimately has devastating effects on the family members of those in the war and the people in the war too.

Firstly, both texts convey the guilt of people who have killed others. In ‘Macbeth’, the protagonist Macbeth feels guilty after murdering his best friend (King Duncan) who had recently rewarded Macbeth by naming him the ‘Thane of Cawdor’. This theme is within the text when Macbeth is consumed by his guilt. Some examples of this are when Macbeth says “the innocent sleep”, “Sleep no more!” and “Glamis hath murdered sleep, and therefore Cawdor Shall sleep no more; Macbeth shall sleep no more”- Act 2, Scene 2. In contrast to this, in ‘The War Works Hard’ the theme of guilt is prevalent when the author says “Achieves equality between killer and killed”. This translates to the person who kills someone else having to live with the guilt of murdering others, whilst the other person faces their death. Whilst both texts convey the theme of guilt, ‘The War Works Hard’ doesn’t physically mention the guilt from war it is intended by some quotes from the poem. It is clear that guilt is a common theme between both texts and is linked to murder whilst both texts use different techniques to illustrate the guilt of characters.

Secondly, war is also a similarity between texts, in ‘Macbeth’, when Macbeth is deemed the thane of Cawdor because of his success in battles, and when Malcom’s army faces Macbeth’s. Within the play, Malcom’s army hides in the bushes and sneak attacks Macbeth’s castle, this was just after the suicide of Lady Macbeth. This is highlighted in the text when, Menteith says “The English power is near, led on by Malcom, His uncle Siward and good Macduff” and Caithness says “ Well, march we on, To give obedience where ‘tis truly owed: Meet we the medicine of the sickly weal, And within him pour we in our country’s purge, Each drop of us”-Act 5, Scene 2. This is parallel to ‘The War Works Hard’ as the whole poem embellishes the idea of war, its effects on people in the war and their families at home. Although both texts are about war, they use different language techniques. The theme of war is mentioned many times throughout the poem. For instance, “How magnificent the war is! How eager and efficient!”, “summons rain from the eyes of the mothers”, “The war continues working, day and night. It inspires tyrants” and between killer and killed, taches lovers to write letters accustoms young women to wait.”- ‘The War Works Hard’. This provides evidence that both texts are about war and how it affects those who are involved or have loved ones in the war.

Thirdly, a common theme of both texts is murder. This appears to be a cycle in the play ‘Macbeth’ when Macbeth kills Duncan, then Banquo, Macduff’s family, and Macduff finally kills Macbeth. All of these deaths were part of the butterfly effect when Macbeth encountered the three witches who then foretold his future. Some examples of this are when Macbeth says “On thy blade and dungeon gouts of blood” and “Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse the curtained sleep. Witchcraft celebrates Pale Hecate’s offerings, and withered murder.” From these quotes, it is evident that Macbeth’s mind is filled with thoughts about murdering King Duncan. However in ‘The War Works Hard’, the poem mentions the deaths of people in the war and the grief of their loved ones at home. Some examples are, “Between killer and killed, teaches lovers to write letters, accustoms young women to waiting” and “Summons rain from the eyes of mothers”. Therefore we can see that both texts revolve around murder and death, however, both texts display this theme in different ways to each other.

Another key theme in both novels is corruption, in Macbeth, we can see the corruption when Macbeth murders his best friend King Duncan for the throne, Macbeth is then overthrown by Macduff and beheaded, resulting in Malcolm becoming the king. Throughout the play, some quotes help prove that ‘Macbeth’ is about corruption. Such as, “On thy blade and dungeon gouts of blood” “Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse the curtained sleep. Witchcraft celebrates Pale Hecate’s offerings, and withered murder” and “call to arms continues to sound. Both re-enter fighting, and Macbeth is slain.”-Act 5, Scene 8. These quotes suggest that the play is based on the corruption of the characters in Macbeth. Corruption in Macbeth is parallel to ‘The War Works Hard’, war is about killing others for power above them. Some quotes from the poem highlight the corruption of war. For instance, it “swings corpses through the air, rolls stretchers to the wounded”, “summons rain from the eyes of mothers”, some are lifeless and glistening, others are pale and throbbing” and “invigorates the coffin makers”- ‘The War Works Hard’. These quotes covey that the war is corrupt, as it causes people’s deaths, pain, and suffering. Therefore we can conclude that both texts are about corruption, although they’re similar, the texts tell different stories. One of a man committing mass murder for the throne, another for the war to overpower people and take over their land.

From analyzing both texts, we can conclude that themes such as guilt, murder, war, and corruption are part of both texts. Macbeth faces guilt after killing his best friend King Duncan, and people in the war face quilt after killing others or helping in the killing of others. War is common in both texts since Macbeth becomes the thane of Cawdor after successful battles and when Macbeth’s army goes to war with Malcom’s army, shortly after the suicide of Lady Macbeth. In ‘The War Works Hard’ the poem suggests that war is a devastating event and causes death and pain to those related to it. Another similar theme within the text is murder, Macbeth murders his friends (Banquo and Duncan). Mikhail uses sarcasm to emphasize the effects of the war and how it affects people. A key theme shared between both texts is corruption. Macbeth is corrupted as he murders his own best friends and he goes on a rampage killing Macduff’s family. Mikhail uses sarcasm and emotive language to portray the results of the corruption of war, Mikhail also shows how society acts towards war. Overall both texts had very similar themes, only portrayed with different techniques and structures. Both texts eloquently displayed the effects of war, corruption, murder, and guilt.                        

Corruption in the Philippines is no longer a novel issue, akin to the coronavirus pandemic that has affected the United States and the world at large. It is, once again, an endemic, deeply rooted virus that has plagued the country since time immemorial. It is a social hazard and a significant obstacle to good governance that has permeated not only the government but also the private and non-government sectors, as well as Philippine society even before the outbreak of the COVID-19 crisis in the country.

As far as the corruption index is concerned, the country is ranked as the 113th least corrupt nation out of 180 countries according to the 2019 Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International. That’s a drop of 14 places from the 2018 ranking.

To note, corruption is a form of dishonesty or criminal offense undertaken by a person or organization entrusted with a position of authority, to acquire illicit gain or abuse power for one’s interests and gains.

Corruption in the Philippines is pervasive on various scales. It can be found at all levels of the state apparatus, ranging from petty bribery to grand corruption that affects the government on a large scale, as well as systemic corruption that has become ingrained in the daily fabric of society, akin to organized crime.

Thus, the alleged corruption in the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth) is an exemplification of systemic corruption in the present-day Philippines.

Systemic Corruption

PhilHealth has been plagued by fraud for many years. Some of the alleged corruption in PhilHealth that came to light includes the uncovering of a massive fraudulent scheme involving padded medical claims and payments for non-existent beneficiaries by the Commission on Audit (COA). For example, there were fabricated credits of premium payments to Accenture Inc. in the Treasury and Membership Databases of PhilHealth, totaling PHP 114 million (US$2.34 million), occurring from October to December 2010 and from February to September 2011.

Such deceptive transactions allegedly began in late 2009. In 2012, checks for the said payments were encashed in at least two branches of Metrobank in Batangas instead of being remitted to PhilHealth. This anomalous scheme was made possible due to collusion between PhilHealth personnel and a criminal syndicate.

Moreover, rampant misconduct in PhilHealth includes fraudulent and inflated health benefit claims. For instance, in 2014, six health facilities were investigated for actively recruiting patients for unnecessary cataract removal procedures. Cataract removal ranked fourth among PhilHealth’s top conditions in terms of claims, with total benefits paid out amounting to PHP 3.7 billion (US$76 million).

Likewise, approximately PHP 150 billion (US$3 billion) has been lost to overpayments, up-coding, and other forms of fraud since 2013. Some of these fraudulent transactions and controversies, costing billions of pesos, are currently under investigation by various government agencies and congressional hearings. These include the alleged ghost dialysis scam, overpricing of an ICT project, inflated senior citizen beneficiary lists, and other money-making schemes within PhilHealth.

Whistleblower Attorney Thorsson Keith claimed that PhilHealth officials pocketed around PHP 15 billion (US$308.3 million) through fraudulent schemes, partly through the Interim Reimbursement Mechanism (IRM), a system used by PhilHealth to provide cash advances to hospitals during emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic.

Combatting Corruption in PhilHealth

In response to the corruption controversies surrounding PhilHealth, significant efforts have been made by various government agencies to address the alleged corruption issues faced by the state-run health insurance agency and to ensure that the perpetrators of these corrupt practices are held accountable.

President Rodrigo Duterte ordered an investigation into allegations of corruption in PhilHealth and initiated the formation of a multi-agency task force to probe the issues plaguing the country’s insurer. This inter-agency task force, led by the Department of Justice (DOJ), includes the Office of the Ombudsman, Civil Service Commission, Office of the Executive Secretary, Presidential Anti-Corruption Commission (PACC), Palace Undersecretary Melchor Quitain, and Presidential Management Staff.

The task force has been empowered to conduct lifestyle checks on PhilHealth officials and employees, audit PhilHealth finances, and recommend preventive suspensions, if necessary, to ensure that the investigation is not impeded.

Meanwhile, the PACC, through its ‘Task Force PhilHealth,’ has conducted a separate investigation and so far identified 36 PhilHealth officials allegedly involved in irregularities. Commission chief Greco Belgica stated that charges would be filed against these officials before the Office of the Ombudsman.

Simultaneous congressional hearings at the House of Representatives and the Senate on the alleged corruption cases engulfing PhilHealth are also being conducted in support of the legislation.

Analysis

Over the years, the widespread corruption in PhilHealth has become more apparent, especially against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic has made the anti-graft, corruption, and good governance efforts of the Duterte administration vulnerable to corruption. The corruption issues besieging PhilHealth have compromised the country’s pandemic responses and undermined public trust in government institutions amid the COVID-19 crisis.

The problem of corruption in PhilHealth victimizes the vulnerable, the sick, and poor Filipinos who are cheated out of medical aid that should have been used to treat their illnesses and possibly save their lives. PhilHealth has thus far failed the people it promised to serve.

The irregularities in PhilHealth must not be allowed to persist. Therefore, heightened political will and robust governance responses from the Duterte administration are needed to curb the corruption problem in PhilHealth.

In addressing corruption in PhilHealth, leaders and lawmakers must recognize certain aspects of PhilHealth as a public institution that need to be reformed, strengthened, and reinforced. For example, the composition of PhilHealth’s board is skewed in favor of the government, with inadequate representation from patients, healthcare providers, civil society groups, and the public. This deficiency needs to be addressed to ensure accountability and transparency in PhilHealth’s operations and decision-making processes.

There is also a need to address systemic corruption, such as that in PhilHealth, which reflects the weak ‘merit culture’ of the country. To curb corruption at its root, the merit culture must be reinforced by recruiting, promoting, and rewarding individuals based solely on qualifications, experience, and performance.

The civil service should not be politicized if corruption is to be curtailed. Additionally, the ‘culture of impunity’ pervasive in PhilHealth, where corrupt acts often go unpunished even when detected and exposed, must be addressed and eradicated.

Moreover, leaders and lawmakers should explore ways to promote societal accountability, where civil society, the media, and the public can monitor and address the actions of public institutions like PhilHealth and its officials. Reforms in this area should include enabling frameworks such as the passage of the Freedom of Information (FOI) Bill, which will empower citizens to expose wrongdoing by increasing their access to information and promoting transparency, accountability, citizen participation, empowerment, and an anti-corruption culture among Filipinos.

Furthermore, in addressing the corruption problem in PhilHealth, government leaders, and lawmakers must recognize that corruption in PhilHealth is a reflection of wider societal issues, where corruption is entrenched at all levels of Philippine society. They must acknowledge that the corruption problem in PhilHealth is cyclical and systemic, requiring a systemic solution rather than piecemeal reforms.

The systemic corruption in PhilHealth persists because corrupt behavior is not isolated but culturally ingrained in society. Cultural and structural ‘blind spots,’ such as nepotism, favoritism, and clientelism, are prevalent in both the public and private spheres and contribute to corrupt practices.

Therefore, there is a need for a profound examination of the socio-cultural factors that drive corrupt practices and how these practices are woven into the fabric of daily life and cultural motivations. Corruption should not be treated solely as an institutional and criminal issue but also as a social, political, and cultural phenomenon driven by human behavior and circumstances.

In conclusion, addressing corruption in PhilHealth requires a comprehensive and multifaceted approach that encompasses institutional reforms, strengthening of the merit culture, promotion of societal accountability, and a deeper understanding of the socio-cultural factors that perpetuate corrupt practices. Only by addressing corruption at its root and fostering a culture of transparency, accountability, and integrity can PhilHealth and other public institutions fulfill their mandate to serve the Filipino people effectively and efficiently.

Police corruption is a form of police misconduct and involves the abuse and misuse of constitutional authority for personal gain. It involves the breaking of the sworn vows of service as well as the rules and regulations that govern their acts. There are various forms of police corruption and their effects translate to all factions that the law enforcement group represents. According to statistics, it is stated that there are at least ten percent of corrupt police officers in every precinct. There are various forms of police corruption but they are all usually classified under three main categories, namely flouting of the law, soliciting and accepting bribes, and selective enforcement. Examples of different forms of corruption are theft, bribery, fixing, perjury, extortion, frame-up, internal payoffs, etc. These classifications are done through an evaluation of the following aspects, motivation for corruption, level of aggression, consequences, and the regularity of payments among others. Numerous reasons cause this corruption ranging from psychological to sociological but through different government agencies, there are remedies on how to effectively combat it. The following essay is an evaluation of police corruption, its different forms, causes, effects, and possible remedies.

There are three main groupings of police corruption but the most common one is soliciting and the acceptance of bribes, usually monetary. In this category, there are four primary examples, specifically bribery, extortion, shakedowns, and internal payoffs. When in the line of duty, law enforcers, are faced with many challenges, and with this knowledge, the public, as well as the officers, exploits the situation to acquire valuable things such as money, tickets, minerals, and meals, among others. when an individual offers a law enforcer money to influence them into taking or not taking a certain action, it is referred to as bribery. Internal payoffs refer to situations when police officers, offer to sell or buy certain privileges and prerequisites within the law enforcement organizations, for example, holidays and shifts. These two examples are mostly transactional as opposed to extortion and shakedowns where threats and occasional violence are characteristic. Extortion is the use of threats and violence by a police officer to acquire personal gains. Shakedowns, on the other hand, are the frequent threatening of citizens or offenders through possible arrests or vital information for valuables(Sherman, 1974). An example of this form of corruption is when a New York high-ranking police official was arrested in 2016 after receiving free flights, expensive meals, and prostitutes in exchange for certain favors such as a private police force to local wealthy businessmen.

Flouting of the law and police code of conduct is the second category of police corruption, which happens when law enforcers act with sheer disregard for the law and other regulations. This is especially done to secure confessions or convictions but it is sometimes done for mere personal gain. There are various examples in this grouping, that is, theft, burglary, frame-up, perjury, and direct criminal activity. Whistleblowers within the police department such as Frank Serpico testified that corrupt officers could frisk their victims, dead or alive, or the crime scene for valuables and steal them. It also includes the stealing of pieces of evidence from the precinct. In certain situations, police officers could be actively involved in criminal activities through the help of criminals or their partners for example selling of narcotic drugs, or robbery with violence, among others. The frame-up is the addition of false evidence to effect an arrest. Perjury, which is the issue of false testimony under oath, is mostly done by corrupt officers to protect their partners and themselves as well as convict criminals (Caldero, 2014). The perfect manifestation of these two forms of corruption is when Sergeant Wayne Jenkins, a detective with the Baltimore Police Department, robbed Andre Crowder in his house, planted a gun, and arrested him.

Selective enforcement is the partiality that police officers exercise when executing their daily activities. There are many forms of selective enforcement; fixing, corruption of authority, ticket fixing, etc, and they affect all levels of the police department. Internal affairs officials indicate that complicity in high-ranking officials is also a form of discriminatory enforcement. When on duty, police officers are usually awarded free items by the citizens who appreciate their role in society, however, this kind gesture is double-sided as it might be susceptible to exploitation, by both parties, thus becoming a form of bribery. Therefore, the regulatory organization’s ambivalence eventually leads to the discouragement of the acceptance of these gifts by naming them as the corruption of authority (Klockars, Ivkovic, & Haberfeld, 2003). Unethical police officers have been known to skip court hearings and withhold crucial pieces of evidence to sway prosecutions in a particular direction. These snide actions, which are done as favors or bribes, undermine the power of the courts and can have adverse effects. Additionally, ticket fixing, which is ticket withdrawing, is performed as a favor to family members or other officers’ relatives. It can also be used as a form of a bribe if there is an exchange of valuable goods. Louis Eppolito and Stephen Caracappa, who were commonly known as the mob cops are the excellent definitions of various forms of corruption, but especially selective enforcement. Louis Eppolito was the son of a member of the Gambino family, a highly organized criminal group. He was suspected and investigated for sharing crucial information with Rosario Gambino, capo Nino Gaggi, and Paul Castellano, who were high-ranking members of the mafia. However, he was cleared having cited that he was discriminated against due to family background.

The rampart scandal of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) remains the primary example of police corruption as the internal affairs unit’s investigation revealed that almost the whole department was corrupt. The department’s chief, Daryl Gates, formed an anti-gang taskforce called CRASH (Community Resources Against Street Hoodlums) to fight the rising number of violent crimes that were mainly perpetrated by local gangs. To efficiently gather information the officers selected were to interact closely with the gang members, therefore, they did not wear their uniform or carry a radio. The officers from the LAPD Rampart Division adopted the gang culture; lingo, tattoos, dress, and manners, to reduce suspicion. However, after a while, they succumbed to it and ended up creating their fiefdom. CRASH members started certain police misconduct for example planting and covering up evidence, unprovoked beatings, and shootings, robbery with violence, perjury, theft, selling and distributing narcotic drugs, etc. However, their involvement with criminal activities significantly reduced crime in the region as they would arrest or silence the rival gangs and any opposing force. The task force corrupted its senior officials and supervisors which led to the transfer of good police officers away from the department and the subsequent transfer of corrupt ones. Nevertheless, through the 1999 investigation by the internal affairs police unit, the department was found culpable of many crimes as one CRASH officer, Rafael Perez, provided pieces of evidence in exchange for a reduced time. Through the plea deal, the officer enabled the arrest of over seventy law enforcers through essential information and evidence. The Rampart scandal resulted in over a hundred civil lawsuits which led to a hundred million dollars worth of settlements, the uncovering of corruption in other departments, and the overturning of almost a hundred cases (Ivković, 2018).

Using the Rampart scandal as a case study, there are many lessons, causes, forms, ramifications, and remedies for corruption, that can be learned from the department. Psychologists have indicated that one of the leading causes of police corruption is the psychological state of the perpetrators. In a recent study, researchers identified that the earlier life of the individual, his personality as well as other external factors can significantly contribute to the moral corruption of an officer. People with a rough background, destitute or abusive family, might exploit their positions of power as a way of dealing with their past. After careful analysis of Frank Serpico’s testimony, the Knapp Commission identified that there are two types of corrupt officers; meat eaters and grass eaters. The meat eaters were referred to as aggressive individuals while their counterparts, grass eaters, were the complicit officers who indulged in the spoils. This distinction was further indicated as being heavily related to people’s personalities. There are cases where officers use unethical means for the greater good, for example, to facilitate the conviction and arrest of an elusive criminal. This type of police misconduct is referred to as noble cause corruption. However, there are numerous disadvantages of this method as evident in the Luna v. Massachusetts case, where an illegal search warrant led to the killing of an officer and the consequent dismissal of the cases, as well as the murder (Roebuck & Barker, 1974). Poor management and supervisory duties by the senior police officials also encourage the corruption of their subordinates as witnessed in the CRASH scandal. Lack of proper reviews together with unsupervised officers provide the necessary environment for the corruption of officers. Low wages in the organization prompt financially strained officers to carry out illegal practices to effectively care for their families. Also, close interaction with criminals as well as handling of illegal products can tempt even a law-abiding officer, especially when they need to prove that they are not spies.

Police corruption affects all factions of the community, legal, social, economic, and political. The obstruction of justice by its law enforcers creates a system that undermines the rule of law. Therefore, these unethical officers encourage the community to do injustice, through different forms of corruption as wrong people are falsely arrested while the evil and immoral walk free. These cause an increase in the evils in the society as even the law-abiding citizens start disregarding the law. When the criminals are the people sworn to protect the community, the citizens are left helpless thus creating an environment of fear and terror. The fear, consequently, encourages offenders to exploit the situation leading to the further spread of crime. Since whistleblowers and activists on police misconduct are executed mercilessly people do not know who to trust and they might report any injustice or crime and end up being a target. The unethical actions also damage the organization’s image to the public leading to reduced credibility. Since the police and the judiciary work hand in hand, a tarnished image has adverse effects on the community they represent as the masses lose trust in them.

Various research indicates the numerous ways, society can use to combat police corruption in the nation. However, all require the coordinated effort of all people, policing organizations, the judicial system, as well as internal affairs. Controlling police corruption should start with the thorough screening of its recruits to eliminate any people with signs of psychological complexes such as inferiority syndrome. the police should also encourage routine overall health checkups to identify and treat any psychological issues. Each precinct should encourage a regular review and evaluation of its staff, which will ensure employees are on their best behavior. A supervisory committee can also assist greatly in encouraging honesty and accountability. The federal government should also set rational pay for the police force to reduce the need and temptation for economic corruption(Ivković, 2018). The code of silence that is usually practiced by members of disciplined forces should be discouraged as it creates an environment that can be exploited by cunning and immoral officers. Technological advancement, for example, body-worn cameras, dashboard cameras, and microphones, in police organizations, should also be highly encouraged as they provide crucial pieces of evidence on the actions of an officer during trials.

Police corruption by definition is the misuse of police authority for personal gain. Police corruption, which is a form of police misconduct, has various forms for example theft, bribery, fixing, perjury, extortion, frame-up, and internal payoffs, among others. These many forms are divided into three primary groups; flouting of the law, discriminatory enforcement, and soliciting and acceptance of bribes, using various criteria. Some of the standards used are the motivation for corruption, consequences, the regularity of payments as well as the level of aggression. In soliciting and accepting bribes, there are internal payoffs, bribery, extortion, and shakedowns as forms of corruption. Flouting is the utter disregard for the law and other governing regulations within the police organizations. Its various forms of corruption are perjury, theft and burglary, direct involvement in a crime as well as a frame-up. In selective enforcement, the corrupt officers provide favors to family and friends irrespective of their crimes. It has three forms, which are fixing, corruption of authority, and ticket fixing. Many reasons prompt a law enforcer to break the law and go against their sworn vows for example, the psychological state of the officer, the sociological structure of the society, the individual’s principles on morality, proximity, and close interaction with illegal products, and criminals, poor evaluation techniques as well as lack of supervisory organizations. The effects of corruption ripple across all sections of society, citizens, judiciary, politics as well and economics. It not only tarnishes the image of the power structures but also creates a conducive environment for crime to thrive. The obstruction of justice also disregards the law and creates fear in the citizens. Various tactics can be used to curb police corruption, for example, the set-up of proper supervisory committees, provision of better facilities and equipment, better wages, routine mental health checkups as well as reduced contact with questionable characters and illegal products.

References

1. Roebuck, J. B., & Barker, T. (1974). A Typology of Police Corruption. Social Problems Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 423-437.
2. Caldero, M. A. (2014). Police ethics: The corruption of noble cause. Routledge.
3. Ivković, S. K. (2018). Police Corruption. Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 42-53.
4. Klockars, C. B., Ivkovic, S. K., & Haberfeld, M. R. (2003). The contours of police integrity. Sage publications.
5. Sherman, L. W. (1974). Police corruption: A sociological perspective. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press.   

 

Beauty in White, Corruption in Gold, The Character of Daisy Buchanan

Prevalent in stories written in the 1920’s, corruption is a common trait found in characters. Stemming from reasons such as fame, wealth, and greed, it adds depth to the story and questions morality itself. The book, The Great Gatsby, also published in the 1920’s, showcases many examples of characters being corrupt because of wealth’s easy access or pursuit. Take Daisy Buchanan, one of the most interesting cases in literature. The deep desire for a luxurious and wealthy lifestyle is the source of the corruption of Daisy’s character.

Daisy indeed cares about her relationship with Nick in the novel The Great Gatsby since she displays considerate behavior towards him. She stated, “I’m p-paralyzed with happiness” (Fitzgerald, 8) upon seeing him after a long time. Moreover, she told Nick, “We heard you were engaged to a girl out West” (Fitzgerlad, 19) although she knew that he was single, referring to Jordan Baker as a love interest. The fact that Daisy is interested in matchmaking Nick with Jordan, a trusted friend of hers, proves her caring attitude. Ultimately, however, Daisy’s behavior towards others depends on how they might benefit her financially or socially. To illustrate, Daisy loathed Gatsby’s parties after only one visit since most of the guests were nameless faces using Gatsby’s wealth to their advantage. “The whole caravansary had fallen in like a card house at the disapproval in her eyes,” Nick described (Fitzgerald, 114), displaying how she disliked strangers tarnishing Gatsby’s reputation behind his back and taking advantage of him. Daisy’s behavior towards her child is also circumstantial as she only desires to boast about her wealth and status through her, further proving her immorality due to her reliance on wealth. For when her daughter said, “I got dressed before luncheon,” Daisy replied, “Your mother wanted to show you off” when guests were present (Fitzgerald, 117). Daisy proceeded to leave her moments later in the care of her nurse leaving for a trip. Thus, Daisy’s treatment of other characters in the novel is based on personal gain, whether financial or societal.

Admittedly, Daisy’s character is presented as innocent and pure, adorned in white clothing persistently throughout the novel. For instance, when Nick first met Daisy and Jordan he described them as the following; ”They were both in white, and their dresses were rippling and fluttering as if they had just been blown back in after a short flight” (Fitzgerald, 8). Not only relating to the poem, The Hollowmen, through the strong presence of wind, this passage describes Daisy as an ethereal angel. On the contrary, as proved by her actions later on in the book, she is not what she seems to be. The irony is evident between her first impression of Nick and her later discovered desires for luxury and reliance on wealth. For example, if Daisy held to her representation, she would have been livid at Tom’s immoral behavior and affair. In reality, though, she was aware of the affair and took no action to prevent it to maintain her wealth and social position. This reveals her desire for a comfortable lifestyle and how she prioritizes money over happiness in her relationship. As Daisy replied, “holding down the receiver,” to Jordan, “that’s Tom’s girl on the telephone” (Fitzgerald, 116). Her answer also reveals another symbolic connection through her name, Daisy. Similarly to Daisy, daisies are adorned with white petals surrounding a gold center that also, according to a Celtic legend, symbolizes innocence and purity. In the novel, Daisy’s angelic representation is the white petals and her desires are the gold center. Hence, there is irony and symbolism foreshadowing her corruption.

The strongest reason by far relating to Daisy’s corruption is her basing crucial decisions on monetary gain or loss in fear of losing wealth. Throughout the book, Daisy faces numerous crucial moments in her life, all of which she handles in the best interest of wealth. The first instance where this is witnessed is when Daisy allows herself to fall in love with Gatsby under the pretense that he is wealthy. As Nick stated about Gatsby, “he let her believe that he was a person from much the same strata as herself” (Fitzgerald, 149). Explaining how Daisy was deceived into thinking that her lover at the time was just as wealthy as she was, allowing herself to be involved with him deeply. However, impatient for his return, Daisy decided to marry Tom.

“In June she married Tom Buchanan of Chicago” Jordan described (Fitzgerald, 75). Her fear of being without wealth overpowered her love for Gatsby and rendered her morally paralyzed, an idea repeatedly enforced by the poem The Hollowmen. Gatsby even strived for wealth, fame, and power all in hopes of impressing Daisy and winning her heart. The most important decision she makes, however, is succumbing to Tom’s power and authority compared to Gatsby’s when their secret affair is revealed. This led her to deny any present feelings she had for Gatsby instead of Tom’s stability in wealth compared to Gatsby’s. Deceivingly, she leads Gatsby to believe that he had a chance, only for her to choose Tom over him, displaying her moral paralysis and her inability to fight for her feelings for Gatsby. “Please, Tom! I can’t stand this anymore” Daisy exclaimed (Fitzgerald, 135). Nick’s observations revealed Daisy’s true colors and irrational fear, causing her moral paralysis.

Hence, the desire for a wealthy lifestyle and money’s easy access are Daisy’s sources of corruption. She bases her behavior towards others on the amount of wealth they possess or the possible benefit to herself. Cleverly inputted irony and symbolism in the novel foreshadow her corruption and how she bases her decision on monetary gain is evident. In the end, she succeeds in maintaining her power and lifestyle, but at the expense of others, leaving trails of sorrow and violence behind her. She transforms something as beautiful as a daisy into a fearful and gold-desiring persona.

Citations

1. Fitzgerald, F. Scott, et al. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 2018. 

 

Introduction:

Corruption is defined as the misuse of any entrusted power for personal benefit. Unfortunately, corruption is spreading like a disease in Pakistan. The preference of personal interests over national interests in every department of Pakistan has resulted in the decline of the state. Corruption is a root cause of bad governance and crisis situations in Pakistan. In this paper, I will discuss the dimensions of corruption in Pakistan, how corruption has affected Pakistan, and how we can drive out corruption from Pakistan.

Dimensions of corruption in Pakistan:

Corruption in Pakistan has various dimensions, including widespread financial and political corruption, nepotism, and the misuse of power. The level of corruption in society depends on the values and morals of society. Most corruption in Pakistan is found in development projects, bank loans, and procurements, which have crippled the economy of Pakistan. Corruption exists in both the public and private sectors and in governance.

1. Public utilities:

Public utilities, public services, and local community-based groups are involved in corruption in Pakistan. There is an extreme level of corruption in the public sector, including organizations like WAPDA, Sui Gas, and transportation. People are denied their basic needs due to corruption in society, leading to protests in Pakistan.

1. The tax regime:

The taxation system of Pakistan is rife with corruption. Tax evasion is rampant, with less than one million people out of nearly 200 million paying taxes. The undocumented economy in Pakistan’s business sector contributes to the deficit in the budget and hinders economic growth.

1. Public sector banking:

The financial sector in Pakistan is a hub of corruption, with loan recovery efforts undermined by the fear of politically motivated retribution. Corruption in the financial sector affects public finance administration across federal, provincial, and local administrations.

1. Public sector expenditures:

The public expenditure process in Pakistan is marred by corruption, with government contracts not always awarded through open and competitive bidding. Public sector services such as power, utilities, infrastructure, and public works are greatly affected by corruption in Pakistan.

1. Underground economy:

A significant portion of Pakistan’s economy operates in the underground market, which is unregulated and untaxed. While this informal economy provides cheaper services, the lack of taxation means less revenue for the state, contributing to the country’s economic challenges.

Impacts of corruption on Pakistan:

Corruption is a root cause of underdevelopment and a negative image of Pakistan in the world. It leads to severe consequences such as poverty, illiteracy, terrorism, food and electricity shortages, and governance deficits.

1. Economic crisis

Corruption is the root cause of the economic crisis in Pakistan, leading to monopolies, market distortions, and uneven wealth distribution. Tax evasion and hindered foreign direct investment further exacerbate economic challenges.

1. Bad governance:

Corruption in Pakistan reflects a lack of accountability and transparency, resulting in poor governance. The absence of the rule of law and inflation contribute to the prevalence of corruption in society.

1. Breakdown of structures:

Corruption erodes trust in government officials and leads to a breakdown of structures in Pakistan. Bureaucracy fails due to corruption, impacting service delivery and development objectives.

1. Heavy foreign debts:

Corruption contributes to Pakistan’s heavy foreign debts, as mismanagement of funds leads to economic instability. The burden of foreign debts further weakens Pakistan’s economy.

1. Discouraged FDI:

Corruption deters foreign direct investment, worsening Pakistan’s economic condition and hindering its development.

    6. Image of Pakistan (FATF):

Corruption tarnishes Pakistan’s image globally, leading to consequences such as placement on the FATF grey list and difficulty in obtaining financial aid from international organizations.

Steps to drive out corruption in Pakistan:

To combat corruption, Pakistan must implement effective accountability mechanisms, strengthen regulatory systems, promote honest leadership and partnerships, enact administrative reforms, and ensure a consistent judicial system.

Conclusion:

Corruption has plagued Pakistan, leading to economic crises, governance deficits, and a negative global image. Addressing corruption requires a multifaceted approach, including accountability, regulatory reforms, honest leadership, and judicial integrity. Upholding the rule of law and implementing anti-corruption strategies are essential to restore Pakistan’s image and promote institutional development.

Noble cause corruption entails actions which are considered bad according to societal ethics and illegal constitutionally; however, they are done with good or noble intentions. Law enforcing institutions are prone to committing noble cause corruption due to the nature and demands of the institution (Delattre 201). This is a threat to the profession considering the fact that such institutions uphold high ethical standards.

A policeman may stop a moving vehicle on a highway and obtain the drivers consent to search the car. Judging from past experience the driver or occupant of the vehicle has criminal records of drug dealing and it will be best if he/she is kept off the streets. After a thorough search the policeman finds nothing that could warrant his/her arrest. Since the policeman knows the driver/occupant of the vehicle is a threat to the society, he dramatically puts some illegal drugs on the car which will act as a basis for his/ her arrest.

The policeman eventually arrests the driver/occupant of the vehicle with an intention of sending him/her back to the authorities. Though it is a violation of the constitution, in my perspective I consider this move by the policeman acceptable since the end is for betterment of our society. One may argue that it’s the policeman who should be arrested and not the occupant or diver of the vehicle.

A person can be kidnapped either for a ransom or for any other demanded benefit. In pursuit to this case a member of the kidnappers’ crew is arrested and admits having been involved in the kidnapping after an intensive interrogation (Delattre 201). I consider it acceptable even though it is a violation to the constitution, for the policemen to use force by inflicting pain on the kidnapper with an aim of locating where the kidnapped is held hostage.

It is constitutionally considered that after a specific arrest period the detainee is released with only pending case in court. A police who has arrested a serial killer and eventually putting him in custody may extend custody period with an aim of preventing him to continue his series of killings.

Though with the knowledge of the killer’s constitutional right they still proceed to extend custody period for the sake saving the community from such a serial killer. Though it is unconstitutional, it’s best for them to act in this manner since it’s safer for the community if such are behind bars.

An arrest justification may be issued for the apprehension of a drug dealer. On the way to the drug dealer’s apartment an envelope is seen falling from the apartment though not from the drug dealer’s house. After examination the police identifies beyond any reasonable doubt that the envelope consists of cocaine.

The police proceeds on by carrying out a thorough search but unsuccessfully not finding any hard evidence that could send the drug dealer behind bars. Considering their desperation to come out with the best of the situation, they intentionally drop the envelope in the drug dealer’s apartment and claim that it was found there so that it could act as a hard evidence for sending him to prison (Pollock, 265).

Though some of the noble cause corruption acts are to the best of the community, they are not performed within the provisions of the constitution thus they should be considered unacceptable (Delattre 202).

In my view it actually depends on the situation involved with an example of above mentioned kidnapping situation which I consider to be best acted upon by inflicting pain on the kidnapper if diplomacy had failed. This is because of the magnitude of the situation especially when the hostage’s life is under threat. Considering the fact that the end will justify the means actually in my view it all depends on the situation involved.

Work Cited

Delattre, Edwin. Character and cops: ethics in policing. Washington D.C: American Enterprise Institute 2002 (4) 201-202

Introduction

Corruption could be defined as unethical and dishonest behavior or action with the purpose of the personal gain of a person who is entrusted with the power (Rose-Ackerman, 2013). Unfortunately, corruption is a widespread phenomenon among different societies and institutions. The reported cases of bribes taking in the government, police, judiciary, healthcare, sport, and other areas of social life occur almost every day. It is considered that corruption did not appear at once. It was developing gradually from the small single events to a general problem (Köbis et al., 2016). Thus, to describe the phenomenon of public corruption, four major hypotheses exist the concept of “slippery slope,” the society-at-large hypothesis, the structural or affiliation hypothesis, and the rotten apple hypothesis.

Gratuities as the First Step on the “Slippery Slope”

Gratuities are the commonly accepted practice. This occurrence seems to be innocent: people are grateful for the favor and express their gratitude by gifts. However, according to Köbis et al. (2016), these events are the first steps on the so-called “slippery slope” which leads to the corruption increase and spreading. The general idea of this concept is that people who were entrusted with the power started to ignore their professional duties and act only with the purpose to obtain financial or other benefits.

An example of such a “slippery slope” was cited by Coleman (2004). A café near a police station offers free coffee to a police officer. This officer provides some favors to this café owners, in particular, protects customers from drunken visitors. The situation seems to be understandable and innocent. However, an officer inevitably starts to expect more bonuses for his services: a coffee and a dessert, a free lunch, and, finally, some money as a bribe. In turn, the café expects more and more favors from the officers. Thus, if the process started, it could not be stopped.

Society-at-Large Hypothesis

The society-at-large hypothesis suggests that people in the community are willing to give bribes to the entrusted with the power of people: police officers, politicians, judges, and others. Thus, people with authorities started to expect these actions in response to their professional duties performing. It is a possible way how the phenomenon of bribes appeared. According to Meyer, Steyn, and Gopal (2013), it is important to increase people’s awareness of corruption reasons and consequences. People should understand that a single gift or a bribe is not something innocent but a part of the whole system of corruption. Citizens are responsible for giving bribes. To overcome public corruption, they should stop doing it.

An example, cited above, is also suitable to illustrate the society-at-large hypothesis. The café owner was a person who offered a free coffee to a policeman. Thus, the owner is responsible for corruption, appeared later. In this case, no free services should be provided to a police officer. Café protection is the direct duty of the police officers, and there is no need to encourage them to perform it.

Structural or Affiliation Hypothesis

All social institutions have a strict structure and hierarchy. In this structure, inexperienced officers are taught by older and more experienced colleagues and preceptors. Thus, all the aspects of officer’s work are accumulated, including the attitude to corruption. If a tutor takes bribes, the possibility that a newcomer will do the same significantly increases. A newcomer simply follows the existing behavioral standards of an institution. (Meyer, Steyn, & Gopal, 2013). A police station is a perfect example of structural or affiliation theory. If a new officer comes to the station, other colleagues, older and more experienced officers are the example for the officer’s behavior. If they afford themselves to take a free coffee from a café nearby, a newcomer is likely to do the same and gradually become a part of the corrupted system.

Rotten Apple Hypothesis

Mainly, the rotten apple hypothesis is referred to as corruption and other forms of illegal and unethical behavior of police officers. However, this theory could be applied to describe public corruption in general. According to the hypothesis, in every social institution, several “rotten apples” exist. By a rotten apple, a personality with the lack of morality and the inclination to illegal actions should be considered. These persons usually affect the whole institution negatively and lead to corruption increase. Thus, this hypothesis appeals to the personal qualities of individuals and distinguishes between people instead of considering the system as the whole (Rose-Ackerman, 2013).

As an example of this hypothesis, the mentioned above hypothetic police station could be cited. The rotten apple hypothesis supposed that in the station, not all officers but just several of them take bribes. These particular officers could be characterized as persons with low morality. Thus, they agreed to take free coffee and to provide some services for the gratuities due to their personal qualities. These officers are so-called rotten apples in the station.

Conclusion

Corruption is a widespread social phenomenon. It causes significant damage to national economics, politics, and social structure. It is important to understand the reasons and consequences of corruption, to prevent its spreading. Four main hypotheses were developed to explain the roots of the corruption: the slippery slope concept, the society-at-large, structural or affiliation, and rotten apple hypotheses. These hypotheses discussed the origin and main driving factors of this negative social phenomenon. All four hypotheses postulate different reasons of corruption advent: gratuities, people’s willingness to give bribes, advert preceptor’s influence, and officers with the lack of morality present in the system. It could be concluded that all these factors might be the actual reasons for the public corruption phenomenon appearance.

References

Coleman, S. (2004). When police should say “No!” to gratuities.Criminal Justice Ethics, 23(1), 33-44. Web.

Köbis, N. C., van Prooijen, J. W., Righetti, F., & Van Lange, P. A. (2016). The road to bribery and corruption: Slippery slope or steep cliff?. Psychological Science, 28(3), 26 – 49

Meyer, M. E., Steyn, J., & Gopal, N. (2013). Exploring the public parameter of police integrity.Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 36(1), 140-156.Web.

Rose-Ackerman, S. (2013). Corruption: A study in political economy. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Causes

Legal systems are the source of Judicial Corruption in third-world countries. It originates from the judges and lawyers who are at the center of the legal systems in Africa. There are numerous causes associated with this form of corruption in Africa.

There is a lingering culture of impunity in African leadership that is the primary cause of corruption. This makes it trickle down to the grassroots, with the most affected being the people (Homans, 20).

Corruption also originates from the loose and easily-tricked legal systems. These legal systems, made by people who want to maneuver their way through big scandals, lay bare big corruption. The other cause is the low wages that the civil servants receive. These low wages make them want to have more and hence engage in unlawful means towards that goal (Mauro, 690).

There are also institutional loopholes that form the basis from which corruption in these countries is propagated. Government agencies are the most corrupt. This is because of the fact that most people who require certain documentation are always visiting them. The system is such that it is too complicated and long making some people to opt for short cuts: corruption and bribery (Buscaglia, 280).

The societies in those countries are such that they have developed a culture engulfed in corrupt ways. To beat the ever tedious ways of following the required routes, they have created a web of corruption. It is also a society where there is so much jostling for space and materialism (Shleifer, 600). The true definition of success is with the material possession one has.

This has fueled both corruption and war in third world countries. Opportunities are also quite limited in third world countries. This has developed a desperation that is widely spreading throughout society making people, especially the youth, to be unorthodox in their ways (Blunt, 3).

Economic Consequences

The average person’s perception concerning equitability in society is quickly deteriorating. This psychological disorientation has affected many people who have opted for unorthodox means killing creativity and hard work (Klitgaard, 20). These two ingredients have killed the drivers of economy such as job creation, employment and well trained professionals.

Corruption ahs also created social divisions with only very few rich people and a majority of poor people (Becker, 235). This social imbalance has continued to plague the governments’ ability to tackle important aspects of society like security. This has sacred investors in some parts of the countries which ahs greatly slowed economic progress.

The overall cycle is that poverty has continued to plague third world countries that only depend on developed countries to even feed their own people. Governments have also lost so much in revenue due to corruption which has curtailed its desired progress in certain fields like infrastructure which has worsened economic progress (Becker, 13).

Recommendations

The most important thing to do is to engage in long-term culture changes. Once that has changed, each individual will know the consequences of corruption and its effects and therefore desist from engaging in it (Rose-Ackerman, 34). The autocratic government machinery ought to change to simple procedures.

This will curtail corruption from people who want fast services and unorthodox means. Job creation should be enhanced and people who engage in corruption should face strict penalties in court to forestall prospective offenders (Andvig, 4).

Works Cited

Andvig, Jens Christopher. Corruption in developing countries. Northern journal in political economy, 23(1999): 51-70.

Becker, Gary. Law Enforcement, Malfeasance, and Compensation of Employees. Journal of Legal Studies, 3(1980): 1-18.

Becker, Gary. Nobel Lecture: The Economic Way of Thinking about Behavior. Journal of Political Economy, 1.108 (2002): 234-67.

Blunt, Elizabeth. Corruption costs Africa billions. 2010. Web.

Buscaglia, Edgardo. Corruption and Judicial Reform in Latin America. Policy Studies Journal, 17.4 (1997): 273-95.

Homans, George. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974.

Klitgaard, Robert. Adjusting to Reality: Beyond State versus Market in Economic Development. San Francisco: ICS Press, 1991.

Mauro, Paolo. Corruption and Growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110(1995): 681-711.

Rose-Ackerman, Susan. Corruption: A Study in Political Economy. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

Shleifer, Anna. Corruption. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108(1998):599-617.

Introduction

Culture is an important aspect of life and usually develops because a certain need exists. In developing countries, most aspects of life are governed by a specific culture that aims to help where poor government policies and inadequate infrastructure have failed. In China, Guanxi has been in use for a very long time and has been socially accepted as a way of life, both in the day-to-day activities and also in business practices. The concept of Guanxi has been applied in many cultures, especially in developing countries. In Russia, it is referred to as Blat; the Middle Eastern Culture has a similar concept named Wasta, while the Cubans have socialism.

While most people in developing countries have derived many advantages from Guanxi relationships, the morality of Guanxi has been questioned. While the Chinese community views Guanxi as an important part of their life, most foreigners trying to infiltrate this society view Guanxi as a form of corruption.

Guanxi and its application

The term Guanxi has been described as the process of setting up interpersonal connections with the aim of acquiring favors. Luo (2000) states that Guanxi encompasses “interpersonal linkages” that are meant to ensure the continuous exchange of favors. The main idea revolving around this concept involves the creation of relationships among different groups of people with the aim of forming certain obligations amongst themselves that ensures a continuous exchange of favors.

According to Tsang (1998) Guanxi starts from a base either through blood relationships or connections formed by social interactions. Social connections arise by having the same background, i.e., shared the same school, resided in the same neighborhood, or worked in the same company.

Although having a base is of importance, strong Guanxi needs interactions, favor exchange, trust, and time together. In order to develop a system of Guanxi that is strong, participants usually interact with each other’s family, hold entertainment parties, exchange gifts, and support each other’s friends or family (Dunfee & Warren, 2001). As such, Guanxi has, through time, infiltrated many aspects of the lives of the people in the relationships.

It can be traced to social, business, and political activities. In social life, Guanxi offers a means through which families can help each other face day-to-day obstacles in life. Guanxi can be used to aid members in getting employment by using connections from those already employed. Guanxi can also be applied in other ways, such as securing medical treatment that may be at times too expensive for one person, obtaining information, and acquiring goods that may otherwise be too difficult to get (common in communistic societies).

At the business level, Guanxi has been extensively applied in China, resulting in mixed feelings about its use. Guanxi was integrated into business activities in China due to the poor political and economic environment that existed at the time. China, for a long time, was characterized by weak government policies and poor infrastructure that could not effectively support business practices. Due to this, Guanxi was extensively used by businessmen to solve the existing difficulties and has been in use until now.

First, Guanxi in business activities acts as a means of ensuring trust in a system composed of unstable institutions (Luo, 2000). Due to the inadequate rule of law, unscrupulous businesses had a chance to develop, but through Guanxi, which insists on trust as a basis of relationships, the development of these businesses could be curbed. The inadequacy of communistic practices in the country also necessitated the use of Guanxi, where groups of people interact and form a system that could effectively overcome these inadequacies (Xin & Pearce, 1996).

Guanxi can also be used as a strategic tool, especially by private companies without ties to the government (Walls, 1990). Guanxi may offer a certain business options that may otherwise be unavailable, e.g., If a business needs a quick loan, using Guanxi networks could bypass bureaucratic loaning procedures required by banks. Guanxi can be used to acquire favors that can be difficult to get without the help of the government. In certain situations, it may be difficult to enter a particular business field without strong government ties, but through the use of Guanxi, one can maneuver easily into almost any field in the Chinese market (Tsui & Jiing-Li, 1997). By utilizing Guanxi, those already in the field maneuver the newcomer into the business by offering advice and connecting the businessman to suppliers, manufacturers, and middlemen.

Guanxi is also used as a means of creating and maintaining business contacts with politicians and other state personnel (Kwong, 1997). When setting up a Guanxi network, it is always common for the members to integrate a person of authority. This thus ensures that whenever a certain situation requiring government intervention arises, the network can easily manage. Through the use of Guanxi, one can receive favors from the government by using contacts within the governments belonging to the same Guanxi system. Private companies use Guanxi to get contract jobs from the governments that would be otherwise difficult to acquire (Xiucheng & Ambler).

Guanxi is also used to ensure that the business keeps its customers, acquire new customers, and to facilitate normal day-to-day business activities (Tsang, 1998). Through the various interconnections formed a business can be able to acquire and keep new customers. Managers can also use these interconnection to iron out obstacles that may hinder business operations, e.g., using the system to ensure new products are approved faster by the government or the entire approval process can be sidestepped by using connections in the government (Kaltenheuser, 1998).

Finally, Guanxi is usually applied as a screening tool through which organizations select and choose candidates with strong interconnections (business and personal) hence able to expand the Guanxi system of the business (Yeung & Rosalie, 1996). In this respect, Guanxi can also be used to find and acquire jobs by relying on the various personal connections on has.

Guanxi is a subset of the Chinese culture

In order to understand the concept of Guanxi, it is important to look at Chinese culture. The Chinese view relationships as the basis of life. Each action one does in relation to others. The Chinese culture, drawing from Confucius, considers a person of virtue (Jen) to be one whose actions are motivated by duty to others and who can restrain his own desires for personal gains (Bell, 2000). Each and every individual in the Chinese society has been taught since childhood on the importance of setting up relationships founded on responsibility and respect and treating others in such a way as to not use them for personal gains.

Chinese society also tends to set up different groups where people are categorized. People with a common interest, background, or goals tend to stick together, and the categories so formed are usually bonded very strongly (Donaldson. 1996). The Chinese also have trust issues with strangers. In order to penetrate a new area, one needs someone who is familiar with the people in that society. Once one is accepted in a given community, the need for future interactions creates the necessary foundation to foster trust.

The final aspect of the Chinese culture to note is that everyone is expressed in terms of their responsibility in the mutually connected social roles forming part of the hierarchical social order (fen). The Chinese believe everything has its place, and thus all things in nature belong to a specific fixed social status.

Analyzing Guanxi; is it Corruption?

The term corruption has very many definitions and has been generally described by Banfield (1975, 587) as an act that occurs when a person in power is compelled to take actions that favor another, due to the provision of gifts usually to the detriment of public interests. Yadong Luo (2000, 196) has described corruption as individual behavior contradictory to existing norms or that which violates rules that have been set out by a particular political framework with the aim of personal gains possible due to one’s position in society.

The first difference between Guanxi and corruption is that whereas Guanxi is heavily engrave in the social culture and norms of the people, corruption deviates from what is perceived as appropriate social behavior. Exchange of gifts in order to form strong interpersonal connections has been present in the Chinese culture for a long time, thus becoming a social norm. Corruption, on the other hand, deviates from standards that are communally acceptable. The public usually shuns those who are found to be corrupt but have no problem with those who develop Guanxi systems.

The second difference is that Guanxi involves a continuous flow of gift exchange, whereas corruption involves a one-time exchange of gifts. This thus implies that while Guanxi creates a system of mutual obligation between many parties ready to assist in any situation, corruption is only between the two parties with the term of payment and service required explicitly specified.

Thirdly, the Guanxi system is not against any laws of the country, and one does not face any legal action if the system fails. When dealing with corruption, however, one risks going to jail in case of failure e.g., when the deal between the parties is revealed to the public. In case one does not comply with the principles that define a Guanxi system, they lose that system and usually have to use higher amounts to enter or start a new Guanxi system. When a corruption deal breaks up, many risks arise, such as being arrested or even being killed to conceal the act.

Guanxi involves interactions formed over a very long period of time, some having survived many generations (Vanhonacker, 1997). Corruption, on the other hand, is a short term deal that ends as soon as a deal is complete and does not require any relationships between the parties only a need for personal gains. Parties engaging in corruption usually break their ties to ensure that they are not caught, but Guanxi relationships are usually highly nurtured.

The fourth difference is that while corruption heavily relies on the timeliness of the partners, Guanxi is not limited by time. There is no specified time period with which parties in a Guanxi system have to provide gifts, but when help is needed, one can usually receive it. Corruption, on the other hand, has an expiry date with which one person has to provide gifts to receive favors.

Another difference between the two is that Guanxi heavily relies on trust, but corruption is only driven by the potential gains. Parties engaging in corruption usually require immediate transactions where gifts and favors are exchanged simultaneously, and trust is usually not a necessity. The Guanxi system is founded on the principles of trust, honesty, and integrity; on the other hand, corruption is founded on the basis of power and personal gains. It is power that guides corrupt activities, and trust plays little or no part in the whole process.

The final difference between corruption and Guanxi is that Guanxi can be transferred from person to person and from one generation to another. Corruption is a onetime act that aims to benefit the participants in that particular time from that particular opportunity and thus cannot be transferred to other parties. For the corruption process to be successful, it requires the participation of very few parties, usually only two, but Guanxi is a system characterized by many interpersonal interactions and thus can be transferred from one person to another.

It is nonetheless evident that some areas of the Guanxi system border on corruption. The most notable similarity is that in both Guanxi and corruption, gifts are exchanged for favors. Guanxi sets up a system whereby continuous favors are granted through periodic gift-giving, which is essentially the main drive behind corruption.

Another reason why Guanxi may be viewed as corruption is that it may violate hypernorms. Hypernyms have been described as those principles so important and deep-seated that they consist of norms through which other existing norms are judged (Donaldson & Dunfee, 1999). They include those rules opposing murder, torture tyranny, and oppression. A basic hypernym is that of equality whereby, by virtue of being human, each and every person deserves equal and fair treatment.

The Guanxi system does not uphold this law and grants various privileges to its members who are not available to those people outside the system. People within a given Guanxi system can receive faster and better medical care, better jobs in companies within the network, resource unavailable to others, easy access to virtually any field of the China market, and can also receive endorsements for sub-standard products. The above privileges received by Guanxi members give them a competitive edge against other entities, thus amounting to unfair competition and treatment.

The last point to note is that Guanxi, as a practice, has the potential to undermine and destroy existing public institutions (Lovett et al.,1999). Due to the fact that people are granted favors according to their involvement with a particular Guanxi system, public institutions cannot then be fair and impartial. Institutions such as schools, law courts, hospitals, etc. may be affected by Guanxi relationships oppressing others so that members may benefit..

The differences noted above mainly deal with the definition of corruption in the legal sense and according to the social understanding of corruption. The differences also exist in how the two activities are carried out and propagated. Even though many differences are provided, certain similarities can be noted between Guanxi and corruption. To effectively analyze these factors, the history of China plays a very big role.

Guanxi came into use when poverty, poor government policies, poor infrastructure, and poor business systems existed (Vanhonacker, 1997). The system was formed to allow people to overcome these difficulties as a group. The Guanxi system has been effective as it is applied in virtually all areas of life, at the personal level and in business activities. Through time the practice has become a social norm, acceptable and recognized by all. It is for this reason that the system cannot be labeled as corruption since it has offered more good than bad and is also socially acceptable. The reasons are given as to why Guanxi is corruption can all be attributed to the negative use of the system and poor moral conduct that goes against the Chinese culture. It is true that Guanxi can form a very conducive environment for corruption, but the practice itself is not corruption; rather, it is a way for people to overcome common problems.

Conclusion

The application of Guanxi has yielded a lot of benefits to developing countries by providing benefits to members that would otherwise be difficult to acquire. Individuals can apply Guanxi relationships to better themselves while businesses can overcome difficulties arising from inadequate policies and the lack of infrastructures by utilizing Guanxi relationships. Although the system arising from these relationships can be a conducive environment for corrupt activities, such as using Guanxi to receive favor without regards to the community, oppressing those not in the Guanxi system and undermining public institutions, the concept of Guanxi is a product of Chinese culture which heavily relies on trustworthy and respectful relationships and as such Guanxi in itself cannot be termed as corruption.

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Introduction

Over the years, many disasters have occurred in various parts of the world, causing serious damages that have taken years to address. One of the most notable elements about most of the disasters that have been documented in various parts of the world is lack of adequate preparation in case of their occurrence (Fernando, 2015). Most governments do not have enough funds set aside for dealing with disasters, thus leaving the affected people at the mercy of well-wishers through donations.

Reports indicate that disaster relief is one of the main avenues of corruption that are easily targeted by people seeking to make easy money. Disasters often create a conflict environment characterized by genuine people seeking to offer a helping hand to those affected and those looking for opportunities to steal some of the money donated for relief services (Richter, 2007). The power imbalance created during a disaster situation makes it easy for powerful and influential people to be corrupt because the victims are often highly dependent on the resources they coordinate (Fernando, 2015).

Lack of good planning identifies as one of the main contributing factors to the challenge of corruption during disaster relief. Governments have a huge responsibility of ensuring that resource allocation is done in an organized and coordinated manner in order to avoid creating loopholes for corrupt characters to exploit (Saban, 2016).

Studies have established that one of the main elements that attracts corrupt individuals during disasters in the spirit of humanitarian action. During disaster situations, people normally come together in a show of solidarity with those affected by offering various humanitarian services. Some people choose to volunteer their services (Brooks, 2013). Others opt to donate money and other form of resources, while others engage in mobilizing people to offer all manner of support. In the midst of all these activities, some individuals create avenues for misappropriating the relief resources by offering auditing and coordination services among others (Richter, 2007). In most cases, it is hard to single out such individuals because everyone purports to work under humanitarian grounds.

Disaster preparedness plays a very crucial role in promoting the spirit of humanitarian action and undermining the activities of corrupt individuals. Research has established that lack of proper disaster preparedness mechanisms encourages vices such as corruption because of limited regulation (Fernando, 2015). This encourages people in influential positions to have illegal control over the donated resources, thus forcing the needy survivors to engage wrong means in order to survive. Standard procedures applied during the reconstruction process after a major disaster is often overlooked in order to sustain corrupt activities (Brooks, 2013).

Transparency and accountability are crucial elements of corruption during disaster relief. According to studies conducted by the transparency international, most cases of corruption during disasters are necessitated by the fact that there is little transparency with regard to the amount and nature of resources donated by various people (Saban, 2016). In most cases, monetary resources donated to assist during disasters are often spent without any meaningful system of ensuring accountability, thus making it easy for corrupt individuals to swindle the funds (Richter, 2007). The lack of accountability often generates increased negative influences on the life of the affected people because the ability to rebuild their lives without further hardships is often compromised.

Studies have established that all forms of corruption mainly thrive in environments characterized by poor governance structures and political irresponsibility. In most countries that have been hit by big disasters in the past, the number of corruption cases amidst the humanitarian efforts were mainly due to lack of political will (Richter, 2007). Political leaders have failed in their mandate to come up with the necessary legislation that will provide guidelines on the collection, organization, and distribution of resources donated for relief. It is very common to hear of cases where people that were not even affected by a disaster being enlisted to receive aid at the expense of genuine victims (Saban, 2016).

Mitigation measures

According to Transparency International, it is important for governments to develop highly inclusive disaster management programs that allow all the involvement of communities, the civil society, donors, and the private sector (Brooks, 2013). All the stakeholders should focus on identifying the main priority areas in terms of the government’s capacity to handle different kinds of disasters. The programs ought to be result oriented and developed based on the most important needs (Guttry, 2015).

Corruption during disaster relief is also necessitated by limited capacity among the vulnerable communities. Reports indicate that most people do not take mitigation measures such as insurance to caution them from suffering huge losses in case of a disaster (Saban, 2016). Their only hope remains the aid support provided by the government and well-wishers. Therefore, it is important for governments to come up with policies that make insurance services affordable and easily accessible (Fernando, 2015). This will make it possible for people to get compensation for their losses and use the money to reestablish themselves.

According to transparency international, the countries that have managed to handle disasters in an effective manner have existing national disaster agencies that coordinate and implement humanitarian efforts (Guttry, 2015). This has helped them eliminate any loopholes that corrupt individuals can exploit when handling resources meant for relief purposes (Brooks, 2013). Therefore, it is important when governments have good disaster preparedness programs in readiness for any calamity. They should not wait for a disaster to happen to constitute a management body.

National aid tracking systems are a tool that governments can use to help their people access aid as soon as they are hit by a disaster. Studies have established that donor agencies and international organizations have a higher liking for governments with such systems because they can easily monitor the way different disasters are addressed (Richter, 2007). This tool also helps in addressing the challenge of corruption because the degree of transparency and accountability is very high.

Accountability is a very important element during disaster relief. In order to achieve this feat, it is important to ensure the involvement by the relevant government agencies and various communities. Community members help in expressing their priority needs and ensuring that the programs developed by the government are adequately inclined towards meeting them objectively (Brooks, 2013). Therefore, involving community members in assessing the way resources are used during disaster relief ensures transparency and accountability.

A report by the transparency international on the challenge of corruption during disaster relief identified that governments have a huge responsibility of empowering their people in terms of identifying and reporting criminal activities such as corruption (Saban, 2016). This entails creating effective channels for reporting people asking for bribes from beneficiaries of disaster aid and a program to protect people that report cases of corruption.

The roles of donors

Studies have established that cases of corruption during disaster relief are often influenced by lack of proper coordination between government programs and those of various donors. This often leads to duplication of programs, thus making it easy for corrupt individuals who steal money through double payments (Richter, 2007).

Donors have an ethical responsibility of ensuring that the various government agencies tasked with handling the money they give out for relief purposes have the essential capacity to meet the needs of the affected people (Saban, 2016). Importantly, they should ensure that the legal frameworks governing the procurement of resources during disaster relief in the respective countries of operation address the various elements of a disaster situation adequately.

According to the Transparency International, disasters often attract different kinds of people. One of the main groups of people involved during such times is volunteers, who offer different kinds of services as needed. Donors have the responsibility of ensuring that the process of assessing the needs of the affected people and allocating resources to them is not conducted by volunteers (Brooks, 2013). The main reason for this is the fact that they may lack enough knowledge about the programs used by the donor, which could easily create loopholes for corrupt activities.

Example of corruption during disaster relief

One of the infamous disasters in the world is the torrential rains that hit Bulgaria in 2004 and 2005. The rains led to extensive flooding across the country, which caused many damages. Reports indicated that 257 municipalities across the country were affected (Nikolova & Marinov, 2015). In its bid to help the affected people reestablish their lives, the Bulgarian government gave a total of 67 million Euros as relief aid. The mayors of the affected municipalities were responsible for deciding the way the money would be distributed. At the time, Bulgaria was ranked as the second most corrupt country in the European Union. Investigative reports by various media in the country uncovered numerous instances in which politicians took the money meant for relief and spent it on their own interests. A total of 59 million Euros was swindled by politicians in the ruling party through unscrupulous deals awarded to firms they owned (Nikolova & Marinov, 2015). According to a report released by the Bulgarian National Audit Agency in 2006, the money was swindled in three major ways. First, contracts were awarded without bidding. Those that were awarded through bids did not consider the highest bidder. Secondly, a lot of money was allocated to cater for repair on buildings that did not have any notable damages. Thirdly, a substantial amount of money was paid for work that had not been done (Nikolova & Marinov, 2015).

Conclusion

The major corruption loopholes that exist during disaster relief are necessitated by factors such as lack of political will, uncoordinated relief programs, and the spirit of humanitarian action. Political leaders have failed in their mandate to come up with the necessary legislation that will provide guidelines on the collection, organization, and distribution of resources donated for relief.

The most effective strategies for addressing the challenge of corruption during disaster relief include using highly inclusive programs, encouraging donor participation, limiting the services of volunteers, and increased political will among others.

References

Brooks, H. (2013). Using Social Media for Global Security. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Fernando, L.S. (2015). Strategic Disaster Risk Management in Asia. New York, NY: Springer.

Guttry, A. (2015). International Disaster Response Law. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Nikolova, E., & Marinov, N. (2015). How Disaster Relief can Increase Corruption. Web.

Richter, W.L. (2007). Combating Corruption, Encouraging Ethics. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.

Saban, L.I. (2016). International Disaster Management Ethics. New York, NY: SUNY Press.