The Hawaii living reef program aims at sensitizing the communities living in the island of the importance of conserving the coral reefs. In order to achieve this, it has been found that social marketing of the island should be given necessary priority. There are several ways in which social marketing could be explained or defined. This paper explores the situation analysis of Hawaii coral reef conservation program.
Assignment Definition
The Hawaii’s Living Reef program aims at creating public awareness on the importance of the living coral reef ecosystem and its contribution to the Hawaii lifestyle (Coral Reef Outreach Network, 2005). This may not be possible without proper social marketing strategies which will assist in the analysis and general outline of the project at hand. This marketing strategy should be targeted towards influencing voluntary behavioral change. This will in turn benefit the residents themselves since the conservation of the coral reefs will provide sustainable solution to the challenges facing the coral reefs.
Audience segmentation and Behavioral patterns
In marketing and creating awareness for the coral reefs, a procedure involving the identification of small workable groups which will steer the process of conservation is required. From such groups, well directed programs can then be formulated. A unit behavioral pattern involving these groups is then analyzed. These audience segments are categorized in terms of their behavioral characteristics. Some of the barriers noted include bad behavior such as feeding the fish. This will interfere with the natural setting and aquatic lifestyle of these animals. In some cases, wrong kind of foodstuff can be given out leading to their deaths. Another bad behavior is pollution which originates from land (Coral Reef Outreach Network, 2005). Poor land use practices which has led erosion of sediments to the waters is a big problem. Also, over exploitation of the reefs through extensive fishing programs and sometimes use of unacceptable ways of fishing is negative attribute towards the living reef program. Acceptable behavioral pattern will include the opposite o f all the aforementioned traits.
Hawaiian Heritage attitudes and Competition
An outstanding attribute in the process of conserving the coral reefs is competition. However, this may not be effective enough if the Hawaiian heritage Attitudes towards reef conservation is not put into mind. Basically, the coral reefs form an important cultural aspect of the residents of Hawaii Island. For this reason, this cultural aspect form part of the competition which entails the general behavioral responses arising from the Hawaii residents against what is expected of them. In this case, the target audience who are Hawaiian residents may be having some unacceptable behaviors which compete with the expectations of the conservation process (Brown et al. 2004). It may be a tough challenge trying to change the practices which these residents are accustomed to. Another competition may also arise from individual persons and other corporate organizations that have options to the proposals being put forward to conserve the coral reefs. In a factual marketing approach, such competitors ought to be tackled decisively and firmly but being cautious enough not to cause any form of friction and resentment from the residents. Moreover, the tactics and alternatives offered b y these possible competitors should be equally addressed. An important point to note here is that there will always be competition in the promotion of the coral reefs.
The Green Attitudes and Ecotourism Benefits
The spectacular scenery of Hawaii Island alongside the continual effort by the government and other non-governmental organizations to make the reef green has indeed facilitated ecotourism in the island. Tourists are attracted by the beautiful landscape of the island. Besides, sport tourism has dominated the island like surfing and snorkeling. During the process of social marketing, the Hawaiian residents need to be assured of the benefits they are likely to get once they adopt the coral reef conservation strategy (Brown et al. 2004). The change of behavior to match that of the conservation policy should be accepted by the community which co-exists with the coral reefs. This concept should be applied by awarding the target audience what they really need in order to change their behavior and perception towards the process of conservation. The current market environment of the living coral reef is dominated by stiff competition from several reefs around the world. Many of these reefs receive financial backing from the government which increases their leverage in the market. Many of those countries with such reefs especially The Great Barrier Reef in Australia have intensified their marketing campaigns. All these countries are aiming at marketing their countries as the preferred choice of destination. This has posed serious competition from Hawaii’s Living Reef program which is determined to position itself as a global leader in living reef conservancy and as a formidable tourist destination in the world. In order to comprehend the market dynamics which are being geared towards protecting the coral reefs, a rigorous market research has to be conducted. This will enhance better appreciation of the Hawaiian residents in terms of their values and characteristics.
The social marketing strategy
Social marketing will aim at reaching out the target audience in a variety of ways which will not only be appealing but also strategic. To begin with, coining out a strategic plan is important. This will ensure sustainable social marketing for the Hawaii Living reef program. In this plan, the community should be involved and finally, social marketing will not be complete without evaluating results achieved after some given period of time. A follow on the possible successes made against failures is imperative. In cases where success was not achieved, a re-design of the social marketing model is required.
Intervention plans that will enhance positive behavior will have to be developed. For instance, tracking down of the weekly or monthly activities of the conservation programs is essential. The use of written documentaries as well as a telephone line which interested audiences can call any time is necessary. Besides, a social marketing plan should be able to identify the progress made so far.
Communication messages
The manner in which the Hawaiian residents will be reached with the message of conservation will make the difference in the entire coral reef conservation process. This mainly involves how promotional activities can be conducted with much ease. The choice of right channels of communication will impart the right message of coral reef conservation among the residents (Jokiel et al. 2004). These conservation messages may be disseminated through one-on-one interaction with the residents, small well organized groups, public rallies and the mass media.
Coral reef regulation strategies
There have been a series of local steps being taken as part of the process of conserving the coral reefs. This has to do with adoption of certain procedures and values that will be of great need in the conservation process. These strategies have first of all focused on pollution that takes place on land. Pollution research on land has established that runoff to the ocean is the worst challenge emanating from land facing the coral reefs. Some of the organizations involved in the Hawaii reef protection and regulation program include Hawaii State Department of Health, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Land and Natural Resources, Hawaii Coastal Zone Management Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and U.S Fish and Wildlife service. These organizations and government departments are working towards enforcing laws that will see the reef protected. This is one of the major social marketing plans that can be used to evaluate as well as set u regulation in the conservation process. As much as the policy framework has the mandate of engaging the residents in adopting positive behavior change, residents and other target audiences cannot be compelled to change their culture and norms. Behavior change should be more of a voluntary process than a form of coercion (Allan, 1995). Policy formulators ought to understand that policy standing alone cannot constitute promotional services. For this reason, any form of policy adopted should focus on ways and means of accelerating positive change.
Target audience
This refers to the group of residents, businesses, corporate organizations that are intended to be reached out with the message of conservation the coral reefs. The target audience ought to be influence beyond any reasonable doubt on the need to transform their current norms to the expected ones (Jokiel et al. 2004). To achieve this, marketing campaigns and promotional ads should be case-specific and finely addressed to the right audience. The Living Reef program along the promotional campaign was directed towards the residents of the island. These are the major stakeholders in the reef conservancy program. This is because to ensure success in any of the conservancy and marketing efforts, they had to be incorporated into the program (The Nature Conservancy, 2009). This required the program initiators to inculcate the ownership of the program alongside the intended strategies. And as mentioned earlier, the reef occupies a special place in the lives of the native residents. Yet another target audience is the tourists who would be reached through promotional campaigns A sizeable proportion of the business in Hawaii is directly and indirectly dependent on the proceeds from tourism. Thus their input is crucial in the development of the tourist industry and also to sponsor efforts towards the conservation of the coral reefs. The state authorities which are involved in formulation of policies and regulation are also an important target group owing to the prime position they occupy in the society. It is through their support that the program has been able to achieve unprecedented levels of success (Allan, 1995). There are also a number of interest groups which include environmental activists who were also targeted by the program. Their input for a long time has been very valuable in the running of the industry. From the above analysis, it is important that the challenges that are likely to be encountered by the Hawaii Living Reef Program are adequately addressed. To begin with, the most important communication tool that can be utilized is a website. This would serve as a resource center. It would also assist in mobilizing of resources by disseminating valuable information to the stakeholders
Effect of Recession
Recession which has been coupled with economic slow down is one of the factors which might work against the conservation program. For this reason, it is quite important to develop simple but effective working mechanisms. For instance, simple materials should be developed to be used in the awareness campaign. There is need for the information to be easy and simple to the target audience. In order to gain relative support from the community and other notable target audiences, the operating symbol has to be approved alongside timeline and well harmonized communication system to be developed for the Hawaii Living Reef Program (Brown et al., 2004). To begin with, the program was developed in such a way that it would enhance awareness. In addition to this, there was need to practice conservation process which would ensure the success of the program. Individual persons and small organized groups were to be very instrumental in the spreading the news about conservation and protection of the coral reefs.
Conclusion
The situation analysis of the Hawaii coral reef conservation program depicts a lot to do with the need of identifying the main marketing tools that can be subjected in the process of disseminating the right message to the target audience. In so doing, relevant market research should be conducted before embarking on the actual intervention programs for the conservation and protection of the coral reefs.
Reference
Allan R. A. (1995). Marketing Social Change: Changing Behavior to promote health, social development and the environment, San Francisco: Josse-Bass Brown EK, Cox EF, Tissot B, Jokiel PL, Rodgers KS, Smith WR and Coles SL (2004).
Development of benthic sampling methods for the Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program (CRAMP) in Hawaii’s Pacific Science 7: 145-158 Coral Reef Outreach Network, (2005). Hawaii living reef program.
Coral Reef Outreach Network, (2005). Hawaii living reef program. Web.
Jokiel PL, Brown EK, Friedlander A, Rodgers, SK and Smith, WR (2004). Hawaii’s Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program: Spatial Patterns and Temporal Dynamics in Reef Coral Communities. Pacific Science 58: 159-174.
Coral reefs are living structures that are produced by living organisms which are found in the marine environment. Organisms such as the colonial cnidarians are commonly involved in the secretion of Exoskeletons of calcium carbonate which are then piled up by waves. The piled skeletal material then forms a calcareous structure that enables the growth of living corals. The theme of this paper is to discuss the coral reefs ecosystem and the favorable environment required for the growth and maintenance of the corals (Veron, p16). The corals are very important structures within the marine environment since they play various critical roles. The growth of the corals occurs in an ecosystem which is largely interdependent. Apart from this there are various requirements for growth that must be present to enable growth and the survival of the corals over a long period of time. The different requirements within the environments have given rise to various forms and types of corals. However the interesting structures have been faced by various threats that have led to destruction and death of most corals within the marine environment. Hope is not all lost since some measures can be put in place to preserve them and prolong their life.
Main Text
The coral reefs have both an ecological and economic impact. They are provide a home, food and resting places for various species of animals such as Snails, Butterflies, Snake rates, Woodpeckers, Pigeons, Insects, Woodrats, Crabs, Key Deer. Cotton Mice among others. The corals also play a vital role in protecting the soil from erosions since it traps the silt and sediments that would otherwise destroy the quality of marine life. It also provides nutrients to itself and also to other communities in the ecosystem from the decaying vegetation. The corals also provide nursery grounds for some organisms such as the spiny lobster, grunts, sea trout, gray snapper, commercial pink shrimp and the barracuda. The corals form a natural and self maintained kind of a barrier that protects the shore and the lagoons from the effects of the ocean storms and also the hurricanes (Ravilious, p18). Together with the Calcareous algae, the corals are a major source of sand. This sand is very important for the sea grass growth and also the formation of sand beaches. Within the economy, they support the tourism sector since they provide beautiful sceneries for the tourists to view. For example the Florida economy largely depends on tourists who visit the corals annually. They also support the survival of the fish which is an important drive of the economy (Veron, p23). It has also formed a large base for researchers and scientists who are interested in learning the unique and diverse both creatures within the marine. These roles played by corals greatly indicate the importance of the corals within the marine.
The coral reefs grow in a very interdependent ecosystem. The ecosystem is mainly composed of the coral reefs, the mangroves, the sea grass and other living organisms within the marine. Each of the community in this ecosystem plays a very important role in the survival of other communities. The survival of the reefs depends on the interaction of the various organisms living in the marine such as the hard and soft corals, turtles, crustaceans, fish, worms, sponges and other lives in the system. The mangroves for example play a very a very important role in trapping and producing nutrients required for food production, stabilizing the shore and filtering pollutants that come from the land. The sea grasses on the other hand provide food for marine life. They are involved in filtering the water from sediments, stabilizing the bottom area and also releasing oxygen required by other living organisms in the ecosystem (CCMA) (2007). The survival and growth of the corals reefs therefore largely depends on these communities of its ecosystem.
Corals require various climatic and geological factors to support their growth. Temperatures that prevail in a certain area greatly determine whether corals can grow and survive in that environment. Scientists have indicated that corals require temperatures that range between 75F (23.8c) and 85F (29.4c). Temperatures that go below or above these levels will certainly destroy the surviving corals or hamper growth of new corals. Corals that are in temperatures below 75F or higher than 85F are said to be experiencing stress (Veron, p26). Corals require an environment that has easy and light penetration for its growing branches. This means that the environment should have very shallow sediments and algae. The salt levels of the sea are also a great contributing factor. Corals require a salinity level of between 34 and 37ppt which is considered normal at sea level. The corals require very low concentrations of nutrients. The levels of phosphates and nitrogen should especially be very low. Other requirements for growth of the corals include adequate food such as zoo plantations, minimal pollution and very low levels of silt and sediments (Ravilious, p24). An environment that lacks these specified requirements cannot adequately support the growth of the corals.
Different conditions and requirements have given rise to various forms and types of corals. There are eight common forms of corals. There is the fringing reef, the patch reef, the apron reef, the ribbon reef, the table reef, atoll reef and the bank reef. These forms are differentiated by the manner in which they are attached to the lagoons, their shapes and isolation from the mainland. The most common types of the coral reefs include the elliptical star coral, staghorn, the boulder star coral, the pillar, sea fan, Elkhorn coral, lettuce coral, great star coral and the finger coral. These types of corals have different shapes all together. Colonies take different forms of the branches giving a variety of corals. The corals also have different sizes ranging from 1 to 12 feet. They also have differentiated colors where some have one specific shade and others adopt a mixed range of colors. The habitat of these corals is different with some corals growing in very shallow depths such as 3ft while others require high feet such as 160ft (CCMA) (2007). Other habitats include flat and sloppy areas that have high wave action. The prevailing conditions in the marine therefore greatly determine the forms and the types of corals that can grow in that area.
The lives of the corals are faced with serious threats of degradation. This includes threats from human action, diseases and natural threats. The threats posed by the natural processes and the humans can have a direct or an indirect impact on the lives of the corals (Ravilious, p31). Some of the natural factors that contribute to the destroying of the corals include violent storms, cold waterfronts, hurricanes and low tides. The changes in these natural actions may cause thermal stress to the corals which may lead to death. The unique corals in the marine have attracted the actions of the humans. Human activities however, such as fishing, farming, diving, boaters among others affect the survival of the corals. Direct activities such as boating, diving and fishing activities such as nets and hooks may carelessly touch the corals thus destroying them. Other indirect activities that may result to destroying corals include use of chemicals that add nutrients to the water, disposals from sewage, land, boats, cleaning products that have high phosphates and other solid wastes (Veron, p34). Diseases have also contributed to the destruction of the corals. These include diseases such as yellow band, white plague, black band, white pox among others. These diseases destroy the corals by attacking their living tissues. These unfortunate actions resulting from, diseases, humans or natural processes therefore result to poor health and death of the corals.
Conclusion
In conclusion, various measures can be taken to preserve the corals. Strict actions can be taken against humans such as controlling boats, divers, farming activities and the level of fishing near the lagoons. The government should be involved in enforcing measures to ensure that the corals are protected. This is done by establishing marine areas of protection. Campaigning and educating people who are directly involved in such areas should be enhanced to ensure personal responsibility of the corals. There should also be more advanced methods to detect diseases in order to treat them before the damage goes far (CCMA) (2007). Such protective measures will ensure that the corals have continuous favorable environment for survival.
Work cited
Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment (CCMA) (2007). Coral Reef Ecosystems Studies. Web.
J.E.N. Veron. Corals of the World. Sea Challenger, 2000
Mark D. Spalding, Edmund P. Green and Corinna Ravilious. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California Press, 2001.
It is critical to use reliable and valid sources for any academic work. For my persuasive essay about coral reefs, I have chosen four sources. They provide general facts about coral reefs, information on the contribution of coral reefs to tourism revenues, the impact of global warming on them, and how coral reefs are different across various geographical regions. There is much information available on the topic. Common points of discussion in the field are that coral reefs are influenced by deteriorating effects of global warming, and, in some regions, they are vulnerable to environmental changes, and that coral reefs may generate significant amounts of revenue for tourism. The criteria for the evaluation of sources are bias level, credibility, reliability, and date of publication. This paper will also discuss the limitations of each source and how the works will be used in the essay. Considering bias level is essential because works that mostly rely on personal beliefs and experiences cannot be used for objective reasoning. The credibility of both the author and the publisher influences the expectations we have about the source. Also, if the work is not reliable and outdated, its usage in other academic papers will render the works as unreliable as well.
Assessment of Sources
“Global Warming Transforms Coral Reef Assemblages,” Hughes et al. Bias level in this source is low because the paper relies on statistical facts, and was written and reviewed by a large number of scientists before being published. The article is credible because most of the authors are professors at James Cook University, and the publisher, Nature is well-known in the scientific community. The reliability of the work can be shown by the fact that the authors used official statistics provided by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (Hughes et al. 493). The paper provides an up-to-date perspective on the effects of global warming on coral reefs because the statistical data was collected within the last three years. Because the authors relied only on the data provided by the Australian government, the paper is limited in scope. I will use this paper in order to obtain information about how climate change is negatively affecting coral reefs.
“What are Coral Reefs?” Ross. This source provides only facts and is written to inform rather than persuade, and therefore, has a low bias level. Credibility can be questioned because the author is not an academic worker but an individual contributor. However, the work is reliable because it is easy to check the provided information for validity through encyclopedias and other books. Also, the publisher is not a casual website but a popular science magazine. The work was published within the last two years, which makes the source recent enough for use in academic papers. The limitation is similar to the previous article – it discusses coral reefs only in the context of the Australian ecosystem (Ross). It would have been much more comprehensive if the author included examples of coral reefs in other regions of the world. This work will be used to attain a general understanding of coral reefs.
Identifying Coral Reef Resilience Potential in Tutuila, American Samoa Based on NOAA Coral Reef Monitoring Data, Schumacher et al. The authors published the work on behalf of the United States Department of Commerce and provided only objective information in the form of statistical calculations; therefore, the level of bias is low. Because it is a government publication, it is credible and reliable. Furthermore, the authors are academic workers at universities and government research centers. The work was published only two years ago, and therefore, can be considered as a recent publication. The major limitation of this paper is that it does not explain why coral reefs in certain areas are more resilient to environmental changes than in others (Schumacher et al. 10). However, it stays as a useful source of information – it shows that the geographical region has a significant influence on the coral reef ecosystem. I will use this source to support my claim that there cannot be a single approach suitable for supporting all coral reefs.
“Mapping the Global Value and Distribution of Coral Reef Tourism,” Spalding et al. The authors discuss the contribution of coral reefs to tourism revenues (Spalding et al. 104). There is some bias in the paper because the authors do not provide any information about the implications of using coral reefs as a tourism destination. The authors only concentrate on the financial aspect of coral reef tourism. The work is credible and reliable, however, because it was published by Elsevier, a notable publishing company. Also, the authors are professors and researchers at various universities around the world. The work was published within the last three years, which is recent. The limitation of the work is the cause of bias – the authors do not discuss the negative impact tourism may have on the coral reef ecosystem. This source will be used to address some of the reasons why sustainability is essential for both global tourism and coral reefs.
Conclusion
Before deciding on academic sources, credibility, reliability, and limitations should be analyzed. It is also critical to consider when the work was published and who the authors are. In summary, the sources I have chosen are valid and reliable. The majority of them have low bias levels and can be used for the construction of objective arguments. Only one work out of four is found to contain biased information. All papers are recent because they were published within the last three years. Only minor limitations were identified, but these shortcomings do not significantly impact the feasibility of my essay.
References
Hughes, Terry P., et al. “Global Warming Transforms Coral Reef Assemblages.” Nature, vol. 556, no. 1, 2018, pp. 492-496.
Schumacher, Brett, et al. Identifying Coral Reef Resilience Potential in Tutuila, American Samoa Based on NOAA Coral Reef Monitoring Data. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2018.
Spalding, Mark, et al. “Mapping the Global Value and Distribution of Coral Reef Tourism.” Marine Policy, vol. 82, no. 1, 2017, pp. 104-113.
Coral reefs in Australia form a large ancient habitat for living things, thus making the region one of the fascinating sites across the world. The Australian and the Queensland land government collaborate in managing the Great Barrier Reef. The Great Barrier Reef forms the world’s largest coral reef ecology. The large size of the reef calls required great responsibility in a bid to manage and ensure the sustainability of the ecosystem.
This paper discusses the array of activities by human beings that are threatening the sustainability of the Great Barrier Reef. Apparently, the Great Barrier Reef has experienced threats from a plethora of human activities, economic explosion, and climate change.
A current report by the Great Reef Strategic Assessment (GRSA) conducted in 2014 affirms that even though coral reefs maintain their resilience as one of the most preserved marine ecosystems across the globe, there has been a superfluity of human activities, thus causing the decline of the reefs (Pyers, 2011). Consequently, the reef zone has encountered extreme effects of cyclones and floods, which compromise the capacity of the ecosystem to counter and cope with these alterations and other human interferences.
Poor water quality mounting from land runoff, coastal construction, impacts of exploration, and unregulated fishing pose threats to the sustainability of the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem. This pressure surpasses the chances of the reef to recover from the ever-emerging disturbances. This paper concludes by identifying that further threats will decline the outlook of the reef zone and worsen the situation coupled with endangering the extinction of marine life, causing an imbalance in the ecosystem, and triggering global warming.
Introduction
The Australian coral reefs provide one of the most valued natural features in the world. Following the ecological importance of the coral reefs, under the management of Australia and Queensland government, zoning of the coral area was done along the coastline, thus creating the Great Barrier Reef. The Great Barrier Reef covers approximately 2300 kilometers along the coastline with an enormous stretch of coral reefs.
The reef zone provides habitat for a large array of fish species, seabirds, coral, sea vegetation, and turtles, among other wildlife animals. Apart from marine life, the coral reef zone provides unique scenery, which attracts huge numbers of tourists, agriculturists, and a host of commercial activities.
Following the overwhelming environmental sustainability challenges and the ecological significance of the reef area, the United Nations Educational and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared the Great Barrier Reef as a World Heritage Center in 1981 (Veron, 2008).
This move was arrived at in an effort to regulate the ever-increasing human activities threatening the outlook and sustainability of the coral reefs. This paper will show that currently, several natural and human activities endanger the extinction of coral reefs in Australia, and if drastic measures to restore sustainability are not taken, the current situation of poor water quality, coral decline, climate change, and wildlife extinction ought to worsen.
Benefits of the Coral Reefs
The significance of the coral reefs in Australia goes beyond the alleged sustenance of a balanced ecosystem. For centuries, the coral reefs have had different functions influencing and enhancing human activities on the coastline. For instance, coral reefs play a critical role in cushioning the coastlines from erosion impacts of the strong wave currents and storms.
The strong network of extensive individual coral reefs has the capacity to calm strong water currents, which can cause excessive destruction to sea walls in their absence (Sweatman, Delean, & Syms, 2011). Coral reefs are home for diverse living organisms such as seabirds, snakes, whales, fish, and turtles, among other aquatic organisms. Coral reefs supplement the marine food chain since they provide nitrogen, and they are food to crown-of-thorns starfish. They also help in atmospheric balancing through carbon and nitrogen-fixing.
Excess emissions of the amount of carbon entering the water masses are taken up by the coral reefs, hence avoiding a possible glaciation of the ice sheets, which might lead to a rise in sea levels. This aspect highlights why marine species flourish in the reefs. This scenario has an economic factor for the Australian fishing and tourism industry. Most fishes find shelter in the reefs for fear of predators, thus making it easy for the anglers to know their localities.
The Australian economy is estimated to benefit from the Great Barrier Reef with more than 1.5 billion dollars annually from the fish and tourism industries. The reef region is also a fortress for scientific research and the creation of drugs coupled with the purification of water and air. The diverse number of species provides academicians with novel knowledge.
Threats due to the decline of coral cover
Apparently, based on 1985-2012 World Series Data collected by the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) on reef situation, a report of 2,258 surveys of 214 reefs shows that half of the coral cover is estimated to have deteriorated since 1985 (De’ath, Fabricius, Sweatman & Puotinen, 2012). A number of causes have been attributed to coral loss, but the important ones include tropical storms, cyclones, bleaching from ocean heating, and the coral-eating starfish.
The rising concentration of nutrients from run-off chemicals such as fertilizers is associated with the thriving of the crown-of-thorns starfish, which consumes the coral reefs. Overgrazing and poor landscaping allow run-off water to enter the water masses, thus compromising the water quality. Floods, cyclones, and bleaching are all effects of climate change.
Research shows that the last century has undergone extensive transformations that threaten a decline of coral reefs. The increasing carbon emissions will cause temperatures to increase up to about 2 – 3.5 degrees Celsius (Pyers, 2011). This trend is expected to accelerate the frequency and magnitude of storms, reduce ocean PH to more acidic levels, and lead to adverse drought spells and floods.
Corals digest carbon dissolved in water through the process of calcification. Due to the increased burning of fossil fuels and agricultural activities around the Great Barrier Reef, atmospheric carbon rises, seawater PH goes down, and calcification becomes complex (Veron, 2008). This aspect increases the formation of products that poison corals, and most of them die.
Once the coral is dead, aquatic life is most likely to follow the trend unless it adopts new coping measures. If temperatures go down, some of the corals survive, but the question is for how long this trend will go on. A possible extinction of the coral is likely if recovery measures are not taken. The past has not been desirable, as the effects of global warming have been adverse.
Mitigation measures
Currently, the progressing degradation of the Australian coral reefs has attracted attention from different sections from both local and global quarters, such as the Commonwealth and UNESCO. The ever-growing anthropogenic threats combine with natural calamities such as storms and cyclones to accelerate the frequency of degradation of the reefs (Watson, 2011). The authorities can do very little to control natural events, and regional policies alone cannot cushion the large-scale risks emerging from the impacts of global warming.
Nonetheless, the governments of Australia and Queensland are assisting by regulating grazing and agricultural activities to minimize terrestrial runoffs. These measures are also targeted at enhancing water quality through proper land use. Meanwhile, further zoning plans are being incorporated, and the Great Barrier Reef marine park and other adjacent preservation zones are targeted for expansion (Pyers, 2011).
The reformed zoning policies determine the activities that should be carried out in different specified areas. This plan underscores the necessity of protecting the ecosystem, coupled with delinking conflicting activities. For instance, mining and gas extraction are termed as potential threats to coral reefs, and they are currently unlawful.
Future predictions
Most studies show that whatever ought to happen to the coral reef condition in Australia in the near future is subject to the past and current human activities. By following past events and trends in climate change, it becomes difficult to reverse the effects of climate change, and very little can be done to slow the threats of coral extinction. If the upward trend in temperature rise remains consistent, reef mortality through bleaching will definitely increase (De’ath et al., 2012).
The analysis further shows that the rate in decline of coral cover ranges around 3% annually in the absence of natural factors such as bleaching, storms, and cyclones. This aspect means that if the anthropogenic threats are addressed and carbon cap measures are put in place, then the ecosystem can raise the capacity to recover and cope. In addition, improving water quality and using precautious measures in agriculture can help to protect further coral decline.
In 2003, the Australian government identified the link between poor water quality and the outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish and is committed to enhancing water quality (Sweatman et al., 2013). The poor water quality is attributed to the inflow of chemical effluents that pollute the water and endanger the lives of most organisms. In addition, they raise nutrient levels necessary for the growth of crow-of-thorn starfish.
Coral cover within the Great Barrier Reef is evidently declining, and thus fast mitigation is necessary to safeguard the listed World Heritage area in Australia. Given the procedural work in enforcing such measures, it is unlikely to have impacts in the short term (Veron, 2008). However, direct action is not only necessary but also required to minimize the growth of crown-of-thorns starfish and extra loss of corals.
Nevertheless, with or without improved mitigation, the coral cover will continue to decline mainly because past activities have majorly increased ocean temperatures and seawater acidity.
Marine life may not necessarily decline, but the severe conditions will compel the living organisms to adjust to new modes of survival since the food web will be distorted. This situation will tamper with the atmospheric cycle. Carbon entering the atmosphere will no longer be sufficiently absorbed in the water bodies, thus increasing air and water pollution (Watson, 2011).
The construction of industrial structures around the Australian reef, such as port, requires a lot of money. Lobby groups against human-related disturbances in the Great Barrier Reef have turned pressure to the funding institutions like the Deutsche Bank not to fund any more structures in the reef. The results are positive, as planned projects have delayed due to the insufficiency of finances. For example, in 2013, Glencore Xstrata withdrew its plan to construct a coal export terminal in Fitzroy Delta.
Further lobbying through media, non-violent demonstrations, and civic enlightenment might be necessary as opposed to inactivity as the Great Barrier continues to decline. The absence of the financial boost to invest has greatly reduced human activities around the areas marking huge steps toward reducing greenhouse gas effects.
Conclusion
Significant degradation of the coral reefs is expected to continue over time, and with no restrictive measures in place, loss of biodiversity will happen sooner than predicted. As corals die, the same will happen to marine life, since the number of the reefs will not be in a position to support marine life sufficiently, and it will respond by going down. This scenario makes local extinction possible.
These changes in the world’s most treasured reef are projected not only to harm marine life, but also the wellbeing of human beings who have benefited from the reef ecosystem for centuries. Nevertheless, it is not too late for careful and precise measures to be taken. The issue of global warming is beyond the control of a few interested groups or even specific governments. This aspect means that the international community should combine efforts and enforce the carbon task, which will transfer the carbon burden to specific polluters.
Therefore, stringent measures to slow, if not reverse, all threats emanating from different dimensions should be enforced. International and local communities should take responsibility to improve the capacity of the Great Barrier Reef to recover through environmental preservation policies.
References
De’ath, G., Fabricius, E., Sweatman, H., & Puotinen, M. (2012). The 27–year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. PNAS, 109 (4), 17995-99.
Pyers, G. (2011). Biodiversity of coral reefs. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark.
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Marine tourism or rather a tourism centred on water bodies and coral reefs is a critical aspect of the international tourism sector. This kind of tourism is widely growing than any other tourism sector specifically in the tropical regions. Marine tourism has been considered as a sustainable substitute for coral reef use, as opposed to the extractive activities such as the harvesting of the reefs and aquatic animals for commercial use. However, overwhelming research has identified that reefs become deteriorated, and they demean the amenity value of dive zones due to intensive tourist use. Recreational diving has been seen to affect coral reefs in two major ways: first, direct contact with coral structures via unintended disturbance leading to coral breakage and damage of coral anchorage during boat collisions. Second is via indirect effects due to distortion of water quality through the addition of toxic substances and increased turbidity.
The Sinai Peninsula in Egypt is a fascinating tourist attraction site for ecologically desired landmarks. This unique marine eco-system offer major resources for coastal inhabitants such as food, shoreline stabilisation and economic benefits from tourism. Egypt being a developing country has become very reliant on tourism as a foreign income generator. The region around the Red Sea has been targeted for tourism in the hope that it will increase tourism revenue and create job opportunities in the region. However, the relationship between tourism and environment conservation remains unbalanced. Tourism around the Red Sea is environmentally reliant, and the environment is susceptible to the uncontrolled tourist activities (Abu-Hilal & Al-Najjar 2009). This paper seeks to evaluate means to attain a balanced relationship between tourism and environmental sustainability.
The problem statement
The available tourist facilities along the Red Sea, Egypt, are enormous and form a potential threat to the marine ecosystem. Practices such as land reclamation are popular, in spite of the local authority standards restricting development within 30m of the high-tide demarcation. Due to beach filling and other developments, the fringing reef that covered the coastline has been severely degraded. Only a few of the diving sites are accessible to daily diving operations. Following the increased number of tourists visiting Hurghada and Aqaba annually, the possible damage could be detrimental to the marine ecosystem in the region. Since there is the conflict between developmental growth and environmental sustainability, there is a need for extensive review to find out how these conflicting issues can be balanced towards achieving sustainable economy in Egypt.
Approach
According to Apostolopoulos, Leontidou, and Loukissas (2014), tourism is seen as an industry with the capability to generate the highest foreign revenues in Egypt. Tourism offers many advantages to the domestic economy, and assists the conservation of the marine ecosystem by issuing an incentive to protect them. However, if tourist activities are not regulated, they can lead to massive destruction to coral systems. To continued viability, it is fundamental that recreational tourist practices are maintained below detrimental levels. This study will utilise an extensive literature review on human impact on coral reefs in Egypt Red Sea. With the current trend of diving activities in the Red Sea, it is evident that coral reef ecosystems are facing uncertain future with more than half of all coral reefs estimated to be threatened with extinction within the next two decades (Camp & Fraser 2012).
Therefore, it is inevitable to continue research in this area, as well as understand its dynamics and any related topic to as to enable the most appropriate conservation of the Egypt’s coral reef ecosystem. This study will focus on major diving spots that are located in Aqaba, Hurghada and Sharm El Sheikh. Sharm el-Sheikh is among the most popular diving spot and tourist attraction site in Egypt Red Sea. However, in a bid to preserve the good marine life and the coral with excellent visibility in the Sharm el-Sheikh, it is necessary to control the crowding of divers because may damage the coral reefs.
Review of the Egyptian reefs
Coral reefs are naturally productive and offer a broad range of advantages for humans. However, reefs in Egypt are under threat of indirect and direct human activities. For instance, recreational diving is a swiftly exploding activity among the international tourism sector (Tisdell 2013). As the Egyptian coastline has become more accessible and hospitality facilities improved, the number of tourists diving on this susceptible ecosystem has substantially increased. This spike in demand for diving services has been evidenced by the rise in the number of hotels in the Gulf of Aqaba from approximately five in 1989 to 141 in 2006 (Camp & Fraser 2012). Similarly, the number of boats has multiplied over the years causing damage to the corals. Over fifty genera of corals are now facing extinction due to poor management of diving activities among other human activities. Furthermore, a report by Tisdell (2013) indicates that more than 50 % of reefs face threats from local stressors such as diving, fishing, pollution, coastal development and among other recreational sports.
The Egyptian coastline has a large proportion and range of the coral reef, particularly in the Red Sea. The reefs stretch in the North to the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba to the Ras Hedarba. The Northern side of the Red Sea possesses the largest coral diversity. Live corals occupy an average of 48% of the Egyptian reefs. According to Hilmi et al. (2012), a study conducted in 2004 to identify the motivations for tourists to visit South Sinai indicated the climate was first motivation, followed by water sports, beaches, and good value for money. Diving is ranked fifth, while desert safaris and cultural events concluded list. Surprisingly, in the same study, tourists ranked coral reefs as the most fascinating aspect of their trip, climate, landscape, beaches, and hospitality. This rise in demand implies that there is the need to manage the climate since it is the number one factor attracting foreigners. When the corals and marine life is threatened, there is a possibility of atmospheric imbalance leading to change in weather conditions. Further degradation might lead to global warming meaning that foreigners will be less attracted to these sites in the near future. Therefore, diving should be conducted in a professional way to ensure that corals are not substantially damaged thus posing threats to the marine ecosystem.
Factors accelerating reef degradation in the Egyptian Red Sea
Urbanisation and opening to world trade have led to fast accessibility to the Egyptian coastline. The damage to the coastal habitats in the Red Sea has been minimal for the past decades compared to other regions. This difference is highly attributable to the low development and lack of fast accessibility. However, this is fast changing, and substantial damage has been caused around the Red Sea in the recent years. The natural expansion of cities and ports particularly within the Gulf of Suez has increased accessibility from Europe and other parts of the world (Badran, Manasrah, & Rasheed 2006). According to these authors, the ease of accessibility to the reef site has both adverse and positive implications for the reef ecosystems. Unfortunately, the authorities around the reef sites have focused on the benefits developing from tourist sector without putting into consideration the sustainability of this industry. Such lack of balance needs to be addressed appropriately to avoid damaging the reef to unmanageable extent.
Other human activities include exploration of natural resources such as oil and other minerals. Large oil tankers pass via the Egyptian coast posing the danger of accidental damage to reefs through either collision or oil spills. Exploration is a continued process that might cause huge damage to the coral reefs during installation of exploration equipment. Fishing activities also contribute to the damage of the reefs. The communities living around the Aqaba and Hurghada are economically reliant on fishing and farming activities (Barker & Roberts 2004). Most of the fish are caught using fishing boats and nets. Damage to coral reef is likely to occur when anglers cause direct physical damage to the corals while trampling over the reef when setting nets. Besides, fishing nets keep entangling with corals leading to breakage. Apart from diving activities, tourists contribute to coral reef degradation through waste disposal leading to water and air pollution (Dorgham, El-Sherbiny, & Hanafi 2012).
Review of the local threats to the coral reefs
During visits to the coral reef zones in Egypt, divers contribute to the economy by buying goods and services offered by local entrepreneurs. Diving is estimated to generate about $ 5-8 million yearly while divers cause damage to the coral reefs at a high rate surpassing the value of money generated from the business. Since diving cannot be discontinued, it is necessary to reduce the rates of dives per year. According to Hilmi et al. (2012), unregulated tourism practices vests a huge threat to the coral reefs in various ways. First, direct destruction caused by tourist use of the reefs and second through anthropogenic effects such as water contamination. Major damage is commonly observed within the first 15 meters depth, implying that poorly trained and inexperienced divers do substantial damage to the reefs (Bravo et al. 2015). A study by Brown (2015) shows that the Red Sea no longer stands out as a pristine destination to view the ordinariness of marine and coral reef ecosystems.
Damage to the coral reefs does not influence only marine life alone but also the entire ecosystem. Coral reefs among other aquatic living things are critical components that ensure atmospheric balance is achieved. The aquatic plants absorb excess carbon dioxide released by marine animals as well as carbon entering water bodies through oil spills. Therefore, any damage caused to the coral reefs poses the danger of atmospheric imbalance. This condition may lead to greenhouse gas effect and later cause climate change. When the climate conditions are unpredictable, tourists tend to be reluctant to travel since they are not aware of what to expect. However, since climate is the number one motivating factor for tourists to visit sites around the Red Sea, it is necessary for everyone to take responsibility to safeguard the reef system.
Rates of damage to corals by divers
Currently, Hurghada, Egypt, in the northern Red Sea is the home of the most visited coral reefs for recreational purposes in the region. Due to their increased proximity to Europe, and their diversity, reefs in Hurghada attract about 150,000 dives annually. During the last decade, reefs across the Red Sea have experienced extensive degradation due to intensive diving. In spite of the economic significance of diving practices, there is no adequate quantitative data regarding the relationship between diver activities and destruction rates to coral reefs in the Red Sea region. A comparative study done by Brown (2015) in Hurghada revealed that diving pressure resulted in increased damage to the coral reefs. Findings of this study revealed that divers were observed to contact the reef intentionally and unintentionally with their hands and diving equipment. In most cases, some divers were spotted breaking corals voluntarily and involuntarily. Underwater photographers are viewed as the worst offenders of among reef divers. Divers seeking to shoot videos and take photographs are most likely to use reefs as support to increase stability during the shooting progress (Buckley et al. 2015).
Overcrowding at dive sites may cause an intensive decline of the coral reefs (Attallah 2015). Overcrowding may lead to the reduction of the aesthetic value of the reef and congestion may lead to ecological dysfunction at given dive zones (Wielgus 2003). In most diver sites, the estimated rates of use have surpassed site capacity hence pushing the reefs past their tolerance levels. The implication of such diving practices would probably lead to huge deterioration at the frequently used zones (Thorburn 2013). However, since space limitation underneath and above water surface would likely reduce the divers’ experience and adventure, there is the need to create and implement control strategies that will facilitate responsible use and monitor practices in the sites.
Compare and contrast daily diving boat trips and live aboard safaris
The live-aboard safaris provide divers with the opportunity to access many scenic sites with a superb experience of marine ecosystem. The live-aboard safaris offer a diverse experience across the best dive sites of the Sinai Peninsula such as the Dunraven, SS Thistlegorm, and the Straits of Tiran among other wrecks in around the sea. With a live-aboard, it is quick and convenient to travel to a site than divers on daily diving boat trips. Apart from the adventure, having different diving sites helps avoid damage to coral reefs through overcrowding. On the other hand, daily diving boat trips tend to concentrate in similar locations leading to degradation of coral reefs due to frequent contact and pressure from divers and boats. The live-aboard safaris offer a sense of liberty, mobility and the comfort is unbeatable. Due to frequent diving by daily diving boat trips, their mobility is likely to be restricted to designated sites. These restrictive measures aim at reducing the rate of coral damage.
Touring on a live-aboard is viewed as the modest way of encountering the distinguished beauty of the Red Sea. The live-aboard safaris follow seasonal variations to ensure that divers experience the best sites at different times of a year or a day. Additionally, during high seasons, the live-board safaris are most appropriate means since they ensure that divers are evenly spread hence reducing the chances of concentrated damage to coral reefs (Tesfamichael & Pauly 2015). The daily diving boats create regions of extreme turbulence causing intense levels of coral damage and abrasion.
Implications of coral degradation
According to Eid and Shaltout (2016), the cost of marine ecosystem degradation, particularly coral reefs and fisheries in the Red Sea, is expected to double annually unless swift intervention measures are implemented. These expenses include losing natural capital, revenue from recreational activities, the cost of coastline management, and the cost of lose of marine resources such as fish. Research show that the replacement cost of a damaged coral reef might go up to US$ 3000 per square meter. Based on the rate of coral reef damage resulting from tourist activities, the total value of replacement is expected to hike rapidly. Since the reef around Aqaba and Hurghada are becoming flooded, the experienced divers are exploring new sites leading to substantial fall in revenue from marine recreational practices (Starkey, Starkey, & Wilkinson 2007). This knowledge is highly published in reports, but it is lacking among the reef management personnel. Egypt’s diving centres need capacity building to implement scientific management principles.
Building an artificial barrier to cover a deteriorated reef along the shoreline is approximated at US$ 12 million per km (Polak & Shashar 2012). Since the length of the affected shoreline is extremely large, the cost of coast maintenance would be quite high. Besides, the cost of lose of fisheries resources and other marine-related resources is likely to continue decreasing following the damage of the coral reefs that offer inhabitancies of the marine animals. The loss incurred in the fish production is estimated to keep increasing if intervention measures are not applied swiftly (Serour 2004). Additionally, the degradation of coral reef resources by human activities could adversely influence local cultures that are highly dependent on coral reef resources.
Factors contributing to dive enjoyment
Research indicates that fish abundance and other marine animals are the attributes that influence the selection of most fascinating dive site (Mewis & Kiessling 2012). Fish abundance influences are perceived as the number of fish species within a particular diving site. Ideally, this translates that there is greater need to preserve the coral reefs since they act as the habitats of the marine animals. When the coral reefs are diminished, there is likelihood that most fish species will become extinct since they lack hiding zones as well as balanced atmosphere. Environmental aspects such as climate and clear waters are also mentioned as attributes contributing to site selection. Good climate and clear underwater visibility are factors that are enhanced by the coral reefs (Marshall et al. 2010). On the other hand, poor underwater visibility and low population of fish species characterise poor diving sites. These sites are also likely to have been experienced coral reef degradation hence lowering the chances of aquatic animal survival.
Intervention measures by diving centres and dive masters
For the past five decades, Egypt has been aware of the need to conserve its coral reefs (Magris, Heron, & Pressey 2015). In spite of the slow progress to initiate relevant measures, the Tourism Development Authority advanced the concepts of ecotourism responsible for local programs for the conservation of marine ecology along the Red Sea. The Egyptian government has collaborated with dive centres to foster campaigns that challenge constructions near the coastline. Furthermore, dive centres in Egypt have come together and formulated a code of ethics and laws to regulate the environmental impacts of diving on the marine environment (Mansour et al. 2013). This code entails laws on the kind of equipment used and the capacity of diving sites.
Following the establishment of the Hurghada Environmental Protection and Conservation Association (HEPCA), they have tried to protect the marine ecosystem of the environment of the Red Sea. This program targets the collaboration of divers, dive instructors and policy makers. Therefore, site-managing agencies must facilitate cooperation with stakeholders to implement policies that encourage the awareness creation programs. Since dive-related tourism is an essential income generator, the sites should be managed to keep their aesthetic appeal and biological factors (Madkour 2011). Thus, it is in the best interest of dive operators to facilitate safe diving and with reduced impact on the coral reefs. While park managers might assume policies that initiate zoning regulations to reduce impacts, this might reduce the appeal and tourists would seek alternative sites. To maintain the attractiveness of sites, diving centres have sought collaborative action by engaging all stakeholders in awareness creation programs. Park managers have teamed with stakeholders to make an informed choice of diving zones.
Additionally, the HEPCA continues to orchestrate diver education that enlightens divers of their responsibilities and the need to promote the campaign on minimal impact diving (Jameson et al. 2007). Currently, diving centres have committed to professional training programs that aim at ensuring that they produce the best staff to aid in diving lessons and meet the increasing demand for diving services. Before diving sessions, instructors brief the divers on educational enlightenment about the importance of responsible diving practices. Moreover, diving instructors coordinate the number of divers targeting a particular dive site to ensure that there is no overcrowding. Diving centres have embarked on renovation programs that target severely damaged coral reefs within the diving sites (Hoegh-Guldberg 2009).
Recommendations
For management purposes, it is necessary to adapt the various criteria in reef preservation to minimise the rates of coral breakage inflicted by divers and regulate diving activities in the Red Sea region. First, it is necessary to minimise the number of divers targeting a particular site. This approach aims at reducing the rate of turbulence and contact made on the reefs (Hilmi et al. 2012). Since diving practices promote local economies, regional and national authorities as well as diving operators should discourage activities that impart stress on the coral reefs. To regulate the levels of use and avoid diving in crowded sites, it is necessary to increase the number of dive zones. The reasons should include but not limited to, a desire for a marine experience, interest in a specific marine feature or desire for hobbies such as underwater videography. When such strategies are adopted, diving pressure on particular sites will be distributed amongst various sites hence curbing diver-related deterioration (Hicks et al. 2014).
Second, divers under training or rather inexperienced divers should be directed to less reef populated zones as well as avoid sites dominated by fragile reefs. Training should be directed to more robust sandy zones and shallow lagoons until buoyancy skills are attained to reduce the avoidable damage to the corals (Hasler & Ott 2008). Third, all diving activities should be preceded by an environmentally sensitising briefing to stress the significance of coral reefs in maintaining critical ecosystems and vulnerability of such systems to physical contact. The adoption of a management strategy utilising these elements in the Red Sea may lead to considerable reduction in diver-linked stress at this highly relied and economically crucial tourist destination (Gladstone, Curley, & Shokri 2013).
Moreover, management programs should entail reef protection laws that prevent sewage discharge to water masses and controlling other sources of water and air pollution (Freeman, Kleypas, & Miller 2013). Local and national authorities should assume a more active role by hiring experts to manage the diving sector. For instance, in Sharm El Sheikh the number of boats is widely spread for the entire area, making it hard for divers to avoid contact with corals. Therefore, the number of divers and boats frequenting the Sharm need to be controlled by appropriate policies. Thus, Egypt will focus on improving tourism quality as a means of future increase in the quantity of tourisms.
While there is a substantial amount of research on the direct contact influences of divers and divers boats, there is need to focus on studying the secondary implications on coral reefs such as coral disease, and predation in coral reef ecosystem. Moreover, the ecological and biological success of particular management approaches such as development of synthetic reefs needs to be adequately evaluated to determine if they are proper uses of management resources. However, this study suggests that an artificial reef would be less appealing due to lack of natural marine life and a superb visibility such as the one present in Sharm area.
Conclusion
To avoid the conflict between recreation and conservation along the Red Sea region, the economic implications of the diving industry call for further research in this field. This further research should aim at unveiling plans and strategies that the sector can adopt to ensure sustainable diving practices. Carrying capacity demands should be addressed concerning site-specific elements and management goals. Further research should be done to factor out an alternative source of tourist attraction in Egypt that has substantial value towards the domestic economy. Further research should evaluate the effectiveness of artificial reefs as an alternative to easing crowding in the natural sites. Effective preservation will require the advocating of the adverse effects of diving and increased understanding of the benefits of quality diving. Support programs and guidance should be offered to motivate dive centres to intervene the danger to marine ecosystems.
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