Category: Conversation

The Terracotta Warriors were found on the 29th of March, 1974, in Xian China. Broken parts of a clay figure were found by local farmers as they were digging wells, which led them to the tomb of the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huangdi.

The Details

So far around 600 pits have been discovered, across 22 square miles (57 kilometres squared). There are three main pits that are easily accessible, and are now inside the Museum of the Terracotta Army. There are approximately eight thousand soldiers in these pits. They all have individual details, through their faces, hair, or clothes, meaning none are, or were originally, the same. They were all buried with bronze weapons and were all originally painted, but most of the paint has chipped or disintegrated. They were also discovered with terracotta horses, also lifesize, and several war chariots.

The History

In 246 B.C. thirteen-year-old Ying Zheng took the throne. By 221 B.C. he combined a number of warring kingdoms, becoming the first emperor of Qin, Qin Shi Huang Di. He began construction of the tomb shortly after becoming emperor, but the majority of decisions would’ve been made by officials due to his age. He died suddenly in 210 B.C., causing the tomb to be sealed ahead of schedule. The potters who made the army included imperial and folk craftsmen, but once the emperor had died, all the craftsmen that were involved in the project were buried alive in the burial pits around the tomb. This was to stop the secrets of the Terracotta Army from being discovered.

There are three main reasons given as to why the Terracotta Army was built. The first is that it was to be an army that would protect the Emperor in the afterlife, so he would have the same treatment in the afterlife as he had while he was alive. He was also found with terracotta musicians, acrobats, and concubines, which could’ve been to entertain him in the afterlife. The second option is that they were built in honour of the army he used to unify China, displaying his glory. The last theory is that the Terracotta Warriors were substituting for actual human sacrifices. This is because, in earlier dynasties, human sacrifices were buried with the deceased rulers.

The Present

The Terracotta Warriors are now listed as a world heritage site and are a major tourist attraction. Every year, more than 1 million tourists from all around the world visit the museum they are displayed in. Some reassembled warriors are displayed in their formation, while soldiers are also displayed as they were discovered, some standing up, some partly buried in soil, and some fallen on their backs. The Terracotta Warriors have also been displayed around the world, in 2019 going to Bangkok, Thailand, and Melbourne, Australia.

Restoration

There are several general guidelines for conservation, regarding what are ethical practices. These are firstly, respect for the integrity of the object, as regardless of condition or value, an artefact’s aesthetic, historic, archaeological, and physical integrity should be preserved. The second is that it is the conservator’s responsibility to make sure that treatment is only done within the limits of their professional competence and abilities. The third is that, regardless of value, all artefacts must receive the highest quality care. The fourth is that all treatments should be in the best interest of the artefact. For example, less expensive or time-consuming treatments should be avoided if there is a possibility of harming the artefact. The fifth reason is the principle of reversibility, as all treatments should be reversible, unless there is only one chance to preserve the artifact, which only has irreversible treatments. The sixth is that the amount of aesthetic restoration used to fix damage should be determined by the amount of understanding of the original. The seventh is that all conservators must continue to develop their skills so that the best treatment that the situation allows can be given, and the eighth is that they must supervise all personnel, trainees and volunteers under their direction. One of the main reasons ancient sites are preserved or restored is to help us understand the history and culture from before us and to increase respect for traditions other than our own. The Terracotta Warriors do this as they display an important part of the culture of Ancient China and display the customs of the time. This is done not only as we can no more about burial rituals, but also as the terracotta figures can demonstrate to people what soldiers and armies looked like, through reconstructed or preserved details. We can also learn about court life, through the other terracotta figures present. Another reason they are preserved is as they will attract tourists. This can be a good thing as it can provide more jobs for the locals living there, and can help improve the economic prosperity of the site. An example of this is how the tourists brought in to Xian by the Terracotta Warriors can provide business for local store owners, as they provide food or sell souvenirs.

One of the reasons as to why people are against the preservation or restoration of ancient sites like the Terracotta Warriors is because by doing so we are modifying the past, which can then hinder our understanding of ancient cultures. Also, as we stop sights from falling into ruin by replacing old material with new, eventually none of the original material will remain, meaning it is no longer the original. This is demonstrated through the restoration of the Terracotta Warriors, as the water in the statues is replaced with different chemicals, in some cases HEMA, to better preserve. The response to this is that eventually we will also be considered an ancient society, and thus the restoration would become part of the history of the original find.

Judgement

I believe that ancient site should be preserved or restored in their natural state, as they can provide valuable insight on ancient civilisations, and can unearth enlightening information about past cultures, making it accessible to a wider audience. Although there are fears regarding the consequences of these alterations to different artifacts, I believe that as long as the main guidelines regarding conservation continue to be followed, ancient sites will be treated with proper respect throughout the process of restoration.

The Great Depression was the worst economic downturn in the industrialised world’s history, lasting from the 1929-39 stock-market crash. This time began after the October, 1929 stock market crash, which devastated Wall Street and wiped out millions of shareholders. Consumer spending and investment dropped over the next several years, causing steep declines in industrial output and employment as workers were laid off by failed companies. In 1933, at its lowest point in the Great Depression, about 15 million People were unemployed. Nevertheless, the stock market had been struggling well before October; despite rising unemployment and falling demand, stocks were overvalued in August, 1929. World trade fell by 66 percent from 1930 to 1932, as measured throughout U.S. dollars. There were major regional implications of global financial crisis. Throughout Europe, for instance, hyperinflation and other economic woes may have contributed to the rise of Hitler.

The U.S. economy expanded rapidly throughout the 1920s, and the overall wealth of the nation more than doubled between 1920 and 1929, a period named the ‘Roaring Twenties. The stock market, which was centered at the new work stock exchange, on wall street. This was the scene of reckless spending, from millionaires to janitors poured their life savings into stocks. This lead to the peak of the stock market and economy in August, 1929. Output had already fallen by that point and inflation had increased, making stock prices far greater than their actual value. In contrast, incomes were small at that period, consumer debt was proliferating, the economy’s agricultural sector was failing because of inflation and declining food prices, and banks had a surplus of large loans that could not be liquidated. During the summer of 1929, the American economy experienced a mild recession when consumer spending slowed down and unsold products started to pile up, dragging down the production of factories. As panicked traders started selling overpriced stocks en masse on October 24, 1929, the stock market crash that some had expected ended up occurring. That day there was an unprecedented turnover of 12.9 million stocks, regarded as ‘Black Thursday. Five days later, on 29 October or ‘Black Tuesday,’ about 16 million stocks were sold after another surge of fear hit Wall Street. Millions of securities ended up useless, and those shareholders who invested with borrowed money were completely wiped out. When consumer confidence plummeted in the aftermath of the stock market crash, the decline in spending and development caused factories and other firms to slow down production and start firing their staff. Wages dropped and buying power diminished for those who were fortunate enough to remain employed.

The repercussions of the stock market crash also rippled across the economy. In the final months of 1929, nearly 700 banks failed and more than 3,000 fell during 1930. Federal deposit insurance was still unheard of, and citizens lost all their money when banks failed. Several citizens are panicking, sparking bank chaos because customers withdrawn their cash quickly, prompting further banks to shut. Nearly 9,000 institutions had collapsed by the end of the decade. Surviving organisations were reluctant to lend money, unaware of the economic situation and uncertain about their own sustainability. This exacerbated the situation, resulting in fewer and less expenditures. As the great depression increased control of the state, the government was forced. Parliament is America’s foreign competition The Customs Act of 1930 passed a pledge to protect the industry. The move imposed a massive record tax rate on imported goods. Many US business partners EU the manipulation of tariffs on the goods they manufacture. As a result, between 1929 and 1934, global trade declined by two-thirds. By then, Franklin Roosevelt and the Democratic parliament had approved a new meeting.

The Great Depression’s financial ruin has been compounded by environmental destruction. A lengthy drought combined with farming practises that did not use soil conservation strategies produced a vast area from southeast Colorado to the panhandle of Texas that came to be called the Dust Bowl. Massive storms of dust have shook cities, destroyed crops and animals, sickened people and caused untold events.

All were influenced by the Great Depression. The developments of this time have profoundly changed the lives of all from the very young to the elderly. Most people were found out of jobs and looking for a better life. If they could attend school, kids had to cope with improvements to their schooling. Teenagers travelled with their parents in search of a new life. During this period, most children were deprived of schooling as, due to a lack of resources, most families had to close down their schools during the term 1932-1933. Few kids were fortunate enough to be in classrooms where the educators didn’t care they’d be paying for next to nothing and wanted to be taught.

Kids also significantly suffered from malnutrition. For instance, in a 1932 study by means of the health bfarmin the big apple metropolis, it changed into discovered that 20.5 percentage of the children have been laid low with malnutrition. Kids in rural regions were even worse off. Nutritional sicknesses had been rampant because good enough food along with milk, fruit, clean greens, and eggs couldn’t be offered with the own family’s low earnings. Many of those farmers have been renting their land and their equipment due to the loss of cash inside the 20s. At the beginning of the year, expenses on food that the farmers produced deflated a lot that the farmers had been not able to make a profit off in their land. Attributable to this, they refused to sell what they produced. If they lived inside the center part of the country, recognised right now because the dust bowl, they have been also experiencing drought starting around 1932.

Considerably upper-white collar class experts, for example, specialists and legal advisors, saw their livelihoods drop by as much as 40%. Families who had recently appreciated monetary security all of a sudden confronted money related insecurity or, at times, ruin. The normal American family lived by the Depression-period proverb: ‘Use it up, wear it out, make do or do without”. Many attempted to keep up appearances and continue with life as near typical as could be expected under the circumstances while they adjusted to new monetary conditions.

Family units grasped another degree of cheapness in day by day life. They kept kitchen gardens, fixed destroyed garments and gave excursions to the motion pictures as they secretly attempted to hold responsibility for home or vehicle. In 1929 the normal family pay in the United States remained at $2,300 only four years in the Depression and the normal family salary had tumbled 40% to a unimportant $1500. Pounding destitution normally put a strain on numerous family relations prompting various children venturing out from home. Different elements, as well, constrained the youngsters to take off. In 1934, schools had a million additional students 25,000 less instructors when contrasted with 1930. 5,000 schools had shut down by and large and right around one in each four American urban areas had their school terms abbreviated. By 1935, 4,000,000 of ten million adolescents or 40% young people of secondary school age, were out of school.

To set aside cash, families disregarded medicinal and dental consideration. Numerous families looked to adapt by planting gardens, canning nourishment, purchasing utilized bread, and utilizing cardboard and cotton for shoe soles. In spite of a lofty decrease in nourishment costs, numerous families managed without milk or meat. In New York City, milk utilization declined a million gallons every day.

It constrained couples to defer marriage and drove the birthrate beneath the substitution level without precedent for American history. The separation rate fell, for the basic explanation that numerous couples couldn’t stand to keep up discrete families or pay lawful expenses. Be that as it may, paces of renunciation took off. By 1940, 1.5 million wedded females were living separated from their spouses. In excess of 200,000 transient kids meandered the nation because of the separation of their families.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the period of the Great Depression was very difficult in economic and social terms, as evidenced by the data described earlier.

Evolution claims : natural selection, Tthe mechanism of survival of the fittest. However, we can attribute some serious human health problems to the ‘accidental deviations’ in human evolution, such as obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

In 2009, a Gallup poll announced that 44% of Americans in the past 100 centuries believed that people like this were created by God (JONES, 2009), and quite a few of them think the design of the body structure is perfect. However, lots of anthropologists, geneticists, paleontologists, and biologists all believe tThe human iofn today is the product of a series of compromises by our ancestors to adapt to changing circumstances (natural and human) and even to withstand emergencies (JONES, 2009). “In many ways, our bodies have evolved in error to adapt to the modernization of human society.” said evolutionary biologist Stephen Stearns of Yale University. (Nesse & Stearns, 2008).

For example, the immune system is designed to help the body fight epidemics such as malaria and cholera, which are accompanied by human urbanization. According to the hypothetical hypothesis theory, the number of patients with asthma and various types of autoimmune diseases is growing because humans are now in a cleaner environment and the human immune system is not exposed to enough external challenges. Instead, it starts with the body’s own physiological system.

What is going wrong

In the history of human development, some components of the human body have played a beneficial role, but now they are dragging our hind legs. Lewis I. Held Jr., a geneticist at Texas Tech University, called this phenomenon “bislagiatt ”, which was “but it was a good idea at the time” (It seemed likes a good idea at the time.) corresponds to the English acronym.

Rudolph Leibel, an obesity expert at the Columbia University Medical Center, said that even the phenomenon of ‘yo-yo dieting’ can’t be separated from the effects of evolution (Higginson & McNamara, 2016). He and other geneticists discovered leptin, a hormone that usually signals the body to stop eating. When people are on a diet, the level of leptin in the body is drastically reduced, triggering a series of physiological changes that cause the body to burn less calories and restore its original weight. ‘This worked well during the famine, but it is now out of date,’ Professor Rebec said (Higginson & McNamara, 2016).

Scientists studying genetic variation worldwide say that in the past 10,000 to 40,000 years, about 1800 genes, accounting for 7% of the human genome, are rapidly evolving (JONES, 2009), many of which have evolved. The impact is not yet clear, but researchers have found that there are several variations that make people more suitable for survival and survive by inheritance. Many of the more recent genetic mutations are human responses to infectious diseases, especially when people start large-scale settlements.

In Africa, 25 new genetic variants and a new blood type have emerged over the past 10,000 years to help people fight malaria. However, many evolutions that are beneficial to humans are accompanied by some drawbacks. For example, as previously known, some genetic mutations that protect Africans from malaria now make them more susceptible to sickle-cell anemia (JONES, 2009).

Genes that early Africans retained in their bodies to prevent dehydration in tropical climates predispose some African Americans today to high blood pressure (JONES, 2009).

In the process of human evolution, an important cause of obesity is the evolutionary gene. Human geneticist James V. Neel first proposed the concept of “thrifty gene” in 1962, arguing that humans today include obesity, diabetes and hypertension. The genes for metabolic disorders are selected because the physiological system is adapted to adapt to the changes in food affluence and food deficiencies in the ancient environment. It allows ancient humans to rapidly increase fat in a short period of food abundance in order to cope with the lack of food at any time. A certain gene has great advantages in the environment at the time, but it is the opposite of today’s food-rich society. The case of Prof. Neil’s hypothesis of the thrifty gene was also found in Nauru. The impoverished and industrious ancestors of the islanders passed on the “Frugal Genes” generation to the Nauru (Pond, 1998) .

When the foreign Western lifestyle was brought into the island, the genes in the Nauru’s body could not adapt to the sudden arrival. Abundant life. Europeans have long been accustomed to modern lifestyles, and thrift genes have gradually disappeared in their bodies, so the same living environment has not brought them more diabetes. The formation of this gene does not even need to be hundreds of years. For example, in the 1960s, Chinese people were extremely hungry, and a considerable proportion of this group of people suffered from diabetes after enjoying a stable standard of living today. This is related to their subconscious ‘preparation famine again’, but the thrift gene is obviously exert more physiologically influence (Bradley et al., 2009).

The evolutionary stage of obesity

In the era of hunting, the genetic basis of metabolic diseases emerged. The daily work of human ancestors is mainly hunting, collecting wild fruits and making barbecues. Their food structure is high in protein and low in carbohydrates, and they also maintain a daily high energy consumption hunting fitness exercise, without the conditions of getting fat. Z. Hochberg of the Institute of Medicine at the Technion University of Israel believes that it can be assumed that the genome of the Homo is fully adapted to this lifestyle. In the case of low intake of carbohydrates for a long time, the insulin sensitivity of the Homo sapiens is very low, forming a ‘thrift gene’ (which allows the body to produce a small amount of insulin, consumes less carbohydrates) (Pond, 1998), It also laid the genetic foundation for obesity and hypertension

Ancestors guaranteed high energy consumption hunting exercise, high protein, low carbohydrate water intake. (POBINER, 2016)

The era of farming: natural choice to retain ‘thrift genes’ With the change of climate and population pressure, about 10,000 years ago, human ancestors tired of this daily unrestrained, unresolved wandering life, created another The farming era where families live and wait for harvest (Misha Ketchell, 2012). In the process of collecting wild fruits, they gradually observed and familiarized with the growth laws of certain plants, and slowly learned how to cultivate crops. According to archaeological data, there are three regions in the early farming center, namely West Asia, Southeast Asia, Central and South America. The people of West Asia are good at planting barley, wheat, lentils, etc. People living in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China and the middle and upper reaches of the Yellow River like to grow rice and millet, and Mexico (Wang, Zhang & Ding, 2004), Peru and Bolivia in Central and South America prefer corn, beans and potatoes (Wang, Zhang & Ding, 2004). These crops are converted into carbohydrates in the human body after being eaten (Bradley et al., 2009). Compared with the hunting era, the human diet has undergone a qualitative change. Low protein and high carbohydrate have become the mainstream culture of three meals a day. In this comfortable life of sunrise and sunset, with the reduction of hunting activities, the amount of human movement has also dropped significantly. Z. Hochberg writes in the article, “Cultivation of crops brings low protein, high carbohydrates and a sedentary lifestyle. These changes in diet and life require adjustments in the genomes of ancient humans and the need to improve insulin sensitivity.” (Weickert, 2012) However, due to the frequent famine in the farming era, “saving genes” can help people to survive the famine. In this way, although “saving genes” are not suitable for farming, they have been preserved by natural selection. (Misha Ketchell, 2012)

The Industrial Age: Obesity is just an accident in evolution. After the end of the long farming era, mankind entered the industrial revolution in the 18th century, and this revolution has greatly increased social productivity. Humans bid farewell to the lack of food almost overnight, and entered the era of great food. Throughout human history, this transformation has taken place too suddenly, and some scholars call it ‘hunger escape.’ (Misha Ketchell, 2012 ) However, the instinct of human food has not changed, and the high-calorie, high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet is still a tireless preference and pursuit. Regrettably, from this period until now, many of our modern people still retain the ‘thrift genes’ from Homo sapiens. Faced with abundant food and calories, modern people who have “thrift genes” have developed serious discomfort, and there have been rare obesity and diabetes in the hunting and farming eras. However, some lucky people have introduced high-calorie, high-carbohydrate fertility-selecting genes that help modern people metabolize excess carbohydrates and energy. People who carry the ‘fertility selection’ gene are at a much lower risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease than those who still have ‘thrift genes’ in their bodies. According to Z. Hochberg, studies have shown that individuals who still retain ‘gene-thrift genes’ in the body are prone to obesity after the age of 3 under the influence of modern life, and for individuals carrying the ‘fertility selection’ gene, because they Infant metabolism is not suitable, so it is easy to have infancy obesity within 6 months after birth (Weickert, 2012).

Why evolution can make people ‘fat’

When researchers compared DNA samples from some human fat samples and primates, they found that changes in packaging affected the way humans handle fat. Humans have between 14 and 31 percent fat, compared with less than 9 percent in other primates. In addition, human DNA regions are more concentrated, which limits the availability of genes involved in fat metabolism. The researchers also found that chimpanzees and monkeys have 780 more accessible DNA regions than humans (Weickert, 2012). This means the body is less able to convert bad fats into good ones. Researchers believe that genes make humans ‘obsessed with primates.’ The body’s fat has the function of protecting organs (lubricating) and storing energy, which shows that the presence of fat is essential. We produce important hormones from the diet every day and help to extract the nutrients we need. From trans fats, polyunsaturated fats, saturated fats, but unsaturated fats make up dietary fat, while saturated fats and trans fats increase the level of ‘bad cholesterol’ or low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (Wang, Zhang & Ding, 2004), which is important for obesity (McKie, 2012). The reason may come from them, and polyunsaturated fats and monounsaturated fats are products of human organic energy. Any imbalance in this process can lead to obesity, because blood consumption keeps the body running.

The researchers found that in order to maintain the warmth of the human body, the early humans developed the brain and protected the internal organs, thus storing fat. During the evolution process, the size of the human brain was 200% of the original size and consumed more calories than other organs (McKie, 2012).

References

1. Higginson, A., & McNamara, J. (2016). An adaptive response to uncertainty can lead to weight gain during dieting attempts . Evolution, Medicine, And Public Health, 2016(1), 369-380. doi: 10.1093/emph/eow031
2. Pierce, W., Diane, A., Heth, C., Russell, J., & Proctor, S. (2010). Evolution and obesity: resistance of obese-prone rats to a challenge of food restriction and wheel running. International Journal Of Obesity, 34(3), 589-592. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2009.294
3. POBINER, B. (2016 ). Meat-Eating Among the Earliest Humans. American Scientist, (10.1511/2016.119.110), 14-19. Retrieved from https://www.americanscientist.org/article/meat-eating-among-the-earliest-humans
4. Cummings, V., Jordan, P., & Zvelebil, M. (2015). Hunter-Gatherers in the Post-Glacial World: ADHD and Hunter Gatherers. Anthropology, 03(01). doi: 10.4172/2332-0915.1000150
5. JONES, J. (2009). Americans Perceive Increased Crime in U.S. GALLUP, p. 4. Retrieved from https://news.gallup.com/poll/123644/americans-perceive-increased-crime.aspx
6. Bradley, U., Spence, M., Courtney, C., McKinley, M., Ennis, C., & McCance, D. et al . (2009). Low-Fat Versus Low-Carbohydrate Weight Reduction Diets. Diabetes, 58(12), 2741-2748. doi: 10.2337/db09-0098
7. Wang, X., Zhang, K., & Ding, Y. (2004). The decline of the Chinese giant salamander Andrias davidianus and implications for its conservation. Evolution, Medicine, And Public Health, 32(2), 197-202. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605304000341
8. Nesse, R., & Stearns, S. (2008). The great opportunity: Evolutionary applications to medicine and public health. Evolutionary Applications, 1(1), 28-48. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00006.x
9. Misha Ketchell. (2012). Obesity may have been the result of natural selection, and returning to ancestral lifestyles could have helped.. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/obesitys-paradoxical-impact-on-trends-in-life-expectancy-7981
10. McKie, R. (2012). This article is more than 7 years old Humans hunted for meat 2 million years ago. The Guardian, pp. 14-16 . Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/sep/23/human-hunting-evolution-2million-years
11. Qasim, A., Turcotte, M., de Souza, R., Samaan, M., Champredon, D., & Dushoff, J. et al. (2017). On the origin of obesity: identifying the biological, environmental and cultural drivers of genetic risk among human populations. Obesity Reviews, 19(2), 121-149. doi: 10.1111/obr.12625

Progression has been the number one goal throughout American history. With this progression, it caused many changes through the economy, social structure, and the political structure of America. This allowed America to be one of the top empires of its time. The reason why it allowed America to be one of the top empires of its time was through the use of freedom through its people in which many other nations did not have. During 1865-1939, Americans went through a period of great advancement because of the ‘American Dream’ that strived in all Americans, allowing for massive social, political, and economical changes. There are three main reasons that support this position. First, America went through massive social changes due to the 27+ million immigrants who came from all over the world. Second, the political aspect of America was changed due to the progressive era in which a new political philosophy was adopted. Third, the economical aspect of America was changed due to the Gilded age which allowed for the economic boom of America.

Due to the massive number of immigrants coming from around the world to America, this allowed for the social aspect of America to change entirely. During the early 1900s, over 27 million immigrants came to America. With a majority coming from Europe but also some coming from Canada. New York City was the main port for immigrants to come through. Because of this, many homes on the East Coast became known to have populations such as Jewish and Italian. Immigrants came to American due to the job opportunities that it had to offer. Those jobs consisted of working at mining sites, being a farmer, and working at various steel factories. This also allowed for the rise of the blue-collar worker. The manufacturing industry was very big at this time because of the war. Another major impact that allowed for the social aspect of America to change was the changes in the role that Americans played. Females were able to do a lot more things than before. In 1919 the 19th amended was passed which allowed females to vote. Females were getting more of a say of what they wanted and what they wanted to do in life. Before. females didn’t have any say, they were the ones who stayed home and watched the kids. Now that this amendment was passed, it allowed for a new generation of socialism. Because of the diverse stream of immigrant coming into America and the new amendments which allowed for women to make more of a change, this allowed America to start to be socially reconstructed.

The political aspect of American was changed due to the Progressive Era in which a new political philosophy was adopted. The amount of energy that these new progressive politics consisted of really challenged the state and local levels of government. Reason for this is because Theodore Roosevelt challenged the issue-driven presidency than any other president. He implemented a thought in environmental conservation into the new world of politics. Presidents were constantly challenge government and implementing new laws and ideas. An example of this would be the Federal Reserve act of 1913 that both Wilson and the Democratic Congress incorporation in their plan. Another way in which politics changed were in the African American culture. Between 1914 and 1920, over half a million African Americans fled to make Chicago’s South Side new areas for both new black politics and culture. Third, new politics changed in the role in which both men and women played in American. Women experienced much change through this time. After gaining the ability to vote, they had viewed themselves and politics actors. By 1920 the view of women was completely changed and they had much more of a say in America than they did before. Due to the Progressive Era, African American’s obtaining more of a say, and due to women allowing to have more of a say in America, this allowed the political physiology of America to completely change.

The economical aspect of America completely changed due to the boom that that America had gone through with the economy. The Gilded age was an area of growth for American. The waged of America had far surpassed those of the European. Reason for this is the industrialization that America had gone through. This allowed for a wage growth of over 60%. Another reason why the economy of America had changed was due to the automobile industry. During the 20s, cars were opened to the public and because of that the number of cards had closed to tripled. This allowed for the economy of America to rapidly grow. Reason for the automobile industry allowing the American economy to grow was because of the amount of steel and other various resources that were used to create cars. Due to high consumerism of these automobiles, this opened jobs for many people; thus, allowing the economy to grow even more in America. The agriculture industry was being changed and replaced by industry. America started to expand its interest around the world allowed for America to become more of a world power. This allowed for materials for America to be cheaper, both allowing for more consumption but also allowing prices to be cheap. Due to the economic boom of America, this allowed for America quickly become a national world power.

America quickly rose socially, politically, and economically during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Socially, America rose due to the amount of immigration that had entered the United States and also due to the role that women were starting to take on. Politically, America changed due to the progressive era and every president challenging the government by adding new laws and regulation. Lastly, America boomed economically due to the gilded age and also due to automobile rise. All of these reasons allowed for America to quickly become a national world power.

‘Violence is immoral because it thrives on hatred rather than love… violence ends up defeating itself. It creates bitterness in the survivors and brutality in the destroyers’ – Martin Luther King Jr (1964)

The life of every domestic abuse survivor is somewhat altered due to the aftermath of such a harrowing experience. When exiting from an abusive relationship, it is important to remember the transition from being an individual who was once controlled by another human being, to then becoming someone who is back in control of there own life, is a very challenging one (Anderson, Renner & Danis, 2012). The shift between these two mental states involves remarkable strength and courage as for the first time, the prospect of building a new life is future envisioned rather than undergoing the struggle of everyday survival (Senter & Caldwell, 2002).

Domestic abuse covers many aspects of extreme physical, mental, sexual and emotional abuse that often impacts a victim not only at the time of an assault but also for many years after the incident(s) have occurred. Due to the relentless cruelty of domestic abuse, the lasting consequences have been reported to potentially cause an individual to develop mental health problems such as depression, suicidal ideation, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Fergusson, Horwood, & Ridder, 2005; Jones, Hughes, & Unterstaller, 2001; Mechanic, Weaver, & Resick, 2008), as well as issues with substance misuse (Jones, Hughes, & Unterstaller, 2001; Waldrop & Resick, 1993) amongst many other physical and mental health concerns (Arias, Harper & Straight, 2003).

The following literature review is going to specifically analyse the previous literature on the link between posttraumatic stress disorder and domestic abuse.

Childhood Abuse (Trauma) and PTSD Symptoms

The connection between childhood abuse (trauma) and men’s abuse of women has been clearly established within reviewed literature (Connolly et al., 2006; Cunningham & Baker, 2004; Edleson, 1999; Guille, 2004; Hester et al., 2000; Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008). The implications on a child’s emotional and mental state when witnessing parental domestic abuse can be somewhat considered as a form of emotional abuse in itself. In turn, this could have potential negative implications on any future adult relationships. (Brandon & Lewis, 1996; Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008).

The classification of a direct observation of abuse/violence can include that of the direct witnessing of both violent sexual and physical assaults towards their mother, as well as the on-going consistency of the nature of the abuse over a period of time. From analysis of 48 mothers and 54 children, McGee’s (2000) research found that 71% of the 54 children witnessed some form of physical abuse towards their mother. This included 10% bearing witness to the rape of their mother (Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008). McCloskey, Figuerdo, and Koss found similar findings when using a significantly greater sample of 365 women and 365 children in 1995. When interviewed, two-thirds of the women disclosed choking was carried out during their physical assaults with just fewer than 50% of the children reporting the witnessing of such abuse towards their mother (Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008). Previous research on a child’s exposure to sexual abuse towards their mother shows increased distress and trauma from this type of experience (Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008; Weinhall, 1997, cited in Hester et al., 2000). Kilpatrick and Williams (1998) however, conducted a smaller study that consisted of 35 mothers and their children. Their findings found that in relation to the intensity and frequency of abuse within the home, the significance of neither intensity nor the frequency predicted any symptoms of post-traumatic stress in the children. Their study concluded that ‘domestic violence has the capacity to provoke trauma in the child, regardless of frequency or intensity’ (Kilpatrick and Williams, 1998).

In households where there is domestic violence present, it has been established that the quality and ability of both parents supporting their child’s needs are compromised (Buchbinder, 2004; Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008; Levendosky & Graham-Bermann, 2001; McIntosh, 2002; Mullender et al., 2002). It can be indicated that due to this compromise there can become a lack of attachment between mother and child (Cleaver et al., 1999; Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008; Levendosky, Huth-Bocks, Shapiro, & Semel, 2003). Literature suggests that children of pre school age who have been witness to violence or abuse within the home, have increased problems with behaviour, social problems, difficulty with showing empathy, as well as prominent post-traumatic stress symptoms than those who have witnessed no form of violence or abuse (Rossman, 1998; Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008; Huth-Bock, Levendosky & Semel, 2001). Reviewed literature supports this finding as it has been suggested that insecure attachments heighten vulnerability to the symptoms of PTSD compared to secure attachments developed in childhood (Ogle, Rubin & Siegler, 2015).

It has been suggested that children who have been exposed to violence/abuse within the childhood home are more likely to develop relationships that are violent or abusive within adulthood. Copied or learnt behaviour of children by their parents is detrimental to this as it has become evident within previous literature that boys learn much of their behaviours from their fathers for example, violence towards women. Nonetheless in contrast, girls are likely to learn behaviours from there mothers such as violence being normalised within the home and violent acts and abusive behaviours being somewhat expected from their partners (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2019).

Despite these suggestions however, it is important to remember not all children replicate the same patterns of behaviour as their parents within adulthood. As a child, violence and abuse can become a behaviour to which a child will try very hard to not replicate due to the witnessing of the after effects of such trauma to their loved ones. Nevertheless, this doesn’t mean the after effect of domestic violence/abuse doesn’t impact a child’s future, particularly in relation to the symptomology of PTSD (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2019).

Adulthood Domestic Abuse

Domestic abuse in adulthood is similar to that of child abuse. It enables an abuser into a position of control and power that allows them to target the person whom they deem has less power in the relationship. As previously discussed, regardless of sexual preference or gender, children who have been exposed to violence/abuse are more likely to become abusive in their own future relationships within adulthood.

Lenore Walker’s theory of ‘The Cycle of Abuse’ provides an understanding of why this may be, alongside offering an explanation as to why many victims of domestic violence/abuse often develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Previous literature has shown that individuals who suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder can be drawn towards situations of violence. This enables the cycle of abuse to potentially repeat itself from generation to generation. The cycle of abuse allows exposure to the traumatic assaults to re-run on a continuous cycle for the victim, which can in turn cause long-term psychological stress in the on-set of PTSD (Babbel, 2019).

Posttraumatic stress disorder can be best described as a psychiatric disorder that can occur when a person has witnessed or experienced a traumatic event such as a serious assault, a natural disaster, a terrorist act, rape, war/combat or domestic abuse. It can cause people to have intrusive thoughts and intense feelings that are related to their distressing experience. This can occur in the initial stage after an event or alternatively, continue long after the traumatic experience has past. Flashbacks and nightmares are often reported which causes an individual to relive the trauma all over again. This can leave an individual feeling a mix of emotions from sadness, anger and fear as well as feelings of isolation and detachment from others (American Psychiatric Association, 2019). The National Center on PTSD (2019) suggested that women are of a higher probability of suffering from trauma, which includes that of domestic violence. It has been reported that women have a 10% chance of developing the disorder, whereas men are reported to stand at only a 4% chance.

Despite traumatic responses varying from one person to another, Jones, Hughes, & Unterstaller (2001) suggest a significant percentage of domestic abuse survivors (31% to 84%) demonstrate PTSD symptoms. Previous literature on women’s shelters has found that women living within these shelters have a higher occurrence of violence and abuse than abused women who are not homed within shelters (Gondolf & Fisher, 1998; Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012). Due to this, women victims of domestic violence who do live in shelters, are also more likely to show increased rates of violence related PTSD (Jones et al., 2001; Kemp, Rawlings, & Green, 1991; Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012; Saunders, 1994).

Prior research suggests that the symptoms of PTSD in relation to domestic abuse can interfere with a victim’s effective use of resources (Johnson, Zlotnick, & Perez, 2008; Krause, Kaltman, Goodman, & Dutton, 2008; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012). The Conservation of resource theory (Hobfoll & Lilly, 1993) theorises that the loss of both material and personal resources offers a key part in relation to stress reactions, which also includes PTSD. Domestic abuse often risks the loss of resources for example, financial security, appropriate and safe housing as well as other basic life requirements (Roberts & Burman, 2007; Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012; Sullivan & Gillum, 2001). For victims tormented by the symptoms of PTSD, this potential loss of resource has been related, in previous literature, to a rise in symptoms of mental health issues predominantly that of PTSD (Hobfoll, 1989; Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012).

Kemp, Green, Hovanitz, and Rawlings (1995) examined 179 battered women and 48 female survivors in a community-based, shelter sample. This sample was a first of its kind as it was one of the original studies to examine forms of domestic abuse rather than abuse as a whole. The study examined psychological abuse aside from physical violence in relation to PTSD. Kemp, Green, Hovanitz and Rawlings (1995) outlined the definition of battered women as those whom had experienced a form of physical violence that stretched from a mere push to extreme physical acts such as attempted murder. 81% of the sampled battered women hit the criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD together with the sampled psychologically abused women matching the criteria at 62.5% for a diagnosis (R. Tramayne, 2012). Interestingly however, although it has been well documented within previous literature the link between physical violence/trauma and PTSD, Taft, Murphy, King, Dedeyn, and Musser (2005) found within their research that there was a stronger link to PTSD symptomatology in relation to psychological abuse than that of physical abuse (R. Tramayne, 2012). Although a relatively new topic of research, it is believed there may be a stronger connection between domestic psychological abuse and PTSD than that of physical trauma and abuse (South African College of Applied Psychology, 2018).

PTSD: Psychological abuse vs. physical abuse

Psychological abuse is one of the most frequent forms of abuse used by perpetrators as it often the hardest to spot from a victim. With the lack of visible signs that is common with physical abuse, it is often meant that the psychological abuse a victim will endure can potentially go unnoticed for years (Tracy, 2019).

The impact of psychological abuse can be just as destructive as abuse that is physical however, the difference psychological abuse has over physical abuse is that it can affect a persons feelings and thoughts whilst having full control of a persons everyday life. Psychological abuse has the potential to devastate any form of relationship from friendships to intimate relationships. One of the biggest impacts however is that of someone’s self esteem and belief in themselves being utterly destroyed (Tracy, 2019).

On the other hand, physical abuse frequently transpires besides other kinds of abuse such as emotional abuse, sexual abuse and even financial control. To define physical abuse, the New York State Office of Children and Family Services (2019) states ‘’Non-accidental use of force that results in bodily injury, pain, or impairment. This includes, but is not limited to, being slapped, burned, cut, bruised or improperly physically restrained”. Physical abuse is often used to overpower and gain control over another person (Tracy, 2019).

In 1979, Walker (2005) identified that battered women who partook within his study, suggested that the psychological abuse that they had been subjected to, was far more harmful than the physical abuse they had previously endured. Similarly, Follingstad et al (1990) has reported this finding in more up to date quantitative research. Follingstad et al (1990) stated that 72% of their women sample, who had been previously physically abused, recalled that the psychological abuse they had experienced had had a more detrimental effect on them than the abuse they endured physically by there abuser. Intriguingly, those women who had testified to the psychological abuse being more negatively impacting did not vary very much from the remaining sample in regard to the frequency of the physical abuse or the severity of the physical incidents (Street & Arias, 2001). Sackett and Saunders (1999) found similarly that, from the battered women who were seeking help from support services, the psychological abuse was a greater predictor of the women’s fear than that of the physical abuse. This discovery is highly significant as fear during/from a traumatic event, has previously been distinguished as a compelling factor in the development of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (Briere, 2004; Street & Arias, 2001).

Treatment for PTSD with Victims of Domestic Abuse

Despite PTSD having a strong link to victims of domestic abuse, it was surprising to find so little literature and research covering effective treatments for victims suffering from such a distressing disorder in relation to the discussed topic.

It is well published that treatments already exist for individuals in the aftermath of trauma and PTSD, yet the treatments available do not offer victims of domestic abuse the stability to not fear the risk of revictimisation. It has been suggested that the primary focus of treatment in relation to PTSD in victims of domestic abuse is that it needs to be consistent and coincide with the victim’s current and ever changing needs.

The most common and documented form of treatment used to help individuals suffering with PTSD would be that of exposure to the trauma however, understandably this would not be suitable in line with the support needed for domestic abuse victims (Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012). Jaycox & Foa (1996) reported that the effectiveness of exposure based treatments offered to domestic abuse victims was somewhat tainted due to the on-going struggle of intense anxiety. Domestic abuse often already inflicts high levels of anxiety in individuals that in turn, can trigger fear responses towards the menace of continuing victimisation (Foa, Cascardi, Zoellner, & Feeny, 2000; Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012). According to previous literature, due to the trepidations of victimisation, interventions, which offer exposure to trauma, can be seen as ineffective due to running the risk of traumatising the victims further. Consequently, it has to be perceived that traditional treatments of PTSD that encompass a form of exposure are not suitable for this area of trauma (Perez, Johnson & Wright, 2012).

On the other hand, Johnson, Zlotnick, and Perez (2011) created a new cognitive behavioural treatment, which was shaped by Herman (1992) called ‘Helping to Overcome PTSD through Empowerment’. The ‘multi-stage model of recovery’ was aimed at addressing the demand for PTSD treatment in domestic victim shelters. It envisions recovery from persistent trauma as transpiring in 3 phases: (1) establishing safety, (2) mourning and resemblance and (3) reconnection (Klostermann, 2015). It has been established that ‘Helping to Overcome PTSD through Empowerment’ is an effective therapy due to its prominence on elements such as stabilisation and safety. For those suffering from PTSD due to domestic trauma, it is paramount to get to a setting and feeling of physical safety as well as having accessibility to resources that will assist with refining a stable and safe life filled with quality moving forward. ‘Helping to Overcome PTSD through Empowerment’ incorporates Herman’s phase approach outlined with a cognitive behaviour view. This includes various components of traditional Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for PTSD for example, skill building and cognitive restructuring. Previous literature advises that sufferers of PTSD manage trauma built on their prior belief on others, ones self and everything else around them (Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Klostermann, 2015; McCann, Sakheim, Abrahamson, 1988). This ‘cognitive restructuring’ contributes to the symptoms of PTSD as it produces an amplified sense of an existing threat. The dysfunctional strategies for coping and negative emotions can potentially act as a sequence in upholding the PTSD symptoms. This is why individuals are endlessly advised through the model to identify any threats which are deemed as controllable to their emotional and physical wellbeing as well as making the clear use of their tools of empowerment to control any potential threats (Klostermann, 2015).

Conclusion

The link between Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and domestic abuse can be described as a very complex one. It is evident that individuals who have experienced domestic abuse hold a higher risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder however; those who suffer posttraumatic stress disorder are more likely to engage in forms of domestic abuse. Research has identified that there are available approaches to treatment, which are deemed as effective in relation to domestic abuse posttraumatic stress disorder.

Whilst there is extensive research relating to PTSD and domestic abuse individually, it is clear that more research needs to be done in relation to the two topics together and in particular form of integrative treatment.

This is an area of devastating trauma that needs continuous reevaluation and attention due to the ever-changing epidemic of mental health in today society. “Trauma is hell on earth. Trauma resolved is a gift from the gods.” – Peter A. Levine (2012)

Through adult development there will be many challenges some will be easy to master and others not so simple to maneuver such as, being diagnosed with Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia most commonly strikes between the ages of 16 and 30. Generally, men tend to expose signs and symptoms at a slightly younger age than girls. In many instances, the disease develops very slowly, the person doesn’t know or recall that they have had schizophrenia for many years. In different cases, it may suddenly strike and develop fast. Schizophrenia impacts about 1% of all adults, globally. People that are diagnosed with this disease require a lifelong treatment. (Up to Date, 2019)

Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder where patients interpret reality abnormally. Suffering with the effects of the schizophrenia disease makes everyday choices becomes a challenge in its own. Patients experience a decline on daily abilities they once had, to perform typical daily activities example: brushing own hair and teeth. Performing tasks like keeping relationships with friends and family or going to work, becomes impossible. Even doing something as simple like paying monthly bills or having a conservation becomes tedious and difficult. That is what patient say living with schizophrenia is like, even if patient is high functioning. (American P)

According to DSM V, the definition of Schizophrenia is characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and behavior, and other symptoms that cause social or occupational dysfunction. In order to make a proper diagnosis, symptoms must have been present for six months and requiring that an individual exhibit at least two of the specified symptoms of Schizophrenia. (American Psychiatric Association DSM 5, 2013). During the assessment of the primary symptom evaluation a series of evaluations are conducted. These assessments are meant to assess patient signs, symptoms and establish medical necessity. This data can be compared to results from any ancillary and/or laboratory results available. This documentation helps to track behavioral patterns that further define a patient’s progress and define a prognosis. Diagnosis’ are often modified from one subtype to another because of overlapping symptoms. (American Psychiatric Association DSM 5, 2013) According to WHO, schizophrenia is among one of the top ten illnesses that are most disabling and economically catastrophic. (Murray CJL, 1996) Before the DSM 5 was updated in 2013, the diagnosis of Schizophrenia included different subtypes of the disease, they are:

• Paranoid Schizophrenia: Thinking that the person is being followed or watched. This is a considered a separate ailment.
• Hebephrenic Schizophrenia: Disorganized thinking, behavior, incoherent and illogical thoughts and speech.
• Childhood Schizophrenia: Schizophrenic symptoms have an incidence of less than a 0.04% has occurred to children.
• Schizoaffective disorder: A person that has experienced mood disorders or had the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia, from when they first started having symptoms up to the present.
• Catatonic Schizophrenia: Can include excessive, repetitive and peculiar motor behaviors or a decreased motor activity. (Black, 2019)

There are 3 forms of Catatonia aka Catatonic schizophrenia, they are: akinetic, excited catatonia and malignant catatonia. As explained by Dr. Stephen Rush, MD, assistant professor of clinical psychiatry in the University Cincinnati Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience in akinetic type, the patient can be mute, a decrease in or absence of eating/drinking, urinary incontinence, have slow movements, resist movement of a body part by another body part, or respond the opposite to a request to move—all without motive. “Moving their limbs can feel like moving a candle that bends slowly when it’s almost at the melting point,” says Stephen Rush, MD. “Other symptoms may include a refusal to following instructions, blank staring, and mirroring others. With excited catatonia, the person is restless and often combative.” “This looks almost more like a manic situation in which a person is generally in a frenzy and highly impulsive, the person may be swirling his arms around for no reason” says Dr. Rush. Hyperkinesis can be characterized by excessive and purposeless motor activity in extremities, restlessness; repetitive and purposeless movements.” In malignant catatonia, the person might have an increased heart rate and/or breath heavily, during initial vitals assessment with the medical assistant at the medical provider’s office. “Fever, delirium and severe rigidity of the muscles might also be seen,” Dr. Rush says. “This type of catatonia can have a sudden onset and progress to a severe state rapidly. In such a state, the body’s organs can begin to fail. Malignant catatonia can even be fatal.” (Black, 2019)

The clinical manifestations affiliated with the schizophrenia characteristics overlap with other clinical features of other mental disorders such as: depression, anxiety, bipolar, psychotic mood disorder and substance induced psychotic disorders. The difference between the mood disorders with psychosis and schizoaffective disorder is down to the timing of symptoms.

Schizophrenia symptoms may include, but not limited to:

• Positive symptoms: this group includes impairment of social cognition and occupational functioning including:
• Hallucinations*: These can be auditory such as: hearing voices or sounds. Or might experience visual hallucinations example: flashes of color, glowing dots, or other unexplained objects. The prevalence of this symptom is between 40 to 80% of diagnosed patients.
• Delusions an example of this behavior is the person thinking that patient is being watched, followed or controlled. Or the person experiencing bizarre false beliefs and/or paranoid delusions.
• Disorganized symptom can be characterized by person’s expression include making up words that don’t exist. Thoughts are often expressed as a “word salad” and seem to have sudden topic switches. Statements are structured with no organization or make any sense to convey anything to the listener.
• Cognitive impairments- this symptom affects the person’s attention span, memory, verbal/visual reasoning learning and memory.
• Recurrent psychosis mood disorder including manic episodes: person may have outbursts, extreme confusion and can potentially become combative.
• Negative symptoms: This can be described as the person’s flatness, lack of empathy and substance of personality.
• Symptoms are independent, vary in type and severity from person to person. (Up to Date, 2019)

The exact causes of Schizophrenia are not known. Researchers believe the cause to be a mixture of a combination of brain’s chemistry, genetics and environmental contributions. A person’s neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate are believed to be contributors to being diagnosed with schizophrenia. This after a study was conducted of the neuroimaging in schizophrenic patients studying the brain’s structure, central nervous system and tracking any changes. Although exact cause of this disease is not known as of yet, these are the risk factors have been identified family medical history, inflammation or autoimmune diseases, birth complications such as malnutrition, any exposure to toxins or viruses that can impact brain development or using and abusing psychoactive or psychotropic drugs during teenage and young adulthood. There is no prevention for the schizophrenic disease, however, a comprehensive treatment plan with consistent follow up can help prevent worsening of symptoms. If condition is left untreated, patient can experience:

• Suicidal ideations
• Cutting or other self-injury
• OCD and other anxiety disorders
• Social isolation
• Depression
• Alcohol, tobacco and/or other recreation drug use or abuse
• Legal/Financial problems
• Other serious medical or health problems (Up to Date, 2019)

Early detection of this condition and treatment may help patient to get symptoms under control before any serious complications develop. Complications of schizophrenia vary based on patient ability to accept help, seek professional care and consistent follow up care, as instructed by medical provider.

Bibliography

1. American Psychiatric Association DSM 5. (2013). Schizophrenia. 1.
2. Black, R. (2019, July 17). Catatonic Schizophrenia: How to Recognize the Symptoms of a Catatonic State. (L. Remedy Health Media, Ed.) Psycom. Retrieved from https://www.psycom.net/schizophrenia/catatonic-schizophrenia/
3. Murray CJL, L. A. (1996). The Global Burden of Disease. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
4. Up to Date. (2019). Schizophrenia in adults: Clinical Manifestations course, assessment and diagnosis . Up to Date. Retrieved 10 31, 2019, from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schizophrenia-in-adults-clinical-manifestations-course- assessment-and -diagnosis

‘Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930’s’ by Donald Worster gives a play back of the years in which The Great Plains—Texas, Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Kansas—experienced devastating dust storms that effected the economy and many people’s lives. Worster, an American History Professor and child of those uprooted by the catastrophe called the Dust Bowl, gives his prospective on the causes of the disaster. Worster argues that the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl revealed fundamental weaknesses, one economically and the other ecologically, of society. He claims capitalism and the inappropriate interference with the environment allowed for the storms to happen (5). Although ‘Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930’s’ has some weaknesses along with many strengths, it is pretty effective in supporting the idea that consumer America can have an effect on the environment, however it fails to provide strong evidence to support his argument.

‘Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930’s’ includes research and also interviews with people that lived through the Dust Bowl. The book is split into five sections. Each of the five sections discusses a different aspect of the Dust Bowl. The first two sections, “A Darkling Plain” and “Prelude to Dust,” describe the displacement of many residents due to the drought and abusive agricultural practices. In sections three and four, “Cimarron County, Oklahoma” and “Haskell County, Kansas,” readers get firsthand accounts of the phenomenon when Worster gives interviews he had with survivors where they tell their story. The last section, “A New Deal for the Land,” discusses the relief programs that attempted to help, along with efforts of federal conservationists to create better dry land farming practices. One theme given in this book is the idea of human responsibility. Throughout the book, he provides details that humans were the cause of the Dust Bowl. He wants the reader to think about how human actions can effect the environment.

One strength the book contains to support Worster’s argument is he provides a clear link between capitalism, the exploitation of the land and the Dust Bowl. Worster explains that in the Great Plains, capitalism is a complex economic culture. One maxim he gave was that nature must be seen as capital. Nature is “a set of economic assets that can become a source of profit or advantage, a means to make more wealth” (6). Because nature is seen as a way to make money, capitalists exploited the land in order to gain wealth. All of the exploitation of the land caused the Dust Bowl to occur.

A second strength in the book is that Worster uses many primary sources. The use of primary sources enables the reader to get a better sense of what exactly was happening at the time of the event. When Worster uses primary sources, such as photographs and interviews from people who lived during the time, his claim becomes stronger because the reader has a direct view into what he is arguing about. Photographs in the book show people farming and ruining the land, this provides evidence to support his claim that inappropriate interference with the land led to the Dust Bowl. The interviews he included in the chapters gave the reader a first hand account of what was happening and how it was affecting the area.

One weakness the book contains in supporting Worster’s argument is he often does not support what he says with objective evidence. For example, when Worster claims that capitalism caused the Dust Bowl, he does not provide an alternative that would have prevented it. The claim is subjective and could have been stronger if evidence was given that, for example, a socialist society instead of a capitalist society would have prevented the Dust Bowl. Although he does give examples that capitalism was a factor that lead to the Dust Bowl, by adding an alternative, the claim that capitalism caused the Dust Bowl could possibly be stronger. Another example of him not giving strong enough evidence is in an example he gave. He gave an example of the Plains Indians, who were another civilization that survived in the same area without destroying the environment. They did this by not wasting any resources, becoming another predator, and “they carefully kept their numbers down to what the ecological community could support” (77). Although this is a great example, he does not provide direct evidence that this was a choice rather than being due to starvation, migration, or other non-controllable reasons.

Overall, ‘Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930’s’ was effective at supporting Donald Worster’s argument that capitalism and the abuse of the land caused the Dust Bowl to occur. Although the book supported his argument, the use of stronger evidence could have enhanced the effectiveness.

Homeostasis is essential for the human body to regulate and function properly. By achieving appropriate homeostasis levels, the kidneys can differentiate which fluids and how much of each fluid humans should consume. Hormones like Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and Aldosterone each affect osmolarity homeostasis by regulating the kidneys. In order to examine the role of the kidneys in homeostasis, we conducted an experiment to find the highest amount of urine voided after the consumption of a variety of fluids: Gatorade, Coke, water, and no fluids. The experiment tested urine secretion, taking measurements at every 30 minutes for a total of 120 minutes by measuring the total volumes ingested and voided, and by calculating urine flow rates, urine specific density, and urine pH. We predicted Gatorade drinkers would produce higher volumes of urine compared to the groups drinking Coke. What we found was that the highest urine voided group was the water drinkers and lowest was the coke drinkers. The results did support our hypothesis, the highest urine voided group was the water drinking group as we predicted, followed by Gatorade drinkers, Coke drinkers, and finally non-drinkers. The less acidic, more pH neutral, and less sodium concentrated drinks produced the highest urine voids.

Introduction

Homeostasis is essential for the human body to regulate and function properly. It regulates body fluids which is significant since the majority of chemical reactions via enzyme proteins are dependent on the proper levels of fluid pH. Proton transport across the plasma membrane cannot happen without the proper modulation of the intracellular pH, a result of homeostasis in pH. Achieving concurrent homeostasis levels in the kidneys could help differentiate which type of fluids and the optimal amount humans should consume to produce the maximum results during any and all activities.

The kidney functions by the use of many nephrons which filter the blood and remove waste. Each nephron begins its process of filtration from the afferent artery moving the blood into the glomerulus where it is filtered and then pushed into the Bowman’s capsule. From there the filtrate enters the proximal tubule where the reabsorption of ions and amino acids into the bloodstream occurs while simultaneously secreting all the waste from the bloodstream into the proximal tubule. The filtrate then passes through the loop of Henley, altering the concentration of the filtrate before entering the collecting duct to be voided (Widmaier, E., Raff, H. & Strang, K., 2015). The level of concentration reached when in the collecting duct determines the concentration of the soon-to-be voided urine.

Maintaining kidney osmolarity homeostasis is crucial for the proper regulation [absorption/secretion] of water from the body. The kidney uses a countercurrent flow system in order to maintain homeostasis. In its steady state phase, the blood osmolarity is 300 mOsm/liter and the osmolarity increases to 1200 mOsm/liter as solutes concentration increases (Widmaier, E., Raff, H. & Strang, K., 2015). Hormones like ANP, ADH, and Aldosterone all function to regulate and manufacture homeostasis. ANP reduces sodium reabsorption by inhibiting the cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channels, the epithelial sodium channel, and the heteromeric channel transient receptor potential-vanilloid 4 and -polycystin 2 and diminishes vasopressin-induced water reabsorption (Theilig, F. & Wu, Q., 2015). ADH causing the body to retain water, thus decreasing blood osmolarity when urine concentration is high. The hormone Aldosterone causes an intake of water and sodium into the blood to increase blood pressure and osmolarity when needed. High levels of osmolarity concentration lead to high levels of urine concentration meaning a large number of solutes and less water in the urine.

In order to examine the role of the kidneys in homeostasis, we experimented to find the highest amount of urine voided after the consumption of a variety of fluids: Gatorade, coke, water, no fluids. The experiment tested urine secretion for 2 hours at every 30 minutes by measuring the total volumes ingested and voided, and by calculating urine flow rates, urine specific density, and urine pH. We hypothesized that the consumption of water would produce the largest amount of urine secreted, yielding the highest urine flow rates, lowest specific density and having the most neutral pH of all the groups.

Methods

Subjects came fasted for 5 hours prior to the experiment. The first void, T=0, all subjects are to utilize 2 urinary cups to empty their bladder completely. All groups are to measure and calculate the density, flow rate, specific gravity, and test the urine sample, for traces of blood, ketones, proteins, and glucose.with the use of a labstix strip, drinking groups will set aside T=0 sample to analyze later. The groups who consume liquids will consume the specified amount of liquid that was calculated. The amount of fluid to consume is calculated by the formula: volume of fluid intake(ml) = [body weight (lbs.) x 7mL/lb.] x 0.80 (Manuguid, C., et al. 2019) . Specific density is calculated by multiplying the last 2 digits of the corrected urine specific gravity multiplied by 2.66 g/L. Urine flow rates are calculated by dividing the volume voided (ml) by the duration of time from current to prior void (min). The same steps and calculations were the specific gravity, urine flow rate, and density is measured and calculated will be repeated for intervals a total of 120 minutes, the subject is to collect a void at every 30-minute interval following T=0 void.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of four different fluids on urine concentration, volume voided, and osmolarity homeostasis. Prior to the start of the lab, the subject fasted for five hours to record optimal results. The first void T=0 was conducted prior to the start of the experiment. Void T=0 was used to measure whether the subject had fasted for the required hours. We used a Labstix to test for any traces of blood, ketone, glucose, and protein in the urine. The subjects drank a specific amount of liquid based by a calculation in accordance with their body weight. The liquids used in the experiment were Coke, Gatorade, water, and a group were given no liquid to drink. The subjects voided at intervals of approximately 30 minutes for a period of 120 minutes. We measured from the voids was the volume voided, urine flow rate, temperature, specific density, and pH. The objective was to test which group would void the most. We predicted that the subjects who drank water would produce the largest amount of urine voided and Gatorade drinkers would produce more urine than coke drinkers since hormones like ANP which inhibition of net salt and water reabsorption in the cortical and inner medullary collecting ducts (Zeidel, M., 1990) leading to higher levels of water excretion compared to Coke-drinkers where coke increases the osmolarity concentration and water retention .

The results were in agreement with our hypothesis. The highest urine voided group was the water drinkers with 704 ml being their highest amount voided. The Gatorade drinkers group had the second highest amount voided at 652 ml. Following the Gatorade drinkers, Coke drinkers who had their highest volume voided at 403 ml. The non-drinkers group had the least volume voided at 131 ml. The order in volume voided fell in line with our predictions as water drinkers had the highest and non-drinkers produced the least urine voided. In a similar study, it was found that higher sodium excretion rests only on changes in urinary sodium concentration (Bankir, et al. 2017). This helps explain why coke drinker had a higher specific density and more urine secreted at T=30 but dropped, back to normal, lower than other fluids [gatorade and water] as the experiment continued. The subjects continuously increasing their urine intake like other fluid-drinking groups but did not excrete at the same, increased volumes as the water and Gatorade-drinking groups. The urine flow rate of water drinkers peaked at 8.91 ml/min and Gatorade drinkers’ urine flow rate peaked at 9.21 ml/min yet, both produced very similar numbers. The non-drinkers group had their highest point at the first interval, T=30, then produced at a constant decrease. Coke drinkers numbers increased to the time interval of T=90. Non-drinkers had the highest specific density while the water drinking group acquired the lowest specific density. PH levels remained within the 6 to 6.80 range for all groups. The Non-drinkers and water drinkers had more neutral pHs while the coke drinkers group outcome showed pH levels of 6.07. The Gatorade drinkers group had a pH of 6.54.

At the end of the experiment, water drinkers had the highest flow rate posing results closer to 6 ml/min followed by Gatorade drinkers then coke drinkers who’s flow rate showed numbers closer to 4 ml/min. Non-drinkers had the lowest flow rate at T=120, with a difference of more than 3 ml/min between non-drinkers and the next group. The reason that there was not a significant difference between all the different drinking groups but there was between the drinking and non-drinking groups ws dehydration. In a similar study testing the effect on hydration of two diets: one with and one without plain water, it was found that plain drinking water compared to exclusion of plain drinking water in the diet did not affect hydration (Grandjean, A. et al., 2003). The urine specific density at the end of the experiment, T=120, however, showed opposite results compared to the flow rate. Non-drinkers produces the highest specific density followed by coke drinkers, then Gatorade drinkers and lastly water drinkers. This is due to dehydration and having a higher concentration of solutes in the kidneys, which is why water-drinkers had the lowest specific density. As expected the pH of water drinkers and on-drinkers was very similar at T=120.

The results support our hypothesis regardless of any errors in measurements that could have taken place. Possible errors include incorrect readings of urinometer, unsubstantial fast duration, and loss in urine collected in void cups when urinating at each interval. The highest urine voided group was the water drinkers and lowest was the coke drinkers. Though there were some subjects who did not fast correctly or entirely, the results did go as we predicted, water drinkers would produce the most urine voided followed by Gatorade drinkers, then Coke drinkers, and finally non-drinkers. We see that there is a relation between the types of drinks one intakes to their urine output. The less acidic, more pH neutral, and less sodium concentrated drinks produced the highest voids. In a similar study testing the relationship between sodium and water intake, found that after an increase in sodium intake, fluid intake is increased for the first couple days, but the urine volume does not increase (Bankir, et al. 2017). The extra fluid drunk is responsible for an increase in body weight. We can use this knowledge for future studies. Were these same methods can be applied however done more more accurately by measuring the height, weight, waist circumference, body protein content, and percent body fat mass of subjects (Zhang, N., et al. 2017) and done for a longer period to to test other types of fluids consisting of high and low volumes of sodium, in comparison to water to see if other fluids will pose the same results.

References

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2. Grandjean, A. C., et al.(2003). The Effect on Hydration of Two Diets, One with and One without Plain Water. Journal of the American College of Nutrition,22(2), 165–173.
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Introduction

In 2016, the Association for Pet Obesity Prevention conducted a clinical survey that found that an estimated 53.9% of dogs and 58.9% of cats were determined to be clinically overweight or obese by their veterinarian (APOP, 2016). Obesity is defined as an excess accumulation of body fat that results in impairment of health of bodily functions. Overweight and obese dogs can suffer from other health conditions that are the result of their increased adiposity, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (Osto and Lutz, 2015). An increased amount of adipose tissue causes stress on the joints and produces hormones and other cell-signaling molecules, which may accelerate the development of these obesity-related diseases (Laflamme et. al, 2012). Obesity continues to be an issue today due to the lack of nutritional awareness among pet owners and genetic variants that puts pets in a predisposition for obesity.

If restricted diets and regular exercise are insufficient at keeping dogs at a healthy body weight, clients may turn to pharmaceutical managements. Drugs such as mitratapide and dirlotapide can be used to reduce food intake by causing enzymes in the intestines to inhibit fat absorption and induce the release of a cascade of factors that constrain food intake (Laflamme et. al, 2012). Some breeds may be more susceptible to accruing detrimental amounts of adipose tissue due to genetics, and yet a balanced nutritional diet and physical exercise should be enough to counter their predisposition to become overweight (Mankowska et. al, 2017).

The Golden retriever has a genetic predisposition to obesity due to a deletion in the pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) gene (Raffan et. al, 2016). The POMC gene codes a protein called pro-opiomelanocortin, produced mainly by the pituitary gland, and it undergoes a wide range of post‐translational cleavage and modification events in specific tissues (Navarro et al 2015). A frameshift mutation in this gene causes a 14-base pair deletion at position 17:19431807-19431821 in exon 3, disrupts the coding sequence, and disrupts the production of β-lipocortin, β-melanocyte stimulating hormone (β-MSH) and β-endorphin (Raffan et. al, 2014, Davison et al 2017). A frameshift mutation is a mutational event that is caused by an insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides of DNA in a gene, shifting the reading frame of the codon and all the codons that follow the mutation site. β-MSH is a peptide produced by POMC and it binds to melanocortin 4 receptors (MC4R), which sends a signal to the brain that is crucial for energy homeostasis (Abbott et. al, 2000). β-endorphin attaches to the opioid receptors in the brain and stimulates a signal for pain relief, and it may play a role in feeding behavior and weight gain through pleasurable food properties (Mendez et. al, 2015).

Although Labrador retrievers have a higher frequency of mutation for POMC, this experiment will be conducted in Golden retrievers because they are within the same clade. A clade is a group of organisms that include a common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. A clade may include many thousands of species or just a few and it is a method of classification according to the proportion of measurable characteristics that they have in common. It is assumed that the higher the proportion of characteristics that two organisms share, the more recently they diverged from a common ancestor. The Golden retriever was separated from the Flat-coated retriever, a shared ancestor between the Labrador and Golden retriever (Parker et al. 2017). Dogs are unique because the genetic homogeneity within individual breeds is much greater than within distinct human populations. For some breeds, genetic variation has been reduced by bottlenecks and this conservation means that there are few DNA differences between the Labrador and Golden retriever. This provides a great opportunity to study complex traits that would not be possible in human populations because some genome-wide association studies require a much larger sample size to achieve an adequate statistical power (Hong and Park). This conservation within dog DNA allows for smaller sample sizes while maintaining statistical power. (Ostrander and Wayne).

Genome-wide association analyses can be used to study these complex traits. A genome – wide association analysis is a study in which a dense array of genetic markers with a considerable proportion of common variation in genome sequence is analyzed in a set of DNA samples that are informative for a trait of interest, in this case over-eating. The aim is to map susceptibility effects through the detection of associations between genotype frequency and trait status (McCarthy e.t al, 2008). s. GWAS methods are chiefly concerned with determining alleles associated with various SNPs in each study subject, and making statistical comparisons to identify SNPs or genes associated with a particular trait.

Methodology

The owners of each dog will complete a survey on the behaviors of their dog and that will be used to assess the eating phenotype of the dog. With each question, participants will rate their dog on a scale of always true (1) and never true (5). The numerical score will represent the quantitative trait of appetite and that will be used to identify loci associated with obesity in the genome-wide association analysis. There will be a total of 15 food related behavior questions and a copy of the survey questions can be found in the appendix. The twelve unrelated Golden retrievers will have their gums swabbed using two oral bristle brushes to collect DNA. The oral bristles from each dog will be shipped to Neogen (Lincoln, NE) where DNA will be extracted, and genotyping conducted.

A genome-wide association analysis will be completed with the Illumina 170,000 SNP Canine BeadChip (San Diego, CA) to identify loci that are associated with over-eating in Golden retrievers. This analysis will be continued in a program called SNP and Variation Suite (SVS). Sample statistics in SVS will produce sample call rates over the entire genome and over autosomes only. Low call rates may indicate a discrepancy in the quality of DNA or errors that may have occurred during lab handling. A quality control analysis will be conducted to confirm the accuracy of the genotype data SNPs. The quality control consists of filtering based on SNP call rate, minor allele frequency and Hardy Weinberg equilibrium. Following quality control, a sex check analysis will determine if the individuals’ anatomical and genotypic sex designations matched and an Identity By Descent (IBD) matrix will be conducted to check the data for duplicates or any other relatedness. These quality control methods allow researchers to choose the thresholds and filter out SNPs failing to meet respective quality control measures. The data will also be tested for potential covariates and population stratification through a principal components analysis (PCA). This will identify if allele frequencies differ between two groups due to ancestry differences. The SNPs will then be run through an Efficient Mixed-Model Association eXpedited (EMMAX), and the resulting spreadsheet will be used to create a Manhattan plot and Q-Q plot to better visualize the results. Any markers that reach the threshold of significance in the Manhattan plot will be further investigated. If there is no relationship between the phenotype and the genetic model, the Q-Q plot will display a uniformed line.

A limitation to this research project could be relatedness of the participants. Ideally, the dogs in the study would be related so that a representation of the true population of Golden retrievers can be evaluated. Related individuals can skew the results because alleles can be shared due to their relatedness rather than the phenotype. This can be accounted for in the analysis by a genome relationship matrix.

Another limitation could be that twelve dogs is insufficient to achieve the statistical power to identify an association. The DNA in dogs has been conserved within related breeds or phylogenetic clades. This conservation means that there are few DNA difference among related breeds and it can be exploited in genomic studies to reduce sample size while maintaining statistical power. Genomic associations have been identified with less than twelve dogs, however, these genomic regions had large effects on the phenotype. It is possible that loci with small effects on obesity may not be identified because of the small study population.

A third limitation could stem from the pet owners inaccurately answering the questions on the survey. However, these questions, when answered by dog owners accurately, have been utilized by other researchers to identify genomic associations with behaviors.

Expected Results

The genome-wide association study will identify loci that are associated with over-eating and obesity in Golden retrievers and that one of this loci will include POMC. The identification of these loci will allow owners to identify before their dog is over-weight if they are predisposed to obesity. This can help owners be careful to moderate the amount of food eaten and the amount of exercise given to dogs that have a predisposition to obesity. Moreover, these analyses may provide additional insight into the mechanisms of appetite in dogs.

Bibliography

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Arguably there are a number of social issues affecting contemporary society. Some of these issues, though personal, likely affect the entire population in the long run. Obesity is one of these issues. Obesity is becoming more prevalent with each passing day and this qualifies it to a health issue (Premmel, et al., 2017). Obesity is explained as a physical condition, which involves excess fat accumulation in the body. Nonetheless, the current state of the world in terms of feeding habits and food security does not help the situation (Reynolds, 2017). There are more fast-food joints than markets dealing with fresh fruits and vegetables. Based on the common law of demand and supply, one can deduce that fast food products are in higher demand as compared to fruits and vegetables. These fast foods have high levels of fats and cholesterol which is the leading cause of obesity. This condition makes an individual fat or overweight. Most diseases are associated with obesity. An example of these diseases includes cancer, hypertension, and other cardiovascular and chronic diseases. A lot of resources go to the treatment of these illnesses either from the government through health policies or from the individual. These resources would have been put to other projects if only the source of the infection was controlled or eliminated. This paper focuses on determining the global economic implications of obesity.

Obesity is no longer an individual problem but rather a global one. The high and fast-rising levels of obesity are a threat to the global economy. According to research, over 30% of the population in the world is obese (Premmel, et al., 2017). To understand the health implications of these issues, over five percent of the contemporary deaths are associated with obesity. With the rate of unhealthy feeding and living styles, researchers predict a continued increase in obesity levels and say that by 2030, over fifty percent of the entire global population will be affected by obesity (Premmel, et al., 2017). Despite the health implications to the individual, this scourge presents an economic burden to the individual, families, the society and the governments. For example, in the year 2014, over 2 trillion United States Dollars was used worldwide to fight obesity-related complications (Dobbs, et al., 2014). These figures show that this is a common problem that people spend huge sums of money controlling. Nonetheless, this rate will logically continue to grow based on the current living standards. People do not rely on home cooked food, as they are busy in places of work to find time to cook. It is also a common trend for families to order pizza and other high-fat products instead of consuming less harmful foods such as fruits and vegetables. Lack of exercise due to busy schedules or even laziness is another reason why the obesity levels will certainly rise. Children are introduced to weaning foods at an early age as mothers are busy in offices or running businesses. Further, introduction of weaning foods before six months is another reason why the coming generation will use more funds to control obesity-related infections and diseases.

The cost of medication is constantly growing. Taking an example of the United States, which is among the leading countries in terms of obesity, over 2 trillion is spent on health care annually. The most common diseases in the United States are chronic infections and cancer (Nichols, 2017). In addition, the United States is the home to the biggest fast food stores in the name of McDonald’s, Subway and Starbucks. According to Nichols, (2017), heart diseases contribute to the highest number of deaths in the country. This can be controlled by exercising health eating habits. The leading cause of heart disease is obesity. Thompson, (2017) provided that the United States spent over 555 billion dollars in the treatment of heart diseases and this cost is expected to rise to over one trillion dollars by 2035. This is just an example of the resources put aside to fight obesity-related disease in just the United States alone. The resources put in fighting obesity-related diseases can be put to other projects such as environmental conservation or food safety in affected areas. In addition, one could conclude that any cent put aside for fighting chronic or cardiovascular diseases because of obesity is a cent spent from the global economy that will never be regained.

Obesity-related infections have the highest mortality in the world. The growth of the global economy relies on human capital. Arguably, people are essential in revenue collection which is critical in the growth of the governments’ tax collections. If these people are dying out of obesity, it means that the revenue will be reduced hence reduced government collection in terms of taxes. Therefore, if the government cannot rely on collected taxes to feed its people, they are forced to turn to international loans from the International Monetary Fund and other countries. It follows that this negative consequence affects the global economy, as more loans are bad for any economy. Over taxation is also a likely outcome as the governments need to service these loans. An overtaxed economy leads to the growth of other vices such as corruption and other forms of crime. In addition, it can reasonably establish that this may also lead to inflation in the country. High levels of inflation weaken the economic state of the country as the country’s currency as compared to other countries. People are also essential in the creation of employment or employment opportunities. It follows that if these people are dying because of obesity, the country’s economy would likely suffer, as it will be drained off able brains and labor. According to Thompson, (2017), the population most affected by obesity are the youth. The global economy relies on the youth for development. If these youths succumb to diabetes or other obesity-related infections, it likely means that the global economy loses because it relies on them to produce capital and in other activities that boost economic growth.

According to a study by Reynolds, (2017), obese people are less productive as compared to normal weight people. They are unable to move fast in jobs that require agility or physical ability. In the business set up, this is a drawback especially if the organization is competing with companies that have a more mobile person in the same position. Other than in business competition, this is a drawback because the job that they do would have been done faster by a normal weight person. In other terms, obese people are found to be lazy in the office which affects the company’s revenues and those of the globe in the long run. These people also ask for more sick-leaves as well as working fewer hours (Reynolds, 2017). They are found to complain more about tiredness as compared to normal weight employees. They ask for more breaks, either coffee breaks or lunch breaks than other office employees.

These findings might not apply to all obese people but it is a common observation for most of them. Every minute that they do not spend working on their duties or in their stations is a minute, paid by the organization, but wasted. It is also a minute that the world has been essential for the organization, the country, and the world as long as achieving economic goals is concerned. This affects the country’s gross domestic product negatively Reynolds, (2017). The high cases witnessed as far as early retirement is concerned is also as a result of obesity. As already discussed, obesity is a causal factor for most of the diseases affecting the world population. Early retirement is mostly caused by health complications brought by obesity. The retirees rob off the company, the governments, and the world essential personnel for the growth of the global economy. It also increases the government’s expenditure on taking care of the retirees as well as people admitted to hospital and clinics for obesity-related illnesses (Tremmel, 2017). To raise the GDP of a country, every citizen’s input is essential and less mobile people are found to contribute less to others because a great percentage of whatever they produce goes to the health department as well as governments resources through government controlled health assistance.

Egger, et al., (2012), links obesity to environmental degradation. It is common knowledge now that the globe is focused on environmental conservation as well as sustainability efforts. Governments are spending resources in ensuring that there is a minimal carbon dioxide emission in the air and that the citizens’ activities promote sustainability. However, based on the high volumes of junk food consumed on a daily bases, it is safe to conclude that they are failing in these efforts. Most of the junk food is made from dairy milk products, products high on fat, sugar, salt, and meat. High consumption of these products leads to increased supply or high production (Reynolds, 2017); this affects the greenhouse gas emissions in an adverse way because farmers will rear more methane-producing livestock for milk and crops in a greenhouse. The greenhouse gases are contributing to the same vices that the governments are fighting. In addition, increased consumption translates to increased use of plastic products that not only require high levels of burnt fossils to produce but also degrades the environment. This does not even factor out the high fuel consumption rates required for the transportation of these products to the market (Reynolds, 2017). The international states will, therefore, continue pumping money in environmental conservation efforts as long as the intake of junk food continues increasing.

Nonetheless, obesity does not always bring negative implications in the global economy. According to Tremmel, (2017), there are over 2 billion overweight people in the world. These people spend thousands of dollars in their feeding program as well as in hospital expenses. On one hand, they positively contribute to economic growth through the resources they spend on buying junk food and other related materials. On the other hand, the government also collects revenue form hospitals treating these people. This means that they also contribute to the increased tax collection every time they visit a hospital or a clinic (Egger, et al., 2012). Even though the government sponsors most of the hospitals, a high number of diseases related to obesity are treated in private hospitals which governments do not support but collect taxes from.

Nonetheless, despite the positive effects of obesity, the negative implications outweigh them and it should be discouraged. Governments and by extension the global economy is clearly hurting from the effects of obesity and it is something that needs to be discouraged. One of the ways of discouraging obesity is by controlling the consumption of foods rich in sugar, salt, and fats by taxing them more (Tremmel, 2017). This approach has worked in countries such as Scotland, Spain, Hungary, and Germany among others (Reynolds, 2017).

In conclusion, this report focused on determining how obesity affects the global economy. It found that obesity is the leading cause of high mortality diseases in the world. It leads to increased government expenses in treating and caring for people with these diseases. The death of these people also negatively affects revenue collection and economic growth. Deaths due to obesity also reduce labor as human capital. Obese people are found to contribute less in a business organization as they ask for the highest number of sick-offs and breaks hence wasting a lot of time that would rather be used in achieving the firm’s financial goals. Early retirements are also linked to obesity in the paper which by extension hurts the global economy. There is also a connection between obesity and environmental degradation; this is where the foods they consume contribute to high levels of greenhouse gases in the air, a vice the globe spends heavily in the fighting. Through their heavy consumption and capital spend in hospital, obesity also adds to taxation and revenue collection. Based on these findings, obesity hurts the global economy and can be stopped by controlling the consumption of foods that lead to obesity; this is by increasing taxation on products high on sugar, salt, and fats.