Category: Coral Reef

State of Contacts

Coral reefs are animals that have become ancient and are found in the sea. These ancient animals are said to have evolved to form the reefs. They take along time to evolve and the ones that are available were formed 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. They are said to cover a small portion of the sea and they protect the animals found in the sea. The coral reefs are defined as structures that are produced by dead animals that live in the sea. They develop with low nutrients because high nutrients will kill them. This is because the high nutrients will cause algae to start growing thus suppressing the growth of the coral reefs. The formation of the coral reefs is a complex process because the bones of the fish have to accumulate and breakdown begins. These bones contain calcium carbonate and this facilitates the formation of the head of the coral reef (Anderson, Dennis, 1984).

Other sea animals like the parrotfish and the sponges help in the breakdown into small fragments and settle in the structure of the reef. There are other animals that contribute their skeletons for the formation of the coral reefs. The algae that is found in the sea also helps in reef building because they contain limestone and this is important in the integrity of the reefs. The building of the reefs takes place in photic zone because this zone allows sunlight to penetrate through and the process of photosynthesis occurs. They also have a relationship with the algae that is said to be symbiotic, that is, they benefit from each other. The algae helps the reefs to carry out the process of photosynthesis because ten reefs do not have any green matter. It is said that without this algae the coral reefs cannot or can be formed slower than the expected time of their full maturity. Corals reproduce from time to time both sexually and asexually by external or internal fertilization. The breakdown is facilitated by the movement of the waters in form of waves. The result of the breakdown is beautiful and colorful reef that supports the life of the animals found in the marine.

Introduction

Most of the coral reefs are found in typical waters and they spread on the bottom ocean. Temperatures do not have any affects of the coral reefs and thus their distribution is wild. Although the temperatures do not affect their growth, they do not grow in temperatures that are less than 18 degrees. There are those reefs that have started to adopt to the environment that is less than that minimum degrees and they are found in Persian gulf. According to research that has been carried out, the coral reefs are distributed in area covering 284,300 square kilometers in the Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The are not found in America because of the temperatures that are there.

Although these reefs are found in places where there are no nutrients they give support to the animals that are found in the sea. They survive on the nutrients that are recycled in the sea with other organisms. The animals shelter in these coral reefs to avoid predators that exist in the sea. The reefs absorb inorganic matter from the sea like phosphorus and nitrogen from the waters in the sea. They also depend on the mangrove forests for nutrient supply. They also feed the fish in the water. The reefs are the ones that are responsible for the prevention of the strong waves from heating theses trees by providing sediments. The reefs provide homes to thousands of fish that hide to reproduce or feed.

According to scientists there are over 4,000 species of fish that live in these waters. The fish that is found there either inhabit there for the rest of their lives or live there temporarily. There are other organs that are found there which are not fish. The coral reefs have been threatened by the humans over the past years. Other threats that the reefs face are those that are brought about by global warming. Humans pose a threat to them because they carryout activities like over-fishing and digging the sea for the purpose of building islands, destroying mangrove trees and shipping that takes place in the sea. There is research that is being carried out by scientists in order to determine the ways that the threats that are posed by the humans are minimized. Over-fishing is another problem that should be solved. The reason why over-fishing takes place is because the populations of the humans has increased in the recent decades and thus more demand for food. The humans also release pollutants in the sea and this has affected the corals. There are no laws that regulate the pollution of the sea. Global warming has affected the life of the corals because it has cause the temperatures to increase thus affecting the formation of the corals.

The coral reefs are important in the sheltering of the marine animals found the sea. They are said to inhabit most animals in the life of marine and it is usually in a tiny area. This prevents the humans from overfishing and also ensure that the fish increase in population. They also help humans to make money because the reefs are beautiful. They do this by providing tourist attraction sites, they generate sand that is found in the beach and provide free economic services. They are used for attraction and it is said that over 3 million dollars can be collected from the tourism sites. They are also important in controlling the amount of carbon that is in the water and this helps to balance the gases in the water. This is important because it the amount of carbon is not regulated the fish and other organisms in the sea would die because of lack of oxygen (Barnes, 1987).

They do this by turning the carbon dioxide into limestone. The other importance is that they prevent the strong waves from reaching the shores thus they protect the environment from being washed away by the waters, erosion, and loss of property. They also provide food to humans. It is estimated that over one billion people in the world depend on the food that comes from the sea. They do this by providing a nursery where fish can be found and harvested. According to recent research it is projected that coral reefs will be used as source of medicine. This is because the reefs have started to be used as medicine to treat cancer and other ailments. They also have intrinsic value to the communities that live near where they are found (Glynn, et al, 1984).

Types of Coral Reefs

There are various types of coral reefs. One is the fringing type. These are the reefs that form in the coast lines. They are the ones that grow in the shallow waters of the coastlines. They are very young as they develop and are also narrow. Another type is the barrier reef. These reefs are found in the shores but are usually separated by lagoon from the land. They have been given the name because they are a barrier between the sea and the lagoon. They are found in Australia and cover a distance of 2300 kilometers. Coral Atolls is another type of reef that grow on the volcanoes in the sea. When the volcanic activity has taken place it sinks and this is where the atolls grow. They remain after the volcanoes sink in the water. They are mainly formed by the rise of the sea levels other than the sinking islands. There are two categories of the corals, hard coral and soft coral. The hard corals are the ones that are involved in the process of reef building and the soft corals do not develop into full reefs.

Conclusion

Since the reefs have proven to have several importances care should be taken. There is some evidence that the destruction of the coral reefs takes place. Humans are the ones that pose threats to the survival of the coral reefs. They do this by pollution in the sea, removing the coral reefs for sale and sedimentation. The other threat that the reefs are facing is the changes that are taking place in weather. This will affect the survival and the formation. If the weather continues to change there will be no formation of the reefs in future. Destructive fishing practices is also another threat to the corals because humans use dynamites and cyanide that are very dangerous. These threats can be controlled by formation of laws that will be enacted by the countries that are surrounded by the sea (MacLeish, 1973).

The laws will act to reduce overfishing as well as the dangerous fishing habits that are in existent. Another area that should be looked at is the careless tourism that has developed over the years. This include coral mining snorkeling and careless boating. Pollution should be avoided at all costs and this involves banning of releasing any chemicals in the sea. Erosion is another factor that needs to be seriously considered and this is caused by the the building that takes place around and in the sea. The world should be ready to embrace the fight against global warming as this is a threat to the corals.

Works cited

1. Anderson, Dennis. Conservation in Grand Cayman. One Islands Chance to Make it Work. Oceanus 17 (5), 1984.
2. Barnes, Robert D. Invertebrate Zoology. Fifth edition. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1987.
3. Glynn, Peter W. and Gerald M. Wellington. Corals and Coral Reefs of the Galapagos Islands. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
4. MacLeish, Kenneth. Exploring Australias Coral Jungle. National Geographic 143 (6), 1973.

There are few misconceptions about what are corals? Are they plants? Or are they animals? Coral reef are the rain forests of the sea. It is the most biologically diverse marine ecosystem, yet they only cover a small portion of the ocean floor and many of their inhabitants remain a mystery. The number of invertebrate species that live in the coral reefs is estimated to range from 1 to 10 million, many of which are still unknown and not yet discoverd. In addition to corals, encrusting bryozoans, sponges, and calcareous red algae act as biological-cement, keeping the reef framework intact. The diverse benthic flora and fauna along with the calcium carbonate under structure increases the habitat heterogeneity, which provides a refuges from predators for invertebrates such as crabs, lobster, sea urchins, small fishes, and molluscs. The diversity of pelagic species is equally vast. Above waters where the coral reefs are found, nearly 25% of all marine fishes are found. therefor, it is one of the most diverse ecosystem on the planet, on-par with their terrestrial counterpart, tropical rain forests.

The “coral triangle is an are in the western pacific region where a diverse species of marine organism gather. The area is comprise of the Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines waters. known for its diverse species of nearly 600 of reef-building corals alone, and six of the worlds seven species of marine turtles and more than 2000 species of reef fishes are being foster here. it also supports a large number of commercialize tuna, supporting a billion dollar worth of tuna industry worldwide, millions of lives depends on the coral triangle and relies on the coral reefs for sustenance, and protection from waves that is form by storms.

Corals are marine colonial invertebrates (meaning animals that don’t have backbone) that are found in ocean floor. Hermatypic are corals that are known to construct reefs, or “hard” corals, generate a hard, durable exoskeleton that protects their soft, sac like bodies by taking out calcium carbonate from the seawater. While “soft” corals are known to be species of corals that are not related in reef building. These kinds of corals are pliable organism usually hold a similarity to tress and plants that comprise of species such as sea fans and sea whips.

Coral reef formation

Coral reefs form from free- swimming coral larvae that will attach to plunged rocks or other solid surface through the sea bottom. As the corals develop and grow, the reefs has three significant characteristics structures barrier, fringing, or atoll. the most familiar is the fringing reefs, from the shore it extend seawards at-once, it creates boundary along the neighboring islands and its onshore. Barrier reefs also borders shorelines, but in a wider range. They are separated from their close by land mass by an open lake, often below water. If a fringing reef aptitude around a volcanic islands that sinks thoroughly below sea level while the coral remains to grow upward, an atoll forms, normally atolls are oval or circular, with arch lagoon. Pieces of the reef structure may arise as additional islands, and space between the reefs gives ingress to the arch lagoon.

In addition to being some of the most attractive and biologically diverse habitats in the ocean, barrier reefs and atolls also are some of the most aged, with unfolding rates of 0.3 to 2 centimeters per year for branching corals, it can take up to 10,000 years for a coral reef to arrange from a bunch of larvae. Reckoning on their size, barrier reefs and atolls can take from 100,000 to 30,000,000 years to completely form.

All three reef stripes, fringing, barrier, and atoll share proportions in their biogeographic articles, basic topography, lore, wave and course strength, light, temperature, and transferred sediments all act to conceive characteristic horizontal and vertical zones of corals, algae and other species. These zones vary in accordance to the locality and stripes of reef, as they move seaward from the shore, are the reef flat, reef crest or algal ridge, buttress zone, and seaward slope.

Coral reef ecological function

coral reef structure also buffers the shoreline against 97% of the energy that is produce by waves, storm, and floods, helping to prevent loss of life, property damage and erosion. The absence of this natural barrier can increase the damage to coastal communities form normal wave action to violent storm. Several million people live in coastal areas adjacent to or near coral reefs.

B. Coral physiology

Octocorallians have an inmost chassis. Part of mid way chassis stows calcic spicules. Spicules are also most piled of blend. They petrify and save the polyps. Other octocolorians own central abstract obliged up of proteid. Reef-building corals beam an outer gaunt cup of a dysprosium carbonate. This bony cup fends the polyp: when the polyp engage, its almost completely inside the skeletal cup. The stomach part of reef-building corals also involve dazzling lime barrier. These barrier involve up from polyps base and show the skeleton.

Since corals are animals they have small, tentacle like arm that they use to access their food from the water and sweep into their inscrutable mouths. The mouth leads into the stomach aperture. The stomach chamber partitioned by linear veil called mesenteries. It increases the aspect of the abdomen part, which aids in dissolution. The border of the mesolocon in the reef building corals batch long mobile fiber, these fiber can protrude direct the mouth to seize food. mesolocon also accommodate the genital cell.

C. Genetic Properties

A research conduct by The University of Queensland and James Cook University publish at the DNA level how coral link with ally same as algae and germs to divide methods and raise health resilient coral. UQ’s Dr Steven Robbins said the research can help in the renewal of the world’s prepared coral reefs.

“Symbiotic correlation are spectacular important for wealthy corals,” Dr Robbins said.

“Mostly evident example of this is coral whiten, where corals ban their algal symbiotic companion at higher-than-normal water condition,” he said.

“Algae make up the size of the coral’s food between photosynthesis, the coral will pass away if condition don’t bracing enough to let symbiosis to restore.

“It’s viable that justly main interchange are happening through corals and their germs and single-cell microorganisms (archaea), but we don’t know.

“To accurately cope our reefs, we need to know how these correlation work, and botany is one of our best tools.

“Botany accept us to look at each organism’s whole library of genes, helping us work out how coral symbiotic association might help coral health”.

“Research the scientists get hold of a sample of the coral Porites lutea from a reef near Orpheus Island, just north of Townsville.

In lab, they divide the coral animal, its algal ally and all partner microbes, extract each structure DNA.

“Once we’ve orderes the genomes, we use computer algorithms to look at the whole library of genes that each creatures has to work with,” Dr Robbins said.

“It let us to answer questions like, what nutrients does the coral need, but not make itself?”

Associate Professor David Bourne from JCU and the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) said that having high-quality genomes for a coral and it’s microbial partners is hugely important.

“Large advances in human medication have been reach in the past 20 years since the human genome was unravel,” he said.

“Over the next 20 years, same knowledge of corals and how they function will emerge – this data set be a foundation for that.

“The first time, we now have the genomes of a huge number of the microbes that make up this coral, which is amazing important for their endurace.

“It’s truly ground-breaking – this is the blueprint for coral and their symbiotic communities.”

The researchers hope the research may help imperilled coral reefs globally.

“Our coral coral reefs support incredible diversity and when we lose reefs, we lose far more than corals,” Dr Robbins said.

There are many threats to coral, but climate change is the most existential for our reefs.

“In 2016 and 2017, nearly 50 percent of all corals on the Great Barrier Reef died, and we don’t see this trajectory reversing if carbon emissions remain at current levels.

“But, as scientists we can try to understand what makes corals tick to devise ways to make them more resilient, and we’re delighted to have added to that body of knowledge.”

The researchers paid credit to Dr Sylvain Foret from ANU who contributed to the study up until his sudden death in 2016.

Corals can reproduce asexually and sexually, the reproductive method vary according to the species. Evolution is part of the life process of any living things, corals have evolved a remarkable range of reproductive strategies to survive in their dynamic environment. Reproduction is important for the survival of all living things. Without a mechanism of reproduction, life would come to an end.

Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction from a single cell or from a multicellular organism inherit the genes of that parent.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

In asexual reproduction the organism spend less energy in producing offsprings, also, the organism doesn’t require a mate so the process of reproduction is a lot faster. In terms of habitat conditions, organism that reproduce asexually has advantage, with a large number of organism, species would still survive even when the conditions change and the number of predators varies.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

Take note that asexual reproduction does not have genetic diversity. Asexual organism have lesser chance of adapting to environmental changes. Often, it require a single parent, from which the chromosomes and genes are copied. This means the genetic mutation or defects which could be bred out in asexual reproduction would be present in the offspring with no exception. Since the reproduction is faster in asexual organism, the problem of over population will occur and there’s a big possibility that they would compete for food and space. It can also lead to unfavorable conditions for organism, such as extreme temperature, that can wipe out their entire community since that organism that is produce asexually have the same traits the chances of extinction is at a higher rate.

Processes of Asexual reproduction

Budding through budding, new polyps “bud” off from parent polyps to form new colonies. Budding is where a young coral grows out from the adult polyp. In biology, a form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual develops from some generative anatomical points of the parent organism. In some species buds may be produced from almost any point of the body, but in many cases budding is restricted to specialized areas.

Fragmentation an entire colony (rather than just a polyp) branches off to form a new colony. This may happen, for example, if a larger colony is broken off from the main colony during a storm or boat grounding. Fragmentation is a method where the body of the organism breaks into smaller pieces, called fragments and each segments grows into an adult individual.

B. Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the combination of (usually haploid, or having a single set of unpaired chromosomes) reproductive cells from two individuals to form a third (usually diploid, or having a pair of each type of chromosomes) unique offspring. Sexual reproduction produces offspring with novel combinations of genes.

Hermaphroditic species spawn both eggs and sperm together form each polyp. The eggs and sperm are spawned together in a bundle that protects them from dilution for a few minutes while they float up to the water surface, allowing them to be more collected.

Gonochoric species have colonies with separate sexes (male colonies produce sperm and female colonies produce eggs). Collecting gametes from these species is a greater challenge because gametes rapidly dilute in the water column.

Advantages of sexual reproduction

In sexual reproduction where two individual is needed to produce an offspring through joining the gametes of male and female during fertilization. It produces genetic variation in the community and will be able to adapt new environments due to this variation, which gives them a survival advantage. Another advantage is that if ever a disease or virus hits the population it will less likely to wipe out the entire community. Also the success rate of producing an offspring through sexual reproduction is almost 100%.

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

the disadvantages of sexual reproduction is that its hard to find a mate that is genetically compatible. It is not possible for an isolated individual to reproduce, so the population of the species that reproduce via sexual reproduction is rather low or the process of which a specie propagate is slow compare to asexual reproduction.

Processes of sexual reproduction

Broadcast spawners generally spawn during annual mass spawning events in one or more consecutive months. For well-studied coral species, we can predict the timing almost to the minute. The annual cycling of water temperature sets the month, the moon cycle determines the day, and sunset triggers the spawning that usually occurs within a few hours after dusk.

Most corals are hermaphrodites each polyp is both male and female and from egg-sperm bundles a few hours before spawning. The bundles are released simultaneously within a few minutes and drift to the water surface. After about half and hour they break apart and become ready for fertilization. Having buoyant gametes that gather at the water surface in a defined volume of water ensures a high enough sperm concentration for successful fertilization.

For several days, the embryo drifts in the ocean as plankton while developing into a larva. It starts to divide and forms a spherical blastula within hours. Gastrulation then shapes a simple concave sac, called the gastrovascular cavity, which consist of two cell layers. Soon after cilia have developed on the larva’s surface, it becomes mobile, and actively swims down to the sea floor to start searching for a suitable place to settle.

Brooding in most species, larvae release is determined by the moon cycle and occurs after sunset. Larvae of brooding species are available for a much longer time period, compared to the annual mass spawning event of broadcast spawners. Brooders usually release relatively few and large larvae that settle right after their release. The larvae typically have a brownish color due to the zooxanthellae that are present at the larvae’s release.

Abstract

Coral reefs are increasingly subjected to both local and global stressors, however, there is limited information on how reef organisms respond to their combined effects under natural conditions. This field study examined the growth response of the damselfish Neopomacentrus bankieri to the individual and combined effects of multiple abiotic factors. Turbidity, temperature, tidal movement, and wave action were recorded every 10 minutes for four months, after which the daily otolith growth of N. bankieri was aligned with corresponding abiotic conditions. Temperature was the only significant driver of daily otolith increment width, with increasing temperatures resulting in decreasing width. Although tidal movement was not a significant driver of increment width by itself, the combined effect of tidal movement and temperature had a greater negative effect on growth than temperature alone. Our results indicate that temperature can drive changes in growth even at very fine scales, and demonstrate that the cumulative impact of abiotic factors can be substantially greater than individual effects. As abiotic factors continue to change in intensity and duration, the combined impacts of them will become increasingly important drivers of physiological and ecological change.

It has been well established that fluctuations in abiotic factors can influence natural environments across multiple organisational scales Abiotic influences on individual species can drive changes in community composition and ultimately ecosystem function. As multiple lines of evidence accrue that humans are fundamentally modifying abiotic properties of ecosystems, it has become increasingly imperative to understand how these modifications influence organisms.

Coral reefs are one the most productive and biologically diverse marine ecosystems on Earth and also one of the most threatened by human pressure. Coral reefs are increasingly subjected to local stressors, such as changes in water clarity from land-based runoff and to global stressors, such as rising temperaturesand decreasing pH levels, due to climate change. Additionally, oceanographic features such as wind-wave climate are changing in response to rising temperatures. Given the changes that are occurring, it is crucial to understand how human-induced and natural fluctuations in abiotic variables interact with each other and how organisms respond to the combined effect of local and global stressors.

Our understanding of how abiotic factors directly affect coral reef fish has improved substantially over the last several years. Laboratory studies have indicated that turbidity can reduce foraging success, leading to reduced growth. Increased temperature coupled with unlimited food supply can result in higher growth rates of coral reef fish. However, above an optimal temperature, or in low food conditions with high temperature, growth declines. Wave action and water flow can both positively and negatively impact foraging success in planktivorous fishes. Nevertheless, despite increased knowledge on the effects of single abiotic factors, laboratory studies examining the effects of multiple abiotic factors on fish are in their infancy. Even when they exist, they are often focused on abiotic factors related to climate change, particularly temperature and ph. Furthermore, while laboratory studies have the advantage of being able to control multiple abiotic factors, organisms’ responses are often tested under static conditions. In the natural environment, abiotic factors vary over independent spatial and temporal scales. The timing, overlap, and intensity of each abiotic factor will greatly influence the response of individuals. Understanding how abiotic factors influence coral reef fishes under natural conditions remains an important knowledge gap that is fundamental to our understanding of the risks facing marine resources.

Stochastic fluctuations in abiotic factors makes identifying the right scale or appropriate measures to assess the potential effects a challenge. Otolith biochronology is being increasingly employed to hind-cast the effects of abiotic factors on fish, often on annual and decadal scales. However, hind-casting over such large time scales often requires the use of biogeochemical proxies or coarse resolution environmental data, both of which increase the uncertainty in identifying specific drivers of change. A similar approach could be applied to examining the effects of abiotic fluctuations on daily otolith growth in fish. The width of daily otolith increments can provide estimates of daily resolved growth and has been used and validated as a common proxy for daily growth for several coral reef species. While individual variations in growth may exist, the overall shared growth pattern of multiple fish within a population will reflect any environmental signal. Thus, a combination of high resolution turbidity, temperature, wave, and tide (a proxy for water flow) data and daily measurements of otolith growth from fish experiencing known conditions can provide unique insight into how fluctuating environmental conditions may affect fish growth. An analysis of this kind will allow us to refine our understanding of the role of different abiotic factors in driving fish growth and how fish growth may change as each factor changes.

This study examined the daily otolith incremental widths of juvenile Neopomacentrus bankieri, a planktivorous damselfish, from three inshore coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef. Measurements of turbidity, temperature, wave action, and tidal forcing at each reef were taken every 10 minutes for four months prior to the collection of fish. The growth increments of the otoliths of collected individuals were matched with the corresponding daily average of each parameter to determine the strength and significance of turbidity, temperature, tidal fluctuations, and wave action on daily growth.

Results

Measurement of environmental parameters

Turbidity ranged from 0-120.8 NTU across all sites from April 2nd to August 2nd in 2013 with peaks usually lasting for a few days before returning to background levels. Temperature ranged from 20.3–30.0 °C across all sites, with daily average temperature reducing throughout the study period from the highest level in April to the lowest in August. Wave action, measured as root mean squared (RMS) pressure, was quite variable throughout the study period, ranging from 0–0.162 m. The tidal range in the region ranged from 0.9–6.3 m, with variations occurring over a period of approximately 2 weeks. Daily average turbidity, wave action, and tidal range varied throughout the study period, whereas daily average temperature had a clear temporal signature.

Relationship between somatic growth and otolith growth

There was a strong positively correlated relationship between both otolith length and width and standard length. The residual plots of the model indicated that the residuals were consistent with stochastic error. There was a much stronger relationship between otolith morphometrics and fish standard length than between the age of the individual and standard length (r2 = 0.71).

Relationship between abiotic factors and daily growth rate

Temperature was the only abiotic factor that significantly drove changes in growth, with higher temperatures leading to lower growth rates. This was regardless of the time of year the fish were caught, as date of growth was included in the model. Although not significant, there was a negative relationship between otolith growth and tidal range. Conversely, there was a positive, but non-significant relationship between wave action and otolith growth. Finally, there was no trend between turbidity and growth.

Effect of cumulative impacts on growth

The results of the cumulative impact assessment for turbidity and temperature indicated there was no difference in growth among “control”, “individual effects”, or “combined effects” conditions. Growth was significantly lower when fish were exposed to both high temperature only (P = 0.007) as well as high temperatures and large tidal ranges compared to growth during low temperatures and small tidal range conditions. Growth in fish exposed to the combined effects of high temperature and large tidal ranges was also significantly lower than growth in fish exposed to low temperatures but large tidal ranges (i.e., the individual effect of tide) (P = 0.03). Although there was not a significant difference between the individual effect of temperature and the combined effects of temperature and tide, the Cohen’s d values for the effect sizes among the four conditions indicate that the combined effect of temperature and tidal range was greater than the individual effect of each abiotic factor.

When the combined effects of temperature and wave action were examined, there was a significant reduction in growth between the control condition (low temperature high wave action) and both the combined effects condition (high temperature low wave action) and the individual effect of temperature condition (high temperature high wave action) (P = 0.03). The Cohen’s d values indicate that there was limited additional influence of wave action when combined with temperature.

Discussion

Small scale ecological processes such as foraging and growth are imperative for ecosystem functioning and population persistence. This study illustrated that temperature was the primary abiotic factor driving coral reef fish otolith growth. Furthermore, our results indicate that even when tidal movement did not individually mediate changes in otolith growth, when combined with temperature, it caused a significant reduction in daily otolith growth beyond those seen by temperature alone. To our knowledge, this is the first time that otolith biochronology has been used to assess how multiple abiotic factors mediate fine-scale changes in coral reef fish otolith growth and represents a significant progression in our ability to detect and predict how abiotic fluctuations impact coral reef fish.

Our results are consistent with previous studies that have also indicated that temperature can mediate otolith growth. Temperature plays a role in growth due to the acceleration of metabolic rates in warmer temperatures. McLeod et al.found that larvae fed ad libitum increased daily growth as temperature increased, but also found that larvae on restricted diets had slower daily growth rates as temperature increased. Faster growth rates in higher temperatures can only be supported if ingestion rates increase, due to increased metabolic rates, which increases exponentially rather than linearly with temperature. Additionally, increased temperature will only support increased growth up to an optimal temperature, after which, growth rates decline dramatically. McLeod et al. recorded a non-linear relationship between larval otolith growth and mean water temperatures in two species, with the thermal optima for growth being surpassed at low latitude sites. Similarly, Morrongiello and Thresher only found a strong negative correlation between temperature and otolith growth in tiger flathead when at their equatorward range limit. Given that the results of the present study found a linear reduction in otolith growth as temperature increased, it is possible that there was not more food available to match the demands of the increases in metabolic rate due to increased temperature.

Several studies have identified potential drivers that could influence both otolith increment widths and somatic growth, including feeding regime and lipid reserves. In contrast, Kingsford et al. found that water chemistry could change increment width, which would be unlikely to drive changes in somatic growth. However, the strong relationship found in this study between otolith dimensions and standard length of individual N. bankieri suggests that abiotic factors that are influencing otolith growth will also influence somatic growth. Additional factors, such as carry-over effects from pre-settlement life stages, may influence growth trajectories if they differ consistently among sites. The vast majority of sampled fish in the present study were over 30 days old at the time of capture, thus making it problematic to test for site-specific carry-over effects influencing larval phenotype. However, while individual anomalies may make it difficult to compare otolith increment growth to absolute somatic growth, the use of population level otolith growth as a proxy for population level somatic growth can provide reasonable estimates, particularly in data poor regions or with species where laboratory testing is not possible.

Previous meta-analyses have examined the potential for additive, synergistic, or antagonistic responses to multiple stressors. However, all of these meta-analyses were based on experimental studies that were able to control conditions. Given that abiotic variables vary independently, it was not possible in our dataset to completely control for each variable. However, our results show that even when tide did not drive significant variation in growth, the combined effect of tide and temperature was greater than temperature alone. Increased temperature has been shown to reduce the aerobic scope of coral reef fishes, which could diminish their ability to effectively capture prey. Additionally, large tidal fluctuations can increase flow rates, which can make it harder for fish to catch prey. A reduced capacity to react with fast moving prey could increase evasion success in planktonic prey. In coral reef fishes, like most other organisms, food acquisition is one of the key daily activities dictating individual performance such as growth, reproduction and life expectancy. Ultimately foraging success and growth can strongly affect patterns of distribution, abundance and population dynamics.

Contrary to expectations, turbidity had no effect on daily growth. This is in contrast to published studies that show an effect of suspended sediment on coral reef fishes. One of the potential confounding effects is that the sediment on nearshore reefs in the Great Barrier Reef is nutrient enriched. When sediment is re-suspended, even if the fish could have reduced visual acuity, the nutrient enriched sediment may increase their food supply, and counteract any negative effects on foraging. However, Johansen and Jones found that Neopomacentrus bankieri did not experience a negative effect on foraging until 8 NTU; a daily average exceeded 30% of the time on the study reefs. N. bankieri is only found on nearshore reefs, whose communities can possess inherent resistance to higher turbidity based on natural turbidity regimes. It was not possible to catch a species that occurs across multiple turbidity regimes, due to the extremely low abundances of other species on these coral reefs, despite suitable habitat (A. Wenger, unpublished data). Further research should focus on other species found on both turbid and clear-water coral reefs.

Climate-change models predict that tropical sea surface temperatures will increase by up to 3 °C this century. Our results show that present day temperatures are already negatively affecting growth. While we were not able to measure food availability, food is rarely unlimited in the marine environment. It is evident, based on the results, that N. bankieri individuals were not able to maintain consistent growth rates through increases in their food intake. Elevated ocean temperatures are predicted to cause a 2–20% reduction in global marine primary production by 2100, which will be superimposed onto plankton communities that are naturally variable on a broad range of spatial and temporal scales. Food variability combined with fluctuating abiotic factors will create a gradient of conditions that fish will face. Planktivorous coral reef fishes play a principal role in the continued health and diversity of coral reef ecosystems. Planktivorous fishes represent ~22% of all coral reef fish species and account for ~60% of the total fish biomass on coral reefs. They are also the main food source for many ecologically and commercially important predator species. Given that fishes in early life history stages require more energy than adults to withstand starvation (due to high metabolic rates and low energy storage) and are more prone to mortality, temperature will differentially affect early life history stages of coral reef fishes. Small changes in mortality during early life history stages can have large impacts on cohort success. Our study highlights the importance of examining systems holistically to be able to truly understand how each variable influences growth.

Methods

Measurement of environmental parameters

Three inshore coral reef locations in the Great Barrier Reef were chosen as study sites: Bay Rock Reef, Middle Reef, and Rattlesnake Island Reef. In the GBR, the term ‘inshore’ applies to areas within 6 to 20 km of the coast. Ecosystems within this inshore area, including coral reefs, are under pressure from increased sediment and nutrient loads carried by land runoff. The three reefs considered in this study are exposed to runoff from the Burdekin River, the main sources of terrestrially sourced suspended sediment in the GBR.

On the 2nd and 3rd of April, 2013, two nephelometers were placed at each reef within 200 meters of each other. The nephelometers were mounted on heavy steel frames that raised the instrument ~40 cm off the seafloor. Turbidity, temperature and pressure measurements were recorded every 10 min. Each turbidity and temperature record was an average of 250 measurements taken over a 1 sec period, the same was done for pressure; however, 10 consecutive readings were taken over a period of 10 seconds. The mean of the 10 pressure readings was then calibrated to provide a water depth, which was used to measure tidal variation, whilst their root-mean-square was used to give an expression of the variation in seabed pressure due to wave action (in meters). It should be noted that the 10 second period for the pressure measurements may not be long enough to detect all long wavelength swell waves, however these waves are uncommon in the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon. Sensors were equipped with an anti-fouling wiper which was activated every 2 h. The nephelometer was calibrated before deployment to the standard 200 Nephelometer Turbidity Units (NTU). On the 14th of June, each nephelometer was retrieved, the data were downloaded, and the batteries were changed. The nephelometers were then re-deployed in the same locations.

Fish growth analysis

All collections were approved by the James Cook University Animal Ethics Committee, approval number A1932 and were completed in accordance to the guidelines laid out by the ethics committee and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. From July 31st-August 2nd, 2013, juvenile Neopomacentrus bankieri were collected from each reef, between the two nephelometers, using clove oil and hand nets. Neopomacentrus bankieri is a planktivorous damselfish primarily found on inshore coral reefs. Thirty-seven, 28, and 21 individuals were collected from Bay Rock, Middle Reef, and Rattlesnake, respectively. Sagittal otoliths were extracted from each specimen and processed for interpretation of daily growth increments (DGIs). Sagittae were embedded on the end of a glass slide using Crystalbond 509 and ground to the nucleus using a lapidary grinding wheel (1200 grit). Sagittae were then re-affixed to the slide with the ground surface down and polished from the opposite side to produce a transverse section approximately 150 μm thick. Both sides of the resultant transverse section were then polished using 9, 3, and 0.3 μm lapping film sequentially, and polishing ceased when optimum clarity was achieved for interpretation of DGIs. Age was assigned to individuals by counting the DGIs from the core on three independent occasions using a compound microscope and final age was taken as the mean of the three counts, provided all counts were within 10% of the median. Samples with counts >10% of the median were excluded from the analysis. Settlement marks (representing settlement onto the reef benthos and metamorphosis from larval to benthic-associated stages) were identified as Type 1 following.

Increment-width profiles were established for each individual using the Leica IM50 software. Increment widths were measured along the longest axis on the ventral side of the otolith. Increment-width profiles were “transition-centred” following.

Relationship between somatic growth and otolith growth

In order to assess the relationship between otolith growth and somatic growth, a series of linear regressions were performed. The following relationships were examined: otolith length to standard length, otolith width to standard length, and post-settlement age to standard length. The residual plots of each model were examined to confirm random distribution of residuals.

Relationship between abiotic factors and daily growth rate

In order to determine the relationship between abiotic factors and daily growth rate, the daily average for turbidity, temperature, wave action, and tidal range was calculated for each reef, by averaging the measurements from each nephelometer. The presence of a clear settlement mark on the otoliths allowed for a calculation of date of settlement by back calculating from their death date using daily otolith rings. The otolith increment growth data for each fish was matched up with the appropriate daily average of the abiotic data. We offset the abiotic data by one day because of the lag time of 24 hours based on previous research which has shown that it takes 24 hours for settlement age pomacentrids to assimilate food and grow. Only the first 14 days post-settlement were used, as this was the most reliable area on the sagittae to age and the majority of fish (99%) had data spanning this range.

Linear mixed effects modelling fit by restricted maximum likelihood was used to assess the significance of turbidity, temperature, tidal movement, and wave action in explaining variations in growth. Since regression-based models can be sensitive to variables that are correlated, the variance inflation factors (VIF) for all predictor (i.e., abiotic) parameters used in the model were calculated to check for multi-collinearity. The VIFs for all parameters fell well below the common threshold value and therefore, no parameters needed to be excluded on the basis of collinearity. Individual predictors were mean-centred to facilitate model convergence. Because daily growth increments decline with each day, and to ensure the population level trend was not outweighed by individual variability, a standardised daily growth index for each age was calculated as where GIs is the standardised growth, GIw, is the individual growth increment width, and GIm is the mean growth increment width within each age group. The linear mixed effects model was generated using the lmer function in the R package lme4, with turbidity, temperature, tide, and wave action set as fixed factors and site and date set as random effects. We assumed a Gaussian distribution and checked the normal distribution of model residuals to confirm goodness of fit. To ensure we were meeting the assumptions of the model, we also checked the plotted residuals to ensure homoscedasticity prior to utilising the results of the model. Final model selection (to obtain the best-fit model while maintaining model parsimony) was decided using Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC). The significance of each parameter in explaining variation in growth was tested by undertaking Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampling with the function MCMCregress in the R package MCMCpack. Three samples were run using non-overlapping, randomly selected seeds. Chain lengths were set to 1000 with a burnin of 100. A thinning rate of 5 was set to reduce autocorrelation. All chains were combined and chain mixing was tested. Finally, the posterior distribution of the chains was examined to determine the likelihood that the predictor variables were significantly influencing the variation in growth.

Effect of cumulative impacts on growth

Previous meta-analyses that have examined cumulative impacts have calculated the difference in the effect of individual variables on the response variable and the effect of combined variables, to test for additive, antagonistic, and synergistic effects. The predicted relationship between each abiotic variable and growth from the linear mixed effects models were used to examine potential cumulative impacts. The 25th and 75th percentiles were calculated for each abiotic factor and only values below and above these percentiles were used. The percentile from both variables that was predicted to result in the highest growth were used as the “control condition”. To test for individual effects of each variable, one predictor variable at a time was changed to the reverse quantile (corresponding to predicted minimum growth) while keeping the other one constant and the corresponding growth data was extracted (individual effects conditions). Finally, to test for combined effects, both variables were changed to the quantile expected to give the minimum growth (combined effects condition). The differences in growth among the conditions were determined using a one way permutation test based on 10,000 Monte-Carlo re-samplings followed by a pairwise permutation test with an adjusted p value generated, both within the “coin” package in R. To determine effect sizes, a Cohen’s d for each condition compared to the control was calculated. The Cohen’s d value for each “individual effects” condition were combined and compared to the Cohen’s d value of the “combined effects” condition. If the values were equal, cumulative impacts would be additive, if the “combined effects” value was greater than the combined “individual effects” values, cumulative impacts would be synergistic, but it was less than the combined “individual effects” the cumulative impacts would be antagonistic. All statistical analyses were performed with R v.3.2.3 (R Core Team 2015).

The Australian Great Barrier Reef is an ecosystem exhibiting the greatest heritage of natural resources and diversity of organisms on planet earth. The Great Barrier Reef exists along the northeastern coast of Australia and extends above the approximated distance of 2300 kilometers (Richards, p. 2). It has a wide variety of plants and animals that exist within its boundaries. Some of the species found therein include 2000 sponge species, and not less than 300 species of mollusk (Richards, p. 2). Moreover, there are 14 sea snake species, 630 echinoderm species, 500 algae species, and many other species (Richards, p. 2). The diversity in the ecosystem makes it outstanding in the whole world since no other environment possesses such kind of characteristic that matches the Great Barrier Reef’s attributes. Owing to the importance of the environment has on the sustenance of organisms’ lives, the main objective of the Great Barrier Reef protection plans is to conserve the diverse species in this region (Richards, p. 2). This paper discusses the coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef in Australia. Special emphasis is put on corals and reefs, and the impact of climate on the Great Barrier Reef’s ecosystem.

Coral Reef

Among the most diverse ecosystems in the marine environment are coral reefs. Multiple species of organisms living in the marine ecosystems depend on coral reefs for survival. The formation of coraoccursfs occur mostly in shallow ends of the ocean The events leading to the development of coral reefs are the death of corals and the welding of their polyps through the aggregation of calcium carbonate residues (Ainsworth et al, p. 338). Coral reefs bear pivotal roles that yield good surroundings for the living organisms in the sea or oceans. For instance, coral reefs provide suitable ecological niches for sea animals and plants. Different kinds of organisms, including the mollusks, crustaceans, algae, and diverse species of hard corals have their niches in the reefs. Furthermore, the coral reefs provide aesthetic value to the marine environment and coastal areas, thus, making them attractive to tourists. The corals also improve water quality for the well-being of all living organisms depending on it for survival. Through the absorption of toxic substances, the reefs refine industrial effluents and detoxify them (Ainsworth et al, p. 340). From the context of coral reefs’ benefits, it is conceivable that their existence provides for the sustainability of diverse species of living organisms.

Corals Found in the Great Barrier Reef

The growth of corals takes substantially long perperiodshe annual maximum increment of corals’ length is approximately 20 nanometres. It, therefore, implies that the development of coral reefs also exhibits a long-term basis to attain a recognizable size. The Great Barrier Reef comprises diverse coral species, especially the hard types. The hard corals and symbiotically associated with Zooxanthellae which are unicellular marine organisms. The Zooxanthellae process food through photosynthesis and supply 95 percent of it to the corals for the development of their polyps. On the other hand, Zooxanthellae benefits from inhabiting corals and utilization of their wastes as sources of nutrients (Stepien et al, p. 1168). As the corals grow, old ones die, and their polyps aggregate through the deposition of calcium carbonate. The progressive death and growth of old and new corals yield to the reefs. Owing to the symbiotic coexistence between corals and Zooxanthellae, a type of living system called hermatypic corals exist. The hermatypic corals are attributed to the specificity of survival temperature range, and clear water demands to allow sunlight penetrations for photosynthesis (Ainsworth et al, p. 339). Therefore, the ecological conditions at specific points in the marine environment would affect the integrity of developed corals.

Different types of corals exist leading to intense biodiversity exhibited by coral reefs. Consequently, the diversification of coral species produces results in the various kinds of coral reefs existing in the marine environment. The major types of coral reefs existing are fringing and the great barrier reefs. The fringing coral reefs are attributed to the sea or ocean regions close to the shore. Moreover, the narrow waters act as their distinctive boundaries. Most of the fringing corals are found at the Thailand seashores. On the other hand, the great barrier reefs are aligned parallel to the ocean’s shores, and are their boundaries are defined by the formation of lagoons. In addition, they are attributed to existence on the slightly deep sections of the oceans (Day, p. 69). The great barrier reefs form when the tides are on the low seasons, and results from the rise of new corals upon the dead ones. A typical example of the great barrier reef is the Australian shoreline and largest marine ecosystem called the Great Barrier Reef.

Effects of Climate Change on Coral Reefs

The changes in the climate that occur in this coastal region affect the Great Barrier Reef. Some of these climatic shifts include fluctuations of the environmental temperature, excessive weather conditions in the rchanges change in the chemistry of the ocean, and a rise in sea level and storms within this region. Sea temperatures affect the region by causing global warming that interferes with the cover of coral by a process called bleaching. Bleaching of coral cover results in a reduction of various species within the reef since high temperature greatly affects them. Adverse weather conditions such as high rainfall and drought also interfere with the species in the Great Barrier Reef (Ainsworth et al, p. 341). The adverse weather condition usually contaminates the sea and disposes of materials that are terrestrial to the sea that further interfere with the Great Barrier Reef.

Changes in the chemistry component of the ocean also affect the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem. The ocean has roughly absorbed a third of the carbon (IV) oxide that human beings emit when undertaking their various activities over the last 200 years. The amount of carbon (IV) oxide absorbed has highly affected the PH of the ocean in the Great Barrier Reef (Ainsworth et al, p. 340). It has resulted into the oceanic PH reduction by 0.1 units, making it to be extremely acidic forcorals survival. Moreover, the low PH interferes with the growth of the feeds in the ocean that are essential to the ecosystem’s survival. When the feed population is depleted, it becomes hard for different varieties of species to survive under the limited substrate quantities. Hence, the various species in the Great Barrier Reef are highly affected resulting in their reduction in number. From 1990, the sea level has been on the rise with a rate of 1 to 2 millimeters every year towards the projection of the model upper limit. The rise in the sea level is expected to interfere with the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem. It is because when the sea level is high then the storms are likely to increase in this region (Frade et al, p. 4). The storms come along with king tide and tropical cyclonic winds that put the life any creature in the Great Barrier Reef to risk. Further, it interferes with the industry and any infrastructural feature in the region.

Coral Reefs’ Bleaching in the Great Barrier Reef

Coral reefs of the Australian oceanic shores are suppressed by the extreme climatic conditions. Following the fluctuations in temperature, and other environmental parameters like the acidity of the water, depletion of coral reefs occur massively. Strategic plans and policies are being implemented to curb the current and prolonged deaths of the Great Barrier Reef’s corals (Ainsworth et al, p. 339). Change in the climatic conditions of the Australian Great Barrier Reef is has subjected coral reefs into extreme bleaching side effects. Through biodiversity and ecological research, it has been determined that 93 percent of coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef are highly impacted by temperature ranges above the optimum levels (Richards, p. 18). The attack on coral reefs by extreme and persistent temperatures on the reefs is heavily experienced in the northern parts of Port Douglas. Initial bleaching effects resulted in the death of almost half of the coral reefs in the same area. On the positive side, the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef has recorded the very low impact of reefs’ bleaching (Hoegh-Guldberg et al, p. 86). Approximately, less than one percent of the corals’ population is attacked by the shifts in climatic conditions.

The existence of corals and zooxanthellae in mutual relationship enhances the longevity of reefs’ ecosystem integrity. As the corals obtain energy resources from the unicellular marine organisms, a characteristic color is developed. However, the sensitivity of the association to adverse temperatures makes them susceptible to dissociation. At thermal conditions ranging between 1 and 2 degrees Celsius, the corals become suppressed (Stepien et al, p. 1176). As a result, the zooxanthellae is dislodged from the host, and polyps get exposed, thus, bleaching is said to have occurred. The extreme temperatures that persist for a long period of time foster a high rate of bleaching as corals die. Moreover, less impactful adverse conditions with recurrence frequency yield corals depletion or their reproduction impairment (Hoegh-Guldberg et al, p. 86). As a result, the growth of the young corals takes a slower pace leading to delay in ecological and biodiversity recovery. However, short durations of thermal fluctuations exhibit no impact on the corals, thus, no bleaching effects realized.

As a prospective move into the protection of the rich coral reefs ecosystem in the Great Barrier Reef, the implementation of policies should be put in place to overturn climatic changes. Knowing that extreme temperatures stem from greenhouse effect, circumventing the has to do with carbon (IV) oxide levels reduction. Moreover, pollution control has to be established to diminish the chances of industrial effluent dissemination into the oceans. The application of technology to drive in energy renewing and wastes recycling is, therefore, a requisite to reconstruct atmospheric conditions (Frade et al, p. 6). Australia should, therefore, be on the frontline towards terminating the global warming impacts on the world’s ecosystems. Otherwise, the bleaching effects of high temperatures will elevate in terms of the intensity and the great icon natural beauty and resources will be completely damaged.

Identification and Explanation of Trend between Abiotic Factors

Abiotic factors are the non-living elements of an ecosystem. Abiotic factors that are present in Long Reef Rock Platform are sunlight, salinity, and water. These factors affect the temperature and the water depth.

Abiotic factors not only affect the dispersion and abundance of biotic factors, but they also influence other abiotic factors such as temperature, water depth, and salinity. There is a constant trend between the interaction of abiotic and biotic factors, both of which will be discussed.

One trend that was constant was the inverse relationship between temperature and depth. From the data gathered on the abiotic factors, the temperature decreased as depth increased. This is because it is harder for sunlight to reach deeper, more obstructed areas. This is also because cold water has a higher density, making it sink to the bottom. For example, on high dry rock (0m), there is hardly any water, which is why the temperature is the highest and the depth is the least.

Additionally, another trend observed was the increase in salinity as depth and distance increased. Salinity increased as depth increased because the density of the water increased. Temperature, as explained above, is one of the factors that affect the density of water. The other factor is salinity, which explains why salinity increased as depth increased. The simultaneous increase of salinity and distance is because there is more water further out to sea.

Distribution of Two Organisms

The distribution of organisms in certain environments is affected greatly by the abiotic factors in that environment. As abiotic factors fluctuate, organisms must adapt to their changing surroundings.

One such organism is the ‘Little Blue Periwinkle’, or ‘Nodilittorina unifasciata’. They are small snails and are typically found near the high-tide mark and intertidal rock pools. They live off algae and lichens in an approximately 12m radius when submerged. Little Blue Periwinkles live in clusters in order to prevent moisture loss. This is the reason why a single transect contained an abundance of Periwinkles. Their shells are thick and assist with trapping moisture. Little Blue Periwinkles are also able to be found slightly further away from the dry rock, however, there is a significant decrease in distribution. This is most likely because of the abundance of other organisms, leading to more competition for food.

Periwinkles are susceptible to many types of exposure because they mainly live on a high-dry rock. In order to prevent indecent exposure, they use various methods in order to keep safe. One such adaptation is they seek out rock crevices in rocks in order to diminish the drying effect of wind during gusty stages. They can also angle their shells in certain ways in order to reduce the amount of surface area exposed to the sun.

The ‘Striped-Mouth Conniwinks’, or ‘Bembicium name, is a relative of the Little Blue Periwinkle and its main competitor for food. They are found mainly at mid to high tide on exposed rocks, evident from the data gathered during the transect investigation. The distances that had an abundance in Conniwinks, 5m, and 10m, were submerged areas.

The Conniwink is cone-shaped and has a hard shell that appears worn. The shells trap moisture, much like Periwinkle shells. Conniwinks feed on the same food as Periwinkles: algae. This leads to heavy competition with Periwinkles over food in places where both species reside. Evidently, Conniwinks ended as the victors, leading to a decrease in Periwinkle distribution in partially submerged areas as shown in the transect investigation table.

Conniwinks are somewhat affected by the changing of abiotic factors. Because they naturally inhabit submerged areas, the rising of sea levels would not affect Conniwinks extensively. However, as sea levels rise, sea creatures that live in deeper areas would start to move toward the upper ground. They could serve as potential rivals for Conniwinks, and, with the additional competition, Conniwink numbers could start to decrease dramatically.

Description of a Direct Human Activity

School excursions are a mandatory part of school curriculums; however, they affect visited areas a fair bit. Field trips to ecosystems, in particular, impact the environment. Excursions to rock platforms typically involve fieldwork and walking around studying different plant and animal species. This leads to the trampling of sea plants, e.g. coral, algae, and sometimes, small sea creatures. The constant cracking of Periwinkle shells underfoot is never a pleasant sound to hear. Fieldwork also requires the handling of sea creatures, which can sometimes be consequential for sea creatures. On more than one occasion, a student has picked up a creature and not returned it to their original spot. Handling organisms also involves touching them, handing them around, and, occasionally, dropping them. More often than once, students, disgusted by the appearance of a creature, will scream and drop an organism when it is given to them. This is very harmful to the organism as it can be injured in the process. Additionally, in the past when cunjevois were present at the rock platform, students and teachers alike would happily squeeze cunjevois in order to witness the spray of water that came from the top of it. Although cunjevois are sea sponges, it is still rather harmful to them to be handled in such a way.

In order to minimize the impact we have on the rock platform and species when schools go on excursions, there are several strategies that could be undertaken.

One suggestion is to limit the areas in which students are allowed to go in order to prevent more trampling than necessary. Although it may be argued that restricting the space could mean fewer species studied, however, if a suitable environment where there is a large variety of species, would result in less damage to the rock platform and its inhabitants as a whole.

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The current research has revealed that both the New Caledonia Barrier Reef (CCBR) and the Red Sea Coral Reef (RSCR) are among the principal coral reefs. For instance, sources indicate that CCR harbors the second greatest barrier reef. The total average size of CCBR is approximately 1,500 kilometers (Darwin, 2010). This barrier possesses a significant biogeography interest.

Moreover, for a considerable period, it has acted as the south pacific’s endemism regional center. Discoveries in this barrier have established new fish species, as well as invertebrates. For example, it provides the chief nesting site for Chelonian mydas.

The barrier also houses myriad rare species of crab, and several species of endemic mollusk (Shephard, 2002). Therefore, this document discusses the salient similarities, as well as differences between the above-discussed marine ecosystems. In addition, the document highlights an example of a plant or animal species dominating that specific marine ecosystem.

The Chelonia mydas, initially known as the Green Sea Turtle (GST), is a chelonian animal. This implies that it has four legs together with a two-part tough shell joining the sides. In addition, it possesses strong and horny mouths, which are teeth less. Recent research shows the presence of three sorts of chelonians among the tortoise species (Harewood, 2010).

For instance, there are those that can comfortably survive on dry land, while others are adapted to freshwaters, and finally, those that survive in seas.

In general, a scientist classifies the chelonian mydas as reptiles. Furthermore, their heads take the shape of those for lizards. They have hooked beaks, as well as toothless jaws. Research has it that mature Chelonia mydas measures 99 centimeters in length. In addition, its weight measures approximately 180 kilograms.

Information on recent research and discoveries has it that the GST dominates the main oceans, such as the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic oceans. They survive in extreme squat conditions that form warm temperatures in preference to hot, as well as cold parts of the sea.

They rarely come out of the waters, although the females visit shores, during reproduction (Shephard, 2002). The GST feeds on seaweed and the sea algae. They also feed on other sea creatures such as jellyfish and crayfish.

Current research provides that, the movements of GST are only swift in the sea, while on the land, they depict slow and defenseless movements. The females can only leave the ocean during the reproduction epoch. Their eggs hatch in two months’ time, after which their young one’s head for the ocean.

Concisely, the current research reveals that the GST has become an endangered species, thus the elimination of its population in some areas despite their abundance in specific areas (Harewood, 2010). Most importantly, they are exploited for meat, their hides, as well as eggs. In addition, they suffer from the nature of nesting, which enhances their predictability.

The RSCR dominates the northernmost part of the Indian oceanic basin. In the red sea, reef systems supported by an all-embracing shallow submarine. This forms the dominant coral reef found in the region. The reef entails myriad features, which portrays the nature of the reef. For instance, such reefs have towering tolerance of the extreme conditions in the regions.

The region experiences high temperatures, salinity, as well as turbidity, which occasionally occur (Harewood, 2010). Significantly, the main plant species in the red sea entails the marine algae, as well as the mangroves. The marine algae form the most variety of plant species in the sea. Some varieties of marine algae are vital for the coral’s survival, as well as the coral reefs’ development.

The marine algae commonly exist in areas, which experience the growth of hard corals. The algae mostly exist as tiny microalgae. In extreme conditions, the presence of microalgae, this occurs at relatively insignificant percentages. In exception, the presence of coralline algae, this occurs in considerable amounts.

This form of algae helps in the development of coral reefs. In addition, it represents a prominent ridge of oceanic reefs. Furthermore, they represent the largest link in the coral reef feeding levels.

In the RSCR, seagrasses are also another significant component, which serves ecological purposes. These grasses serve as food for myriad animal species that live in the sea. Their distribution mainly dominates the lagoon waters. In these areas, they form a productive, as well as often extensive habitat.

This habitat supports a variety of the animal as well as plant life (Darwin, 2010). Mangroves species are also dominant plant species along the coastal regions of the RSCR. These types of trees characterize a high salt tolerance as well as their adaptation to anaerobic sediments. Significantly, they are able to tolerate the salinity conditions as well as the anaerobic sediments that dictate the RSCR marine ecosystem.

The CCBR and the RSCR marine life differ considerably in their features as well as their conditions. The presence of outlets such as rivers that drains out the waters from the CCBR accounts for the less accumulation of salts. In contrast, the absence of such outlets in the RSCR accounts for the skyrocketed salinity. For instance, the CCBR characterizes low saline waters and less extreme temperatures.

Consequently, this translates to the dominance of the animal species over the plant species. This type of marine ecosystem mainly comprises myriad animals due to the conducive environment. In contrast, the RSCR entails extreme conditions of temperature as well as salinity. These conditions do not support animal life; thus, the dominance of plants population over the animal population.

However, the plants that grow in the RSCR must have distinctive adaptations in order to survive the extreme conditions. For instance, some species have high water absorption, which helps to neutralize the excess salts. In addition, presences of outlets form an essential feature that prevents the accumulation of salts. Therefore, the lack of outlets the red sea accounts for the sky-scraping salinity rate.

In conclusion, this document has distinctively provided the comparison, as well as the contrast between the two marine ecosystems. It perceptible that the RSCR marine ecosystem lacks outlets a factor that translates to its extreme conditions.

This special feature also translates to the dominance of plants over the animal species. In contrast, the presence of outlets in the CCBR marine ecosystem facilitates the dominance of animals over the plant species. Significantly, plant species have special features that enable them to adapt to these extreme conditions. The document lists such features as high tolerance to salts and the anaerobic sediments.

The coral reef fortification program is the uniquely right choice to make in the case of the Coral Reef Disintegration issue. The evidence concerning the significant diminishing of the coral reef is strong enough to support such a decision. The island faces an existential threat if the erosion caused by the strong waves is not addressed immediately. After the island erodes, any form of life will be decimated, and human beings will not be spared. As such, the possibility of humanity being wiped out from this island necessitates the need for concerted efforts to rectify the situation before crossing the point of no return. While the loss of human life is expected to take close to one and a half centuries, some short-term impacts of the severe disintegration of the coral reef will be felt.

The island’s economy is built on agriculture and fishing, which will be the first casualties of the impending disaster. Fish depend on the coral reef for reproduction, shelter against adverse oceanic weather, survival, and thrive. Therefore, at the current disintegration rate, fish will start dying and the economy will suffer irreparably. Similarly, after the coral reef loses its capacity to protect the island, erosion will set in and agricultural activities will be untenable. As such, the islanders will not continue enjoying their current leisure. The quality of life will deteriorate drastically and even hard labor will not yield the expected gains. Therefore, the islanders should sacrifice their current pleasures and compromise the quality of their lives to save the coral reef from disintegrating any further. The current generation of islanders will not enjoy the benefits of their sacrifice, but they will be compensated by saving the future generation and this argument is within the paradigm of rationality.

The arguments raised in the preceding section are debatable and could be questioned from different perspectives. The first difficult aspect of this issue is the veracity of the argument that punishing waves are diminishing the coral reef at unprecedented rates to a point of decimation. Critics of this position will argue that the coral reef has been in existence for billions of years and it has always countered the effects of the strong waves. In other words, the coral reef and the waves have co-existed in a healthy relationship for centuries, and thus any human interference will tip the balance of the ecosystem. Therefore, the question of consensus about the issue of coral disintegration will dominate the debate on whether fortification efforts are needed or not.

However, the opposing views could be countered by arguing that the current disintegration can be verified scientifically. Data collected for years concerning the status of the coral reef could be used to statistically prove that the disintegration being witnessed currently has not been witnessed at any period in history. Scientific evidence could also be used to project the future status of the coral reef using simulation models.

Another difficulty with the position taken on the necessity of fortification efforts would be the claim that strong waves will ultimately kill the coral reef and erode the island leading to its extinction. Critics will question this position by arguing that the coral reef has died and recovered in the past, the situation is not as bad as portrayed by the committee, the models used to project the future of the island are wrong, and animals and plants will adapt to the changing environment. It would be argued that the coral reef undergoes cycles of decimation and regeneration, and thus the current phenomenon should not be worrying. The committee members would be branded alarmists relying on myths to disrupt people’s lives with unfounded claims. The models being used to simulate and predict the future would be questioned and termed as unreliable. Finally, critics will claim that plants and animals have always adapted to changes in their environment, and thus they will survive this phase too.

The rebuttal to these claims would be that scientific evidence has been used in the past to predict future outcomes with high levels of confidentiality and accuracy. Therefore, scientific evidence shows that the coral reef is disintegrating at high rates, and this understanding cannot be wished away or branded as alarmist. In addition, while animals and plants have survived in the past, they will not be in a position to adapt within the short projected timescales when extinction is expected to take place.

The final controversial point of this argument will be the rationality of sacrificing the present for the future. Critics will question the logic of sacrificing present pleasures and leading substandard lives for the sake of future generations. The central argument for the opposing side would be the lack of interpersonal compensation for sacrifices made presently. In essence, the beneficiary and benefactor are different entities. Reductionist accounts of personal identity would be used to object to the rationality of sacrificing the present for the future. Specifically, the alleged future suffering cannot be verified, and thus asking people to sacrifice today and suffer in the process does not make sense – it borders irrationality. These claims would be based on temporal solipsism whereby the future existence and wellbeing of other individuals do not matter to the current self.

However, these arguments would be countered through the concept of temporal neutrality, altruism, and prudence. Based on temporal neutrality, it would be argued that the proposed sacrifices needed to fortify the coral reef would be rewarded through intrapersonal compensation. In this case, the current islanders and their future generations are the same things. Therefore, the benefactors and beneficiaries are the same people. Prudence demands that future interests should be enough motivating factors for an individual to act now. Similarly, altruism or interpersonal neutrality requires a person to act now for the sake of others. These concepts should justify the need for the islanders to come together and fortify the coral reef. When the benefits of such actions would be felt does not have any intrinsic significance.

Fortifying the coral reef at Reef Island is the best decision that can be made presently. If such actions are not taken, the island will face the existential threat of extinction within a century. Even before the expected extermination, the islanders will suffer short-term effects including reduced agricultural activities and economic crisis. However, critics would argue that strong waves could not destroy the coral reef because the two have co-existed for billions of years. In addition, there lacks of consensus on the gravity of the current destruction of the coral reef. These arguments would be rebutted using scientific evidence and philosophically through the concept of temporal neutrality.

Biomes exhibit large areas with a specific climate, vegetation, and wildlife. The aquatic biome falls into the two categories of freshwater and marine biomes. Marine habitats cover almost three-quarters of the Earth’s surface and include oceans, estuaries, and coral reefs. The coral reefs’ biodiversity presents a specific interest as one of the most stressed world’s ecosystems with an intricate relationship between the keystone, invasive and endangered species.

Marine ecosystems as a community of living and nonliving organisms have distinct characteristics because of the unique combination of physical factors like salinity and light availability, and the organism distribution. The creatures inhabiting the area must adapt to these conditions and become very diverse. A coral reef is an ecosystem predominating in shallow warm water found along continents or fringing islands (Glasl et al., 2019). It is considered one of the most socioeconomically valuable and biologically diverse ecosystems and the most stressed at the same time. It is a complex of host-associated and free-living microbial communities (Ellis et al., 2019). The reefs’ fauna is rich with several species of invertebrates, microorganisms, fish, sea stars, and octopuses. However, today coral reefs are increasingly declining with an estimated 30% severely damaged, and 60% predicted to be lost by 2030, mainly because of overfishing and pollution (Ellis et al., 2019). The impact of global climate change also affects the coral reef and the dominance of particular species.

The dominant keystone organisms in coral reefs may be considered corals consisting of algae and polyp that are essential organisms for the reef’s existence. Corals acquire nutrients through algae by photosynthesis and extending tentacles to obtain plankton from waters because of the nutritionally deficient reef waters (Glasl et al., 2019). However, sharks can also be considered a keystone species in coral reefs as dominant predators in the ecosystem. Their removal decreases the overall diversity and allows for the prey population to grow exponentially. Thus, sharks are the keystone species that control top-down regulation decreasing the fish they eat and increasing algae.

An invasive species is an alien species to the ecosystem that harms it environmentally, economically, or socially. They invade and dominate the ecosystem due to the lack of competition or predators. Lionfish is commonly considered the invasive species of the coral reefs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean because of its great appetite and lack of predators in the area (Risch & Parks, 2017). They have the potential to destroy the ecosystem because they feed on native herbivores. The grazers are essential for the coral reef ecosystem since it becomes vulnerable to overwhelming algal blooms without them (Ellis et al., 2019). Uncontrollable algae distress the coral reef by preventing the nutrients and sunlight from getting to the coral, and the symbiotic relationships from getting destroyed (Risch & Parks, 2017). The lionfish management measures are often considered futile, but several population control efforts are suggested. The possible options are maintaining a more considerable amount of predators that feed on the lionfish, limiting its trade, or encouraging fishing.

The coral reef also houses endangered species that are important to be protected. The four different turtles species at the Great Barrier Reef are classified as endangered, and two are close to it. They are nearing extinction mainly because of plastic emissions and hunting. Turtles mistake plastic bags for jellyfish, eat them, and die painfully (Ellis et al., 2019). The value of turtles’ shells, meat, and eggs also remain high, so they are often hunted for it. The other species that are going extinct because of hunting at the reefs are whales and saltwater crocodiles. The fishing and hunting regulations are imposed to prevent it.

Coral reefs present a unique ecosystem in the marine biome that is, unfortunately, rapidly degrading due to climate change and human activity. The biodiversity is threatened to be destroyed, requiring active management action for reef restoration. The relationship between the keystone, invasive, and endangered species needs to be carefully weighted to counteract reef destruction. Effective management measures are essential for saving the presence of endangered issues and preserving the ecosystem.

In this modernized era, Earth is impacted by numerous biological dilemmas every day. One biological problem facing the world today would be the endangered ecosystems of the coral reefs. Corals are found all over the world, in both the shallow and deep parts of the ocean. However, coral reefs are only found in tropical and subtropical waters. (Knowlton, 2018). Coral reefs are only sustainable within the temperatures range of 22 -29 degrees Celsius, anything higher or lower will result in the decrease in the cognitive function of the coral reefs (Knowlton, 2018). The coral reefs occupy less than 1% of the ocean floor yet, it inhabits over 25% of the marine life in the ocean (Knowlton, 2018), housing thousands of species, making the ecosystem one of the most biodiverse communities on earth. This indicates the corals reefs ability to adapt to the constantly changing environments, but that may not always be the case.

The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem located at the coast of Australia going about 1,400 miles (2,253.08 km) long (Nace, 2018) The Great Barrier reef exhibits biodiversity and a symbiotic ecosystem but now it displays a semi dead reef with bleached corals. Throughout 1979-1998, the coral reefs have experience multiple incidents of coral bleaching. Even though 80% of the corals where bleached only 20% of the reefs died (Knowlton, 2018). Coral bleaching is does not necessarily mean the corals die, it all depends on how long and severe the bleaching is. Back in 2016 another incident of the coral bleaching occurred this time the bleaching occurred for a longer period causing a more permanent damages. However, right after the 2016 bleaching after another bleaching incident occurred in 2017, leading a 50% decrease of the coral reefs being uninhabitable and perished(Nace, 2018). The continually increase in ocean waters will lead the coral reefs into a more frequent bleaching making it harder for the reef to recover.

Coral bleaching is a process of when the corals lose it vibrant colours and becomes a pale white colour. This occurs from the symbiotic relationship between a coral and algae; zooxanthellae who live within the corals providing a source of protection and nourishment (Davin, & Brannet. 2010) On the other hand due to an increase in temperatures the corals will become aggravated and reject the zooxanthellae from within, leaving the corals more susceptible to starvation and infections from bacterias. If the zooxanthellae are not accepted within the corals polyps, to continue the symbiotic relationship will not continue and the coral colonies will die. (Thomas, Davin, & Brannet, 2009, pg 42). Not only does the uprise of the temperatures affect the corals but an increase in CO2 produces more acidity within the ocean resulting in a decrease of calcification within corals. (Riegl, Bruckner, Coles, Renaud, & Dodge, 2009) Furthermore, human impact is also the number one source of endangering the coral reefs. This would be due to the destructive over fishing, pollutants released by humans into the ocean and distribution of the coral habitats. (Riegl, Bruckner, Coles, Renaud, & Dodge, 2009) The human impact on the coral reef not only lies within a local scale but within a global scale with the increase of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere and the warming of the ocean waters.

The coral reefs play a vital role in both economically and ecologically. The coral reefs is greatly beneficial as it act as buffers to protect coastlines, to providing a habitable shelter for countless marine organisms as well as providing for local economies. (Thomas, Davin, & Brannet, 2010, pg 94). The coral reefs provide various ecological functions such as coastal protection from storms and huge waves, biotic services from the diverse ecosystem along

larger gene pools within the marine ecosystem to be able to adapt and survive environmental changes and biogeochemical services, such as nitrogen and carbon fixations (Thomas, Davin, & Brannet, 2010, pg 97). The reefs also provide renewable resources such as fishing . The reef also benefits the local economies income by providing jobs, tourism and recreational activities, having a high economic value. However, with the uprise of coral bleaching occurring frequently, the corals reefs will start to undergo extinction within the next decade. This would have a traumatic impact on both the ecology and economy aspects. With the coral reef disappearing, the diversity within the marine ecosystems will be gone, economies who depend on the ocean will also suffer.

In order for the coral reefs to recover from the frequent coral bleaching, the temperature of the ocean would have to stop increasing so the corals can reproduce within the reef. However the temperature within the ocean is still on a constant rise so other methods will need to be used. Using the $1,000,000 investment ecological coral farms can be build to provide a sanctuary for the corals to rehabitable from the coral bleaching. The corals will later then be place back into the ocean when suitable. Moreover, within the coral farms, cross breeding of the corals could create a new breed of corals that that have a higher tolerance to warmer temperatures. Cross- breeding native corals with corals of higher tolerance to hot temperatures can create offsprings that are able to adapt to the rising temperatures. Although, the decline in the coral reef is prominent, with these solutions the coral reefs should recover from becoming a pale white inhabitable ecosystem, to the most vibrant and biodiverse ecosystem on earth.

In this modernized era, Earth is impacted by numerous biological dilemmas every day. One biological problem facing the world today would be the endangered ecosystems of the coral reefs. Corals are found all over the world, in both the shallow and deep parts of the ocean. However, coral reefs are only found in tropical and subtropical waters. (Knowlton, 2018). Coral reefs are only sustainable within the temperatures range of 22 -29 degrees Celsius, anything higher or lower will result in the decrease in the cognitive function of the coral reefs (Knowlton, 2018). The coral reefs occupy less than 1% of the ocean floor yet, it inhabits over 25% of the marine life in the ocean (Knowlton, 2018), housing thousands of species, making the ecosystem one of the most biodiverse communities on earth. This indicates the corals reefs ability to adapt to the constantly changing environments, but that may not always be the case.

The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem located at the coast of Australia going about 1,400 miles (2,253.08 km) long (Nace, 2018) The Great Barrier reef exhibits biodiversity and a symbiotic ecosystem but now it displays a semi dead reef with bleached corals. Throughout 1979-1998, the coral reefs have experience multiple incidents of coral bleaching. Even though 80% of the corals where bleached only 20% of the reefs died (Knowlton, 2018). Coral bleaching is does not necessarily mean the corals die, it all depends on how long and severe the bleaching is. Back in 2016 another incident of the coral bleaching occurred this time the bleaching occurred for a longer period causing a more permanent damages. However, right after the 2016 bleaching after another bleaching incident occurred in 2017, leading a 50% decrease of the coral reefs being uninhabitable and perished(Nace, 2018). The continually increase in ocean waters will lead the coral reefs into a more frequent bleaching making it harder for the reef to recover.

Coral bleaching is a process of when the corals lose it vibrant colours and becomes a pale white colour. This occurs from the symbiotic relationship between a coral and algae; zooxanthellae who live within the corals providing a source of protection and nourishment (Davin, & Brannet. 2010) On the other hand due to an increase in temperatures the corals will become aggravated and reject the zooxanthellae from within, leaving the corals more susceptible to starvation and infections from bacterias. If the zooxanthellae are not accepted within the corals polyps, to continue the symbiotic relationship will not continue and the coral colonies will die. (Thomas, Davin, & Brannet, 2009, pg 42). Not only does the uprise of the temperatures affect the corals but an increase in CO2 produces more acidity within the ocean resulting in a decrease of calcification within corals. (Riegl, Bruckner, Coles, Renaud, & Dodge, 2009) Furthermore, human impact is also the number one source of endangering the coral reefs. This would be due to the destructive over fishing, pollutants released by humans into the ocean and distribution of the coral habitats. (Riegl, Bruckner, Coles, Renaud, & Dodge, 2009) The human impact on the coral reef not only lies within a local scale but within a global scale with the increase of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere and the warming of the ocean waters.

The coral reefs play a vital role in both economically and ecologically. The coral reefs is greatly beneficial as it act as buffers to protect coastlines, to providing a habitable shelter for countless marine organisms as well as providing for local economies. (Thomas, Davin, & Brannet, 2010, pg 94). The coral reefs provide various ecological functions such as coastal protection from storms and huge waves, biotic services from the diverse ecosystem along

larger gene pools within the marine ecosystem to be able to adapt and survive environmental changes and biogeochemical services, such as nitrogen and carbon fixations (Thomas, Davin, & Brannet, 2010, pg 97). The reefs also provide renewable resources such as fishing . The reef also benefits the local economies income by providing jobs, tourism and recreational activities, having a high economic value. However, with the uprise of coral bleaching occurring frequently, the corals reefs will start to undergo extinction within the next decade. This would have a traumatic impact on both the ecology and economy aspects. With the coral reef disappearing, the diversity within the marine ecosystems will be gone, economies who depend on the ocean will also suffer.

In order for the coral reefs to recover from the frequent coral bleaching, the temperature of the ocean would have to stop increasing so the corals can reproduce within the reef. However the temperature within the ocean is still on a constant rise so other methods will need to be used. Using the $1,000,000 investment ecological coral farms can be build to provide a sanctuary for the corals to rehabitable from the coral bleaching. The corals will later then be place back into the ocean when suitable. Moreover, within the coral farms, cross breeding of the corals could create a new breed of corals that that have a higher tolerance to warmer temperatures. Cross- breeding native corals with corals of higher tolerance to hot temperatures can create offsprings that are able to adapt to the rising temperatures. Although, the decline in the coral reef is prominent, with these solutions the coral reefs should recover from becoming a pale white inhabitable ecosystem, to the most vibrant and biodiverse ecosystem on earth.