Category: Conversation

As part of my summer unit, I had the opportunity to visit places that are very rich in biodiversity and history and the first location I visited was Bibra Lake in the northern part of Cockburn on Progress Drive and later in the afternoon, the group visited the Pinakarri Cohousing Community at 4 Bottrill Street, Hamilton Hill in Western Australia. The group was guided by our tutor Mrs. Annette Watkins and with her guidance I had a golden opportunity to explore many things that has a direct impact on assigned locations. Therefore, in this essay, I will be discussing two subjects, such as Bibra Lake and the Pinakarri Cohousing Community, through which principles of conservation and resilience have been applied.

First, as part of the Beeliar Regional Park, Bibra Lake is considered as a Bush Forever destination. It has many ideals of the environment, heritage, and recreation. There are many shaded picnic and BBQ areas in the park, and on-site toilet and drinking water services are available. Also, the Murdoch Ph.D. project monitors the turtle movement, manages the fox and birds by building turtle nest shelters to stop from striking the turtle nest. These are meant to include a protected atmosphere from predators through which females can lay their eggs, which will be secured until the time of hatching. However, despite having difficulties in managing the conservation activities in the area the turtle watch and controlling of fox and other birds from destroying the turtle nest have been put in place.

Secondly, the Pinakarri Cohousing Community is committed to being more sustainable culturally, socially, environmentally and economically. We were introduced to Mrs. Robin and Mr. Taid, who were our speakers for the rest of our field trip to Pinakarri, and we have become acquainted with the family of the Pinakarri Cohousing Community. I managed to learn that the Pinakarri was established in 1991 and the population as of today is just 25 heads and they share meals among each other twice a week. They also had state funding to build homes, but later the state government has declined from funding. The rents are charged upon their earnings. They generate income from rentals and all of them participate in the decision-making. The building was built by the climatic conditions which they referred to as climate-sensitive architecture and is planned for special needs. The roofs were built with freezing panels to control heat during summer. They also have a rainwater harvesting system in place to supplement the water. The communal discuss important issues and environmental and social justice through the involvement of everyone.

Finally, with the guidance of my tutor and the guest speakers, I enjoyed and prompted me to take a critical look at and understand the historical, analytical and technical aspects of sustainability at the local level. Besides, I have been able to relate principles such as resilience, bio-regionalism and sense of place to the analysis of complicated social-environmental systems. I did admire an endemic sense of place and identity as well as its role in creating a resilient regional culture.

Professional sporting activities are determined by the type of communication and relationship that exists between the team managers and fans. Sustainability in the sporting industry, therefore, is enhanced by a proper and effective communication platform and strategy amongst team members, managers, and fans. If this is maintained, therefore, conducive environments will be created hence making it possible to install development programs that support the game and its supporters especially in the local setting using modern approaches.

Thesis statement

Sustainable sporting habits create a favorable atmosphere that promotes development in the society. Fans can realize through their interactions with the team members. Therefore, there is a need to identify such practices and how fans get to know about the strengths of the teams.

The sports industry has become one of the leading attention internment for the modern generation. Teams have their fans starting from football, baseball, handball, and rugby. In enhancing the sustainability of a professional sports confederation, there is need to encourage proper and effective communication amongst the fans irrespective of their age. Such approaches create a conducive environment that aims at promoting the sporting profession. In the recent Baseball League in the United States, programs have been launched as a reflection of the inclusion of team fans in the sustainability aspects. Since the sporting activities take place in the open field, recognition of the fans can be observed through the introduction of the renewable sources of energy like solar and wind power as a way of enhancing visibility during the sporting activities (Pedersen & Thibault, 2017).

Reduced prices for the solar and wind energy have been a significant milestone of the sporting institutions as this comes from the need to serve their fans. In car racing sports, the events take place either during the daytime or in the night. This demands proper visibility and spectating from the supporters. Recently, the North American Stock Car Racing Association erected several solar panels in their parking spaces, several other associations have followed suit, especially in their stadiums as a way of communicating to their supporters and fans. Recent years have shown proficient sporting agencies storm in the market by involving their fans in their activities. As a way of communicating to and with the fans, they get engrossed in publicity and marketing activities and take their fans as the major contributors to such events. For instance, the National Hockey League and Los Angeles Kings have proved their direct inclusion and involvement of their fans in their activities by providing them with free solar panel plans.

There has been an increased merging of sporting organizations as a way of communicating to the fans about the spirit of togetherness amongst members of society. The Constellation Energy has shown instances of amalgamation and merging that has resulted in improved and developed communication links between the professional sports leagues and their fans. The focus on the renewable sources of energy was meant to show the need for the conservation of the environment and improving related games and sporting activities like hockey and car-racing. This was achieved through mature ways of utilizing energy sources and resources. The sporting activities then become all weather as the prevailing environmental situations are favorable for all seasons of the year. The adoption of the use of solar energy is because of their little implications on visibility (Armstrong, 2015). Thus, allows the fanatics to be part of institutions’ activities that aim at ensuring society sustainability. Such events provide platforms where there is a one-on-one dialogue with fans on the convenient ways they can use to conserve their environment.

Professional sporting teams have a more significant platform provided by the media where they can easily share out their thoughts with their fans. The media gives fans a chance to air out their views and understand the different ways of attaining sustainability in society. In effect, the associations will be raising the descriptions of what they intend to share with their fans. For instance, the Yankees used promotional techniques to reach out to their fans. This was done especially in stadiums. Sometimes public talks to the fans from specialized individuals play a more significant role in communicating with fans a particular sporting team. The use of certain frameworks like the United Nations Sports for Climate Change Action Framework is an initiative that focuses on environmental issues by basically carrying out education and outreach services to the sporting fans (Hurst, 2016). . This helps create awareness on the importance of ensuring a favorable environment for everyone. This research, therefore, uses such approaches demote environmental degradation activities hence, promoting sustainability through the actions of fans. The process directly involves fans since they are prone to such implications.

Sports, like hockey, have been recently seen as the major contributors to ensuring social equity. Games will be fully affected if there exists negative climatic change. The negative change in the climatic conditions results in unfortunate sporting activities due to the lack of playgrounds as a result of destruction. This means that sustainability has not been achieved. Renewable sources of energy, according to Mitchell, asserts that sustainability is only achieved through the inclusion of renewable energy sources. Social equality aspects are attained through sustainable social perspectives in general sporting exercise. She claims that “We need cold weather. We need fresh water. We need breathable, livable places where people can experience the game outdoors.” This implies that, through sports, it is easy and possible to raise issues relating to the society to the fans as a way of enhancing general societal thrive, which will result in sustainable development gradually (Mullin, Hardy & Sutton, 2014).

Embracing applause for progress and fording ahead is clear communication to sports fans about what is happening. The modern technology is used for almost every activity that aims at bringing positive change to society. Programs that have been initiated by sports are carried out using current technological knowledge. Water management and recycling systems can be installed in playgrounds and stadiums to use the water in starting other projects like tree planting. The society who are the fans can be the best human resource in the entire process. Since such knowledge is always inventive and innovative, the fans can come up with their innovative ways of the same technology to their local people. This means that sustainability is achieved not through direct communication of the sports to the fans (Prensky, 2012).

Conclusion

Communication forms the foundation of success for any interactions. Positive practices in the sporting industry will probably result into sustainability. Despite the direct involvement of the fans by sporting industries into the activities, fans have to embrace their owns ways of influencing their local society to enhance society sustainability. The practices done by the sport associations have always aimed at ensuring a future for the new generation. Therefore, it should everyone’s duty to works towards ensuring sustainable development and improvement by adopting environmental friendly practices as an emulation of the sporting industries. The media should form the basic tool of creating awareness and knowledge to the fans on matters relating to sustainability. Therefore, there should always be a symbiotic relationship between sport managers and fans so as to effectively enhance sustainability in the general society.

Almost every American home has pets of some sort and at some point in the pet’s life, it is more likely to get sick than not. Veterinarians are basically just doctors for animals instead of humans. Many people see veterinarian offices every day and never think twice about what they are or even what they do. Having a love or passion for both animals and humans is hugely important. This is because every day you will be dealing with both animals and their owners.

Like just about any career choice, schooling is very important and is even required. Becoming a veterinarian takes around three to five years of undergraduate school. Along with that four years as a veterinarian, school is also required. One of the most well-known veterinarian schools is called the School of Veterinary Science at the University of Sydney. The specific requirements to become a veterinarian are, “In order to practice, a veterinarian must meet the following educational guidelines: Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts degree in chemistry, physics, biochemistry, biology, animal biology, or zoology. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM or VMD)degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine,” (“Veterinary Science Majors Guide”). To become a veterinarian you must have a specialty but also a general practice on household pets, such as cats and dogs.

With such a large population of people that have pets, the need for veterinarians in the United States is important. In 2016 there were about 79,600 veterinarian jobs in the United States. This career field is also expected to have a 19% growth over the next 10 years. It is actually quite surprising how many people in the United States own pets, “With 62% of American households owning a pet, it is no secret that veterinarians are in high demand,” (“Fun Veterinarian Facts”). With veterinarian jobs high in demand, it will be easier to obtain a job in this field. Another upside of the veterinarian career field growing is that more competition means more competitive pay.

I would like to become a veterinarian because I have always had a passion for animals. Ever since I was young I always took a keen interest in creatures ranging from bugs to reptiles. A couple of years ago I volunteered at an animal rescue place called Phoenix Herpetological Society. Phoenix Herpetological Society mostly focuses on reptile conservation and education. Reptiles are probably my favorite type of animal, so I would probably pursue a career in reptile veterinary. I actually have several reptiles as pets, so I know what it’s like to have to go to a veterinarian.

Working with animals can be very dangerous. This is because the animal will likely feel in danger or confused while being treated. When an animal is in danger it will do whatever it sees fit to escape the situation. In fact, “81% of all veterinarians get seriously injured during work,” (“Fun Veterinarian Facts”). this is important because in this field I can get injured. It is easy to get hurt when working with frightened animals.

Similar to medical physicians, veterinarians have the option to specialize in certain areas. After becoming a certified veterinarian, vets can choose to undertake intensive training in a variety of veterinary specialties such as radiology, cardiology, dentistry, dermatology, oncology, preventative animal medicine, internal medicine, and surgery. Veterinarians have a large variety of fields to major in. I feel like I would enjoy being a radiology vet.

Like every job, each day has a routine, however, there is almost always one incident or another that will bring something different to the day, from emergency surgeries to a late-day delivery of puppies. Veterinary assistants and technicians learn to multi-task and respond quickly and efficiently to urgent situations. Although preventative health care plays a major role in many veterinary practices, they are also the primary source of emergency care when an animal has been injured. Those who are required to treat these animals need to provide the best treatment with a positive outcome.

With each client, the vet assistant and the technician are required to provide a unique service specific to the client. For a new pet owner, the assistant or technician may offer basic information about the care of their particular pet. Opposed to a pet owner with an older animal who may need guidance on proper nutrition, supplements that can help their joints, and the correct dosage of pain medication, if and when necessary. The veterinary assistant will also provide care for an animal who has just come out of surgery or dispense medications to animals in the kennels at that veterinary practice. Keeping a good relationship with customers and taking care of their animals is important. This is because it is crucial for people to come to me for help when their animal is sick or injured.

Although veterinary assistants and technicians work in animal shelters and care for the animals, a greater percentage work and care for the owners of the pets. Each owner has a different personality and these people are there to support the animals that they love and unfortunately sometimes they are there to hear bad news. Compassion is an essential element when working with animals, both for the animal itself and just as importantly, for the pet owner. I feel like I am good at showing compassion. This could be because I have had pets die so I know how it feels.

Employment of veterinarians is projected to grow 18 percent over the next ten years, much faster than the average for all occupations. Increases in consumers’ pet-related expenditures are expected to drive employment in the veterinary services industry, which employs most veterinarians. Veterinary medicine has advanced considerably. Today’s veterinarians are able to offer many services that are comparable to healthcare for humans, including more complicated procedures such as cancer treatments and kidney transplants. Also, 80% of diseases that humans contract originate in animals. Due to this many vets help cure modern diseases.

In conclusion, being a veterinarian is a career field that interests me. Becoming a veterinarian has good pay and I would get to work with animals. I would be able to work somewhere where I am passionate about what I do. Which in return would help improve my work ethic. Becoming a veterinarian has been a prospect for my future job for a while. I am glad I did this essay on vets because now I know a lot about them now.

Works Cited

1. “CollegeGrad.” Jobs, Career, Salary and Education Information, collegegrad.com/careers/veterinarians.
2. “Fun Veterinarian Facts.” Dental Planet, 22 Feb. 2019, www.dentalplanet.com/blog/2016/10/28/fun-facts-veterinarians/.
3. McKay, Dawn Rosenberg. “Veterinarian Job Description: Salary, Skills, & More.” The Balance Careers, The Balance, 1 May 2019, www.thebalancecareers.com/veterinarian-526081.
4. “Veterinarian.” ExploreHealthCareers.org, explorehealthcareers.org/career/veterinary-medicine/veterinarian/.

Stakeholders use consumerism as a push for social change, based on the concept that companies make decisions according to consumer demands (Newholm, 2000). Consumer demand is constrained by the massive influence large companies create via their advertising and branding. On the other hand, it has been argued that consumer power may be used to ensure companies are accountable to society, consumerism can be seen as a tool for social change (Newholm, 2000). However, some literature expresses that corporate accountability is too far fetched to capture the attention of most consumers (Smith, 1990). Smith expresses ethical purchasing behaviour more in a negative sense of consumers boycotting certain products rather than specifically buying ethically.

Ethical consumption is not perceived in a standardised way in the literature covering it. Two popular aspects of research focus on alternative concepts of what consuming ethically consists of (Chatzidakis & Mitussis, 2007). First, consumer ethics-based literature analyses consumers reactions to purchase situations potentially perceived as unethical. Examples of these studies consist of shoplifting, copying or buying pirate software, altering price tags and many other examples that portray unethical behaviour (Vitell, 2003). The other literature focuses on ethical consumer behaviour, focusing on understanding consumers choose what to purchase and why they make these decisions for ethical and environmental reasons.

The ethical consumer is considered to be an evolution of the green consumer (Shaw & Shiu, 2002). The green consumer is described as a consumer that is interested in the environment and expresses it with their general attitude towards environmental protection and conservation as well as the way they behave when purchasing (Kinnear, et al., 1974). This shows that a consumer that purchases alternatively as an act of what they believe to be kind has been a concept for a long time. However, previous literature shows that there is a difference between green and ethical consumers. Green consumers focus their attention on animal welfare and the environment, not just purchasing environmentally products but living in an environmentally friendly manner daily through activities such as recycling, using energy saving appliances and using public transport over driving (Grønhøj, 2006). Whereas ethical consumers are directed also towards the social aspects such as fair trade, social injustice and human rights (Newholm & Shaw, 2007).

Types of Ethical Consumer Behaviour

Ethical consumer behaviour is not simple, it is a complicated phenomenon encircling a wide diversity of behaviours (Harrison, et al., 2005). Individuals choose to express their ethical beliefs through purchasing behaviour in different ways, in current literature four behaviours in particular are mentioned:

The first is boycotting, consumers avoid purchasing certain products or using particular services to express social concerns they have. This often occurs for either as a result of company-oriented boycotting where ethical consumers avoid products due to the company responsible for it having an unethical social record, or product-oriented boycotting because the product is unstable (Harrison, et al., 2005). Boycotting is often described as typical semi-organised purchasing action (Newholm & Shaw, 2007). This research suggests that boycotting is an action in which people express their values and beliefs in social and environmental ethics by not consuming what they label as unethical, an example of this is not buying from a clothing. Next is the other side, buycotting is defined as using social and environmental considerations to choose certain products and services over others (Shaw, et al., 2006b). boycotting can also be known as affirmative or positive buying. Example are purchasing free range eggs, using solar power or buying fair trade coffee.

Another behaviour is voluntary simplicity also known as ethical simplifiers, where consumers part of the ethical movement decides to reduce their consumption levels and live a simpler life (Shaw & Newholm, 2002). This is more a way of life than just a behaviour and is usually portrayed in most aspects of a daily routine, for example, the way in which they run their home or raise their children (Cherrier, 2005). The final ethical consumer behaviour is the Slow Food movement which focuses on purchasing alternative foods that are good for the environment, counteract fast food expansions and support local food traditions (Pietrykowski, 2004).

Rise of The Ethically Minded Consumer?

The increasing trend towards ethical purchasing was indicated in 2007 when there was a 47% global increase in sale of fair trade endorsed products (Shaw, et al., 2006). The increase of organised consumer activist groups and discussion of both environmental and social issues in the media, has resulted in mounting ethical concerns about the impact of modern consumption culture on society and the environment. Thus, increasing availability of ethical products and leading to a growing awareness by consumers of the impact their purchasing and consumption behaviour has socially and environmentally (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001). A new type of consumer has appeared and grown who feel a sense of responsibility socially and environmentally and attempt to express these feelings when purchasing and consuming (De Pelsmaker, et al., 2005). This in turn attracts companies to care more about ethics to suit their stakeholders which is including an increasing number of ethical consumers (Polonsky, 1995).

However, there may be evidence to suggest that even though some data shows ethical purchasing increasing, if you dig deeper it may not be increasing relative to the population growing an indication of this is in 2014 according to the Consumer Data Research Centre (CDRC) there was an increase of only 0.86% increase in the purchase of ethical food and drink in the UK and according to the Office of National Statistics the UK population grew by 0.77% showing a similar change. Or if you investigate the food and drinks market itself for example, it is increasing in size each year expressed by Gov.uk with a growth of 2.65% in 2013 where the CDRC shows a decline of 15.66% in the purchase of ethical food and drink resulting in a 17.84% decline in ethical food and drinks market share from the previous year.

Consumer Attitude-Behaviour Gap with ‘Ethical Consumers’

The number of ethically minded consumers may be increasing every year however, not all ethically minded consumers pursue their apparent desire to purchase ethically sourced goods and ethically run services. There is a difference between what consumer’s claim they do and what they actually do when it comes to purchasing (Auger & Devinney, 2007). This occurrence is called the work-deed or attitude-behaviour gap and applies to everyday human nature in this case in purchasing (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001). Furthermore, this suggests that intentions are not a great predictor of actual behaviour, so gaining knowledge on this gap is of great importance to influence, interpret and understand how consumers will behave (Bagozzi, 1993). This gap remains poorly understood and addressing this issue I came across two conflicting theories highlighted within ethical consumer literature.

The first theory is based on identifying factors that influence both directly and indirectly how ethical attitudes translate into ethical purchase intentions as well as actual behaviour (Shaw & Shiu, 2002). Methodologies do not explain the gap between attitude and behaviour fully. Responses to questions regarding an individual’s ethical intentions when purchasing is unlikely to be correct. For instance, a consumer may intend to act ethically in the purchases when entering a shop, however, several things can make their behaviour differ to their intentions. For example, they may find an attractive deal for a less ethical or unethical product and choose to purchase it instead. Or they may have less money than predicted at that point in time and have no choice but to choose the less ethical substitute. There are many other reasons an individual that classes themselves as an ethical consumer may not purchase ethically.

The second theory is constructed on the limitations of consumers completing surveys, this method is a common approach to investigate consumers ethical purchase intentions and subsequent behaviour (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001). It is suggested that when completing a survey considering ethical issues, intentions and attitudes it is in our human nature to respond in a way they believe to be socially acceptable, which results in people overstating how important ethical consideration is in their buying behaviour (Auger & Devinney, 2007). Furthermore, this creates what Cowe and Williams (2000) described as the 30:3 phenomenon, since they found that 30% of consumers stated that they cared about ethical standards whereas only 3% of purchases reflect this claim. (Ethical market share vs Ethical purchases claim regression).

Factors Impeding Ethical Consumption

Although ethical products may be appealing as they are environmentally friendly or serve a social cause, but a higher cost amount incurred, or extra effort exerted in order to find the products (De Pelsmaker, et al., 2005). Prior research seems to suggest that when consumers are questioned on their ethical behaviour, the main claim for them not purchasing ethically is the high price and effort accompanying ethical purchases (De Pelsmaker, et al., 2005). Moreover, there are plenty of attributes consumers evaluate about products when purchasing which jointly help an individual decide. Generally, being ethical is not the most important attribute general consumers look for. Price, quality, availability, convenience and trusted brands are the most significant factors that have an effect on buying decisions (Boulstridge & Carrigan, 2000).

Price was highlighted as more important by Bray, Johns and Kilburn (2011) especially concerning regularly purchased goods such as food. Participants in their study claimed that they do not consider ethical products in the supermarket as their food bill needs to remain as small as possible. Another example of alternative purchasing factors was personal experience, as some consumers claim they do not know where their money is going if they purchase ethically (for example fair trade) so they would much rather purchase local produce as they feel a greater confidence their money is doing good (Bray, et al., 2011). This is strongly linked to Bird and Hughes (1997) claiming that consumers could potentially still need convincing that what they purchase can make a difference in ethical terms in order to alter their purchasing behaviour and persuade them to be more ethical in purchasing decisions. Consumers like to be fully informed in order to make effective purchasing decisions.

Although some individuals believe that their consumption pattern will make a difference others believe that it will have no impact overall, for example, some consumers choose to be vegetarian to save animals lives whereas others argue that the animals are bred to be eaten and their decision to not eat them will have no effect on the outcome (Forte, 2004). Bray, Johns and Kilburn (2011) found that people much preferred to avoid unethical products or companies that receive negative attention as its more achievable than proactively consuming ethical products. Some consumers see acting within the law as adequate behaviour and will not compromise quality for the sake of being ethical, research suggests that the quality of ethical products is an important factor when making purchase decisions (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001). Even when not perceived as ethically correct some consumers have a certain loyalty with brands they use and trust even claiming to disregard price which was earlier described as an important factor in purchase decision, as a result these consumers may be less likely to convert to an overtly ethical substitute (Bray, et al., 2011).

Consumers can take a pessimistic view on ethical products, taking the ethical claim as just another marketing scheme to charge higher and take advantage of people’s goodwill, as well as the belief that the extra premium they pay does not benefit the cause or ethical movement it is supporting (Shaw & Shiu, 2003). Steenhurst and Van Kenhove (2006) suggested that feeling guilty is not an early factor when making purchasing decisions suggesting that the guilt consumers may feel about social and environmental issues will not necessarily alter their purchasing behaviour.

What is a worldview? As the word itself suggests, a worldview is an overall view of the world. It’s not a physical view of the world, but rather a philosophical view, abroad perspective on everything that exists and matters to us. A person’s worldview represents his most fundamental beliefs and assumptions about the universe he inhabits. It reflects how he would answer all the ‘big questions’ of human existence: fundamental questions about who and what we are, where we came from, why we’re here, where we’re headed, the meaning and purpose of life, the nature of the afterlife, and what counts as a good life here and now. That being said, I am a Christian, meaning that I believe that a monotheistic God created the universe and that His Son died for my sins. The three foundations of my worldview are: I was raised in a Cuban-American culture, I have been homeschooled for most of my life, and I have been raised in the Christian church.

Once communism began to fully effect Cuba, my grandparents, from both sides of my family, knew they needed to leave to thrive as a family. They fled from the toxic grasp of the infamous dictator, Fidel Castro, and decided to start a new life as immigrants in the United States of America. On my father’s side, my abuelo Chirichi worked by restocking the inventory of Sea World’s vending machines. Of course, he wasn’t able to make much money, but he always made sure that food was on the table. On my mother’s side, both my abuelo and abuela worked very hard, my abuelo became a very successful handyman, capable of fixing almost everything, and my abuela became an assistant to an accounting firm. They both made sure that their family’s lives were comfortable and full of happy memories. My mother grew up to be an elementary and high-school teacher, while very strict, was always very kind. My father grew to be a successful business man in a Fortune 500 company. I was the last to be born in to a family that consisted three older sisters. My family has always prioritized my sibling’s and I wellbeing above anything else, making sure to provide food, clothing, pleasantries and vacations. Honestly, I have been blessed to be born into a wonderful family.

Proper education has always been a necessity in the Dominguez household. In 1995, my mother decided to pull her kids out of public school and homeschool them. Since then, she decided to teach not only her kids, but also tutor others. However, there has been a misconception placed over homeschooling. Many believe that homeschool students sleep in, work in their pajamas, and relax when they want, but they are wrong. While that stereotype may apply to the majority of homeschool students, my mother made it her personal mission to shape me into a responsible student. This included waking up early, making myself breakfast, and a hectic work schedule, not to different from what the average student goes through. My mother did her best to teach me everything she knew and more, but eventually she had to enroll me into online programs for high-school. As a result, I haven’t had many chances to socialize or grow accustomed to rowdy crowds, leading me to develop an introverted personality.

When my grandparents arrived in the United States of America, they brought a bit of Cuba religion with them. My family on my mother’s side was originally Roman Catholic. They believed in God, but they weren’t whole-heartedly dedicated. However, they were eventually converted into Christianity, which ultimately boosted their spiritual search for truth. Then Christianity became the center of our family’s beliefs, and they taught my siblings and I the Christian faith. When I first heard about God in an informative light, I did not have a spiritual breakthrough. I didn’t get it, though I don’t think one would expect a third grader to understand the supposed meaning of life. However, when I would see the beautiful sky, stars, and moon, I would always feel as if everything had been created. As a firm believer of science, I began to compare scientific facts to Christianity. I kept an open mind and as I started to ask questions, I began to understand what it meant to be a Christian. Now, I firmly believe that science actually supports Christianity, rather than oppose it. According to Isaac Newton’s first law, “A body at rest tends to remain at rest unless acted on by an outside force”. Most scientists believe that the universe began to expand over billions of years, but that initial motion of expansion should be impossible due to the fact that an outside force needs to begin said motion. So, what outside force could have begun the expansion of the universe? If supposedly nothing existed before the universe, then what created it? In addition, the law of conservation of mass states, “Matter cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change forms”, which implies that the matter that makes up the universe couldn’t have been naturally created. I believe that God, a being who lives outside the laws of physics and that has always existed, created the universe and everything inside it. I fully identify myself as a follower of Jesus Christ. I believe that all people are flawed, and that, no matter how hard people try, they will always mess up. According to the Bible verse, Romans 3:23, “For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God”. I believe that no good deeds can outweigh all the bad things that mankind does. In fact, I whole-heartedly believe that the human race lives in a broken world overrun with evil and malice. Romans 6:23 states , “For the wages of sin is death; but the gift of God is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord”. I believe that the ultimate price for mankind’s sins is death; however, I also believe that through the sacrifice of my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, I am made clean in the presence of God. And as a result, I am granted eternal life when I go to heaven.

Worldviews shape and inform our experiences of the world around us. Like spectacles with colored lenses, they affect what we see and how we see it. Depending on the ‘color’ of the lenses, some things may be seen more easily, or conversely, they may be de-emphasized or distorted—indeed, some things may not be seen at all. The foundations of my worldview are being raised in a Cuban-American culture, being homeschooled for most of my life, and being raised in the Christian church. Since my family gave me the opportunity to seek out a personal ‘lens’ of the world, I have a concrete faith in what the Bible says. And as a result, the world around me has become a more beautiful place.

The way an individual perceives natural environments can be dependent on personal experiences, which can shape how they see the world and develop their connection with nature. In relation to Peter Martin’s nature continuum (1996), I will be discussing the worldviews of deep ecology and ecofeminism, and how they contrast and compare to each other. Mckenzie (1987) defines a worldview as an interpretation of life or a reflection of the biosphere. Depending on the specific views and education of the world, there can be many meanings (Mckenzie, 1987). I will be determining how these worldviews have shaped my life and how they will continue to influence my own perceptions. I will also be explaining how my own worldviews are relevant to Peter Martin’s nature continuum.

Worldviews

Deep ecology is a worldview that explains that all life including humans, animals and plants have intrinsic worth and need to be treated as equivalent to one another. Madsen (2016) defines deep ecology as an essential focus on shifting the human relationship with the natural environment to a more nurturing approach. It is a belief that humans need to develop a deeper connection with nature and move away from using it as a place of resources (Madsen, 2016). Philosopher Arne Naess developed the term ‘deep ecology’ and made it known to the public in 1972 (Le Grange, 2017). Arne Naess and environmentalist George Sessions created the eight principles of deep ecology to guide the movement (Madsen, 2016). These principles discuss a range of ideas that are required to guard Earth’s conservation and shield all the species of the ecological world from destruction (Drengson, 2012). The first, second and third principles of this platform explain that both humans and species from all variations should be appreciated for uniqueness and should not be compromised for the pleasure of humans (Naess & Sessions, 1984). The fourth and fifth values represent the need to minimize the number of people in this world and reduce intrusion of the natural world in order to achieve a thriving life for both humans and non-humans (Naess & Sessions, 1984). The sixth and seventh principles require significantly changing the current circumstances and amending strategies that affect the monetary, scientific and political foundations (Naess & Sessions, 1984). These changes will need to show gratitude to the intrinsic worth of nature instead of creating a superior standard of living (Naess & Sessions, 1984). If adhering to the 7 steps of deep ecology listed above, individuals are responsible for adapting these required changes into daily life, which addresses the last principle (Naess & Sessions, 1984). Madsen (2016) clarifies that these principles are not strict or to be followed directly, but rather exist for people to engage in and have a clear pathway to adopt environmental concerns. In contrast, other forms of environmentalism are mainly concerned with shallow ecology, and only adopt the issues of pollution, overpopulation and conservation when it is a displeasure to the population or to a specific location’s natural world (Madsen, 2016). Madsen (2016) also expresses that deep ecologists argue that neglecting the underlying issues of the environment and following anthropocentric worldview results in the destruction of the habitat. Therefore, deep ecology is a unique and important gesture as it follows a biocentric or ecocentric movement. It requires appreciation and intensely valuing all life on earth as equal and focuses on developing a nurturing relationship with the biosphere.

The worldview of ecofeminism follows a nurturing approach to the natural world. It is a relatively new movement that was created to address the issues of environmental destruction and gender-equality. It is defined as a philosophy highlighting a connection between women and the environment from the exploitation of the male-centered population (Hamad, 2013). Vakoch and Mickey (2018) explain that ecofeminism does not follow one specific idea, it is an ever-changing diverse worldview that includes the voices of many believers from different cultural backgrounds. It is a theory created by French feminist Francois d’Eaubonne, aspiring to review and change the current male-dominated hierarchy to create a more inclusive culture (Capriccio, 2017). Ecofeminism can often be labelled as a group of nature-minded females, rather than a philosophy that aims to break down the barriers of the male-oriented system and re-design it to reflect the appreciation of all living beings (Capriccio, 2017). Capriccio (2017) discusses the need to have male and females working together equally in order to achieve a world where humans and other beings can both be appreciated. Therefore, ecofeminism is a developing philosophy that enforces equality of all aspects of humanity, and the natural world, in a hope to see an overall increase of inclusion in a healthier and more eco-friendly approach to life.

In comparison, Chakraborty (2015) explains that both deep ecology and ecofeminism are movements that believe fostering a change in human behavior will equal a healthier natural world. They are worldviews showing an essential need for change in the treatment of nature (Chakraborty, 2015). Deep ecologists address the anthropocentric view of the biosphere as the underlying issue, whereas ecofeminists believe it is androcentrism (Chakraborty, 2015). Ecofeminists have criticized deep ecologists for not recognizing the cause of the environmental degradation as male-oriented, but deep ecologists believe that focusing on the anthropocentric view as the central problem also includes the issues of the domination of women (Chakraborty, 2015). Although these worldviews have differences within their theories, they both represent the fostering of changes from an anthropocentric approach to a biocentric way of life.

Peter Martin’s Nature Continuum

The deep ecology and ecofeminism movements highlight the need to change the human-nature view from anthropocentric to ecocentric as represented on Peter Martin’s nature continuum (Martin, 1996). At the objective end of the continuum nature is seen as a museum or storehouse and does not allow the relationship to develop from being used for collecting materials (Martin, 1996). Martin (1996) explains that while thinking of nature in this way is an appreciation of the environment, it still places humans as the most important beings. The philosophy of deep ecology encourages the population to adapt away from using nature as an object and to engage in a more nurturing approach (Madsen, 2016). The subjective end of the continuum shows nature as a close friend and part of self (Martin, 1996). This end of the continuum involves developing an emotional connection with the natural world and deeply understanding and questioning the character of the land (Martin, 1996). Deep ecology represents these subjective values and argues that nature and all beings must be treated as equal to ensure the current abusive attitudes are discontinued (Madsen, 2016). Ceasing these attitudes is also apparent in the theory of ecofeminism (Capriccio, 2017). This movement represents admiring nature and women as a close friend in opposition to using it as a place of resources (Capriccio, 2017). The desire to dominate nature and women is an example of seeing nature as an enemy that needs to be controlled or defeated (Capriccio, 2017). Therefore, to overcome the domination of the environment humans must engage in the subjective values of nature.

My History

My worldview has been developing through my life as I was privileged to grow up in a location rich in nature. As a child I believed nature was a playground for me, purely available for adventuring and creating memories. These memories are still with me today and are contributors to how I have become closer with the natural world. As a teenager I could see my perspectives of the environment gradually shifting from objective to subjective, and I wanted to learn the personalities of the places I would visit. I would find myself questioning the presence and location of plants or animals. A walk or bike ride through the local national park involved me admiring the beauty and allowing myself to continuously learn about the environment in which I lived so close to. As an adult I look back on those years and appreciate how it has shaped my relationship with nature as a close friend. Re-visiting the place in which I spent most of my life is continuously developing my human-nature relationship as I witness the changes of what I never imagined possible. The inclusion of housing estates and thick bush being bulldozed to bare land is a common occurrence. This anthropocentric view of nature is why I hold the worldviews of deep ecology and ecofeminism close to my heart. I believe that the natural world deserves to be treated as equal and an ecocentric view needs to be obtained by all humans. Therefore, my worldview is still evolving as I reflect on my childhood and learn more about the importance of having a biocentric view on nature in order to save all ecological species and oppose the constant destruction of our environment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, deep ecology and ecofeminism are strong philosophies, emphasizing the need to change the overall human-nature relationship. Without this revolution our natural world will continue to be exploited and the rate of degradation will continue to increase. Martin (1996) explains that developing a shift from an anthropocentric view to a biocentric perspective of nature requires admiration for all living beings. This respect will hopefully be apparent through the development of humanity’s worldviews.

References

1. Capriccio, M. (2017). What Is Ecofeminism? Retrieved from: https://www.1millionwomen.com.au/blog/what-ecofeminism/
2. Chakraborty, R. (2015). The Deep Ecology/Ecofeminism Debate: An Enquiry into Environmental Ethics. Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 32(1), 123-133. doi:10.1007/s40961-015-0005-y.
3. Drengson, A. (2012). Some Thought on the Deep Ecology Movement. Retrieved from http://www.deepecology.org/deepecology.htm
4. Hamad, R. (2013). Ecofeminism, Redress, 22(2), 30-37. https://search-informit-com-au.ezproxy.usc.edu.au/fullText;dn=767960465955927;res=IELHSS
5. Le Grange, L. (2018). Spinoza, Deep Ecology and Education Informed by a (Post)Human Sensibility. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50(9), 878-887. doi:10.1080/00131857.2017.1384723.
6. Madsen, P. (2016). Deep Ecology. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/topic/deep-ecology
7. Martin, P. (1996). New Perspectives of Self, Nature and Others. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 1(3), 3-9. doi:10.1007/BF03400655.
8. Mckenzie, L. (1987). Worldview Construction and Adult Education. Adult Education Quarterly, 37(4), 230-236. doi:10.1177/0001848187037004005.
9. Naess, A., & Sessions, G. (1984). The Deep Ecology Platform. Retrieved from http://www.deepecology.org/platform.htm
10. Vakoch, D. A., & Mickey, S. (2018). Literature and Ecofeminism: Intersectional and International Voices (1st ed). Milton: Routledge.

Introduction to The Law of Sea

India has managed to build a rich Maritime history in the course of time even before the rise of the European Maritime laws. During the ancient period, Indian ships would sail across international seas and transport all sorts of valuable goods to the neighbouring Asian and Middle Eastern countries. After the advent of the Britishers, Indian ships were discouraged and British ships were given more preference. The indigenous ships had to be registered under the U.K. Merchant Shipping Act which implied that even though the ships were registered in India, they were owned by the British.

The Law of Sea is part of the Public International law which deals with the navigational rights, mineral rights and helps in ascertaining the jurisdiction beyond the coastal waters. The United Nations Conference on the Law of Sea in the year 1956 resulted in the codification of the comprehensive Law of Sea. There were four treaties that were formed namely: Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone , Convention on the Continental Shelf, Convention on the High Seas, and Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas. This was the first conference regarding this issue and later there were more conferences which refined the laws and will be discussed further in this paper.

Law of the Sea ought to be recognized from maritime law, which concerns oceanic issues and questions among private parties, for example, individuals, international associations, or organizations. In any case, the International Maritime Organization, a UN office that plays a significant job in executing the law of the sea, likewise assists with creating, classifying, and directing certain principles and measures of maritime law.

The Law of Sea deals with one of the key components of the “Global Commons” i.e. the global ocean. A Global Common is basically used to define the basic global-source domains in which the common-pool resources are to be found. The common goods are scarce and cannot be excluded from a person’s life in particular making it non-excludable if we talk about it in the economic terms. There is always a problem related to the overuse and degradation of such resources. The term “commons” emerged from Great Britain which spoke about the “commoner’s rights” from which this concept came into being. The Law of Sea work together to mitigate this problem that is dealt by people when it comes to the protection of the ocean/sea as a resource-provider and a resource itself, by governing the rights and duties of the parties according to their decided jurisdictions.

Introduction to the Jurisprudence of Ownership

Ownership is considered as that juristic concept which is applicable in all systems of law. This concept has its origin from the Ancient Roman laws which distinguished ownership from possession. In the Roman Law, ownership and possession were called as “dominium” and “possession” respectively. The word “Ownership” means to have absolute right over an object whereas the word “Possession” means to have only physical rights over the object according to the Ancient Roman Law. Ownership was considered to be superior than Possession as the absolute right over an object was considered to be more significant and relevant than having physical control over something in the Roman society.

The concept of ownership talks about the relationship of a person and the object that the person owns. There are certain rights that comes along the ownership of the object by that person. The concept of ownership claims to have power, immunity and liberty with regards to the thing owned by a person.

Different jurists have tried to define ownership in different ways. According to Hibbert, there are four kinds of rights that have been included under ownership:

• Right to use a thing
• Right to exclude others from using the thing
• Right to disposition of the thing
• Right to destroy it

According to Austin, he has concentrated on the three main characteristics of ownership, namely, indefinite user, unrestricted disposition and unlimited duration which will further be discussed in details.

1. Indefinite User: Right of indefinite user means that the owner is free to use the thing in whatever way he/she wants. He said that there cannot be an absolute right over the thing. There are certain restriction that are to be followed which have been directed by the laws that are to be followed. The owner should make sure that the object which he/she owns should not violate the rights of another person. The concept is based on of the well-known maxim ‘sie utere tero ut alier non-laedasdas’ which means that use your own property but not to injure your neighbour’s right.
2. Unrestricted Disposition: What Austin is attempting to clarify by unlimited demeanour is that the power of disposition of the pawner is unrestricted by law which means along these lines that he is completely allowed to arrange it to expel it to anybody. This is incorrect.
3. Unlimited Duration: This was criticised as under every law the state has the power to take back the ownership is there is a misuse and if it is for the public interest.

Austin’s definition has been followed by Holland. There is a plenary control over the object. An owner has three rights on the subject owned:

1. Possession
2. Enjoyment
3. Disposition

Entire authority over an article suggests unlimited oversight unhindered by any law or reality. In this way, the analysis levelled against Austin’s definition would apply to that given by Holland to the extent that the ramifications of the expression ‘entire control’ goes.

Salmond’s Definition:

According to the Salmond, there is a right that has been vested to the owner and other that that, all the other exercises are considered to be exclusive. For Salmond ownership is considered as a bundle of rights and the power is in the hands of one person i.e. the owner. Salmond talks about two characteristics of ownership:

1. Ownership is a relation between a person and right
2. Ownership is incorporeal body

Salmond’s definition doesn’t show the substance of ownership. It doesn’t demonstrate the right, powers and so forth which are inferred in the idea of ownership. Once again, it isn’t entirely right to say that ownership is a connection between an individual and the right that is vested in him. As the most well-known and basic thought of ownership is a connection between an individual and a thing.

The Law of Sea and Ownership

After the third UN conference which dealt with the proper implementation of the International Laws into the oceans, there was a need for a proper mechanism for the enforcement of the decisions that were made so in the year 1982, the United Nations Convention of the Law of Seas was created. It was ratified in the year 1994 and the implementation began right after the 60th country signed to the convention. This convention was mainly created to implement different rules and regulations to determine the right to ocean to specific countries and to create nautical policies.

The United Nations Convention on the Law of Seas set some rules on the partnership with each other for the right to ocean. The coastal states have the jurisdiction of 12 Nautical miles from the coastline and 200 Nautical miles has been reserved for particular states to use the living or non-living ocean resources which includes not only fishing and mining but also, the protection of the ocean from pollution and protection of the biodiversity.

Ownership in the Law of Seas can be related to the jurisdiction of the nations who violate the rules and regulations. It can also be related to the utilisation of the natural resources and its protection as well. The oceanic ownership fall into the following criteria which has been defined by the UN: contiguous zone, territorial sea, exclusive economic zone (EEZ), and the international water.

The Territorial Sea has been defined as the 12 nautical miles or 22 kilometres from the costal line where the specific nation takes care of the regulations of that particular area for transportation and determines whether their territory can have innocent passage or not keeping in mind about their own security.

The Contiguous Zone is 12 km away from the Territorial sea and the purpose of this zone is for the nation to make rules regarding customs, taxation, immigration and pollution. The host nation has jurisdiction if there is a violation of the rules.

The Exclusive Economic Zone is 200 Nautical miles from the coastline where there is access to all sorts of natural resources. The foreign nations are also allowed to pass by according to the host nation’s regulations.

The International waters means anything that is outside the radius of 200 Nautical miles which brings an end to the host nation’s jurisdiction to take actions against any wrongful act. Any ship or aircraft found violating rules and regulations will be punished under the jurisdiction of the nation whose flag they are flying. However, if there is piracy, then any nation can have universal jurisdiction.

Conclusion

Jurisprudence has turned out to be very helpful in the making of cohesive laws. The law of seas has a very strong relation with ownership. The ownership implies the jurisdiction of the host nations under whose zone the laws have been violated. The idea of ownership over the oceans have been a hot topic for many years; many countries are still building their empire and continue to have ownership. There has been a rapid development in the technologies and the this has helped in facilitating trade in the whole world. The constant labour in mitigating the issues related to the international waters is commendable and hope that there is more improvement in the near future.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a positive because of his effect on the Great Depression, helping with America’s economy and forever changed the way banks operate. When Roosevelt came into power on March 4, 1933, he helped restore the Great Depression with the New Deal. Before he died in 1945, he served longer than any other president before or since and led the United States through one of the biggest challenges in the 20th century.

Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in Hyde Park, New York and died on April 12, 1945, in Warm Springs, Georgia. He graduated from Harvard College; attended Columbia Law School, become a member of the New York State Legislature, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Governor of New York, and 32nd President of the United States (FDR). Diagnosed with polio in 1921, Roosevelt spent his adult life in a wheelchair. Roosevelt served four terms in office. In the first 100 days of Roosevelt’s presidency, he planned and designed methods to counter the effects of the Great Depression. Some ways he did that were through banking reform laws, emergency relief programs, work relief programs, and agricultural programs.

Roosevelt was positive influence because he helped us end The Great Depression, and he did this through the ‘New Deal’. The first way Roosevelt helped America through the depression was helping industrial recovery. He did this by passing the National Industrial Recovery Act and the National Labor Relations Act. The National Industrial Recovery Act helped both business and labor by regulate industry for fair wages and costs that might stimulate economic recovery (social welfare). Companies were required to write industry codes of fixed wages and prices, and placed restrictions on the entry of other companies into the alliances. These codes were a sort of industry self-regulation and represented an effort to market stable growth and stop another depression. The National Labor Relations Act protects the rights of employees and employers, to encourage negotiation and to curtail certain management practices, which may harm the overall welfare of workers, businesses and the U.S. economy (‘Franklin D. Roosevelt’, Salem). This helped protect American citizens that work anywhere and helped destroy certain factories that were practice illegal techniques. The next way Roosevelt helped was Agriculture through the Agricultural Adjustment Act and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. This helped by “subsidizing certain farm products they could not afford to sell at market prices. In relief, FDR straddled the line between welfare and public works. At first, the New Deal doled out money to unemployed people through the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (1933) and sent young men to work camps through the Civilian Conservation Corps (1933)” (‘Franklin D. Roosevelt’, Salem).

Agricultural Adjustment Act and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration helped distribute federal aid to the states for relief and offered farmers subsidies in exchange for limiting their production of certain crops. Even with the help of Agriculture and industrial recovery Most of the Great Depression’s economic damage was caused directly by financial reasons. Roosevelt, “Closed all the banks in the country, and kept them all closed until new legislation could be passed” (The Biography). When he closed the banks, he quickly passed Emergency Banking Act and the Glass-Steagall Banking Act. This is important because he saved the banking structure and helped prevent a future crisis by creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. Franklin D. Roosevelt guided America through The Great Depression. Roosevelt took office during a horrible economic crisis but Roosevelt’s plan the ‘New Deal’ helped cause the beginnings of a national recovery by passing banking reform acts, emergency relief programs, work relief programs, and agricultural programs.

Even though Roosevelt helped restore our economy, there were still many critics concerned about the use of too much power in the government. The primary critic was Huey Long. As governor and U.S. senator, he kept funds deducted from state employees’ salaries. Yet the people of Louisiana loved him because he attacked the big oil companies, increased state spending on public works, and improved public schools. Although he backed Roosevelt in 1932, Long quickly abandoned the president and opposed the New Deal as too conservative (‘Roosevelt’s Critics’, Digital History). Another critic that Roosevelt had was Father Charles E. Coughlin. Coughlin was a radio priest from Detroit. He was also a supporter of the New Deal, but Coughlin turned against Roosevelt when he refused to nationalize the banking structure. As time passed Coughlin turned openly anti-Semitic, blaming the Great Depression on an international conspiracy of Jewish bankers. For libertarians the New Deal was breaking the Constitution. Many conservatives shared this view and emerged as a movement of denial against the New Deal. They were angry about Roosevelt trying to reorganize the supreme court by adding a new justice each time a justice reached age seventy and failed to retire. Basically, making his political party unstoppable (‘Roosevelt’s Critics’, US History).

Even with the criticism Roosevelt received he ended up saving America from the Great Depression lifting us through our economic crisis. This was highly important because the depression left American citizens on the streets starving and hungry. One example of this is in, “Chicago, a crowd of some fifty hungry men fought over barrel of garbage set outside the back door of restaurant” (Leuchtenburg, 36). Half of all banks in America closed down. Unemployment rose to 25% and homelessness increased, and the exchange of goods and services between countries collapsed by 65%. Prices fell 10% per year. It took 25 years for the stock market to recover from this horrible incident. This is why when Roosevelt passed all these acts to help us recover, and to reform from this event. Roosevelt passing Emergency Banking Act helping broke banks, giving Secretary of the Treasury to strengthen bank finances when needed too. Then the banks could give money back to the citizens over all helping the economy. He was so highly positive because helped not only the country but millions of Americans out of poverty and making it stay that way. He secured money to the banks, and made us believe that America could bounce back from this tragedy.

To sum everything up, Roosevelt got elected into office with horrible and crippling economic depression. Roosevelt’s combination of banking, emergency relief, work relief, and agricultural programs. Which came together within the social programs of the ‘New Deal’ – helped cause the beginnings of a national recovery.

Ecosystem recovery, the reduction of greenhouse gases and the reduction of illegal wildlife trafficking are some of the environmental benefits that this pandemic has left to date. The coronavirus pandemic has paradoxically brought a respite to the planet. Industrial paralysis in countries like China, a reduction in the number and frequency of flights between destinations, as well as in internal vehicle traffic and the forced confinement of thousands of people in several cities around the world, have led to a reduction in the level of greenhouse gas emissions.

While the relief will be momentary and will not solve the existing climate crisis in the background, as Antonio Guterres, the UN Secretary General, has pointed out, the truth is that the coronavirus has left the environment with good news.

The quarantine in which some countries like Italy find themselves has made the streets remain alone, and has led to the return of animals. In Venice, the water on the canals is much clearer due to the lack of tourists and gondolas traffic. Their calm has allowed the cardments of fish of various species to come out of their hideouts. In addition, it has increased the number of swans running through the pipes.

There are fears, however, that the measures taken by authorities and factories to stimulate the economy and the return of workers to factories will once again increase polluting emissions above historical averages in their quest for financial recovery.

Despite this, the impact of the coronavirus on nature seems to be due to factors such as the cancellation of commercial flights between EU countries and the United States. Five percent of the world’s pollution is from airplane flights. The Lufthansa airline group reported, for example, the cancellation of 7,100 flights until the end of March due to the drop in demand for the spread of the pandemic. The largest percentage of these trips were to Germany, northern Italy and Israel, because the latter nation banned travelers from Austria, Switzerland and Germany.

Lufthansa is part of the airline group, together with Swiss Swiss and Austrian Austrian Airlines, which also cancelled their flights to China until 24 April. Additionally, trips to Hong Kong and South Korea are suspended. On the other hand, American Airlines announced a few days ago that it would suspend its daily flights from New York and Miami to Milan, due to reduced demand. Ryanair, British Airways, Latam and TAP have also announced cancellations on their trips, especially to Italy.

An aircraft travelling between Madrid and New York is estimated to emit between 2 and 3 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per passenger, which means whether the aircraft carries between 150 and 300 passengers, the pollution would be between 900 and 1,350 tons. China’s temporary ban on wildlife trade to combat coronavirus has become the lifeline for many endangered animals, given that China traditionally likes products based on species deemed exotic.

That’s why in that nation you can find everything from bat soups, tiger testicles or parts of the palm civet’s body, to fried cobra and stew bear leg. And it’s that according to Chinese idiosyncrasies, this kind of food is considered a privilege, delicacy. Others use them as traditional medicine (pangolins) regardless of the degree of vulnerability they find themselves on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) red list and whether or not they can pose a risk to public health.

Against this backdrop, the bill to ban both the consumption and trafficking of wild animals that it undertakes in the Chinese Parliament Committee could be its blessing.

Introduction to Domestic and International Laws

Laws are systems of rules which are enforced in countries and states to control behavior. Domestic law is the name given to the law or legal system within a specific country, whilst International Law is the body of law that governs the relationship between multiple nations. These systems are created, applied, and enforced in different ways, however, they have similar functions and interact to influence each other through manners such as treaties. Although, there are certain restrictions placed on laws, particularly international, because of state sovereignty. This means that international legislation is not binding, and can not be enforced unless it has been ratified by signatory countries. Domestic laws also have limitations; as international law always prevails. Both domestic and international laws can also be influenced by external organizations, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and Amnesty International. These organizations have the power and duty to reflect the opinions of people within our society, placing political pressure on nations, thus influencing domestic and international law.

The Sovereignty of States and Domestic Law Creation

Domestic laws are made from legislature, created by a group of people within one country, or are otherwise known as a law of a state. Countries have the ability to make these laws if they are autonomous or independent state that has sovereignty. State sovereignty is applicable to any political division with a definite territory, permanent population, an effective government, and a capacity to enter into international negotiations. This concept recognizes states as independent entity’s on an international basis, and ensures equal rights amongst different areas. State sovereignty also means that independent states have the right to dismiss international laws if they wish to. A sovereign state may recognize the fundamental human rights as listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and then enact them into domestic legislation as seen in the Australian Racial Discrimination Act 1975. Although, they may decide to dismiss certain international conventions. For instance, Australia does not conform with the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, or the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. They are subject to dismiss these international laws or conventions because of state sovereignty. However, if a country agrees with international law or treaty and chooses to conform with it, they sign it, showing their intention to be bound by the statements, provisions, and obligations. Once signed, the treaty will only be implemented into the state’s domestic law when the state ratifies it, through domestic legislation. This confirms that the state and its population are bound by the conditions placed on it by the treaty. Therefore, domestic laws affect one particular nation or population of people and can be made because of state sovereignty. However, they can be influenced by international laws and overlooked by systems of higher authority.

The Australian Legal System: A Case Study of Domestic Law

The Australian Legal System is an example of a system of domestic law. The current legal processes implemented in Australia are known as a ‘common law system’, derived from the model developed during British Colonialism. In 1788, when the British came to Australia, they applied the law that was followed in Britain, known as common law. Common laws are legal interpretations of acts and the following precedent decisions, made by a judge in court. An example of common law may include a rule made by a judge, stating that people have a right to read contracts. The statute law system, on the other hand, is the law that has been made by parliament. It is commonly known as ‘legislation’ or ‘Acts of Parliament. In Australia, all parliaments, including state, territory, and federal governments have the right to make statute laws. An example of statute law includes the Crimes Act 1914. The Australian Constitution displays the authority of state and federal parliaments, in regard to making statute laws. It is a document that outlines the basic framework and rules which concern the governance of Australia. Before the Constitution existed, Australia was made up of six colonies, all independent of each other with the right to govern their own borders. These colonies were all looked over by the British government, as there was no authority in Australia. After much debate, the constitution was passed by the British Parliament as part of the Commonwealth of the Australian Constitution Act 1900, taking effect on the 1st of January 1901. The disinclination of states to give complete control to the Commonwealth is clearly displayed in Chapter 1, Part V of the Constitution (s 51 to 60). Section 52, in particular, describes the exclusive powers of the federal government. These incorporate areas of trade and commerce with other countries, foreign relations (external affairs), and national defense, and can only be held by federal governments. This means that only the Commonwealth parliament is allowed to legislate on the seat of government of the Commonwealth, matters relating to any department of the public service (controlled by the Commonwealth), and other matters declared to be within the exclusive power of the Parliament by the Constitution. Thus, the Australian legal system is a prime example of domestic law.

International Law: Governing Relations Between Nations

On the other hand, International Law is the system of law that controls the relationship between nations. International Law allows nations to participate in trade and commerce, regulating behavior between countries. International law can originate from sources such as declarations, customs, legal decisions, treaties, and legal writings. It also provides a basis for fundamental human rights, ensuring that it is considered illegal to commit acts like torture and genocide. Without international law, there would be a greater likelihood of conflict occurring between nations. The recognition of global interdependence creates a world community, providing one of the motivating forces for following international law. International law takes precedence over the power of states, particularly in Australia because commonwealth law prevails. This is evident in section 109 of the Constitution which states that federal law overrides state laws. For instance, in the case of “Whaling in the Antarctic, Australia, and New Zealand (intervening) v Japan, Judgment, ICJ GL No 148, ICGJ 471 (ICJ 2014), 31st March 2014, International Court of Justice [ICJ]” there was an issue where international laws and domestic laws conflicted with one another. In this specific case, Japan’s laws authorized licenses allowing the killing of whales. However, these actions breached obligations concerning the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Due to these circumstances, the International Court of Justice abided by the concept that states international law always prevails over domestic laws. Although, there are still many ways in which international law can be criticized. One of the main criticisms of international law is that it does not have enough power to impose constraints addressed in the law, among members of society. This is evident through the variety of examples seen around the world, where states breach international law, particularly within the area of human rights. For instance, international laws were unable to prevent genocide that occurred in Rwanda in the 1990s and remain incapable of preventing crimes against humanity, which have been conducted since 2003 in the Darfur region of Sudan. As a result, international law relies on countries cooperating in the enforcement of set laws. Furthermore, another reason why law is adhered to is because it is commonly accepted across an entire community. The world is made up of many diverse communities, with different values, cultures, and religions. This means that not all countries will agree with international laws and may ignore those not in their interest. Therefore, international is powerful as it obtains the authority to prevail of domestic laws, however, it can be criticized for its ability to enforce its treaties/agreements.

Differences in Creation, Application, and Enforcement of Laws

The key differences between domestic and international laws relate to the way they are created, applied, and enforced. Unlike domestic law, international law only applies to nations that agree to be bound by the law, whilst domestic law is applicable to all. In Australia, domestic laws are universal, meaning they are made to be followed by all people. The idea that no one is above the law is one of the main foundations of the legal system. On the other hand, the legal principle of state sovereignty applies to international law. This principle allows countries to decide which laws they agree to be bound by. Furthermore, international law is made through negotiations between nations, whereas domestic laws are created by the ruling of judges or parliament. In the event that a new international law is proposed, each nation must decide whether they intend to participate. If they decide that they agree with the law, a national representative will sign it before it is ratified into the countries domestic law. Then, the country is said to be a party to international law and is obliged to follow it. Finally, domestic and international laws are enforced in different ways. Domestic laws are encouraged by police and other agencies, ensuring that all members of society abide by the rules. Whereas international law permits countries to consider themselves exempt from a law if they wish to, and therefore cannot be enforced in the same way. Thus, it is evident that although domestic and international laws can interact and influence each other, they are extremely different concepts, especially in terms of the way they are applied, created, and enforced.

Influence of Intergovernmental Organizations on Laws

Domestic and international laws can also be influenced by intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. Intergovernmental organizations are networks that represent government members of multiple nations. These organizations have their own international laws and regulations. One international organization that heavily influences international and domestic law is the United Nations. The United Nations was formed with its main aim being to establish and maintain world peace, developing positive relations between states whilst recognizing equal rights. International law is considered one of the primary concerns of the UN. This is evident in the UN charter which states that a key goal of the organization is “to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained. UNESCO is a specialized agency of the UN, which stands for The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Its ultimate aim is to contribute to peace and security by encouraging international collaboration through educational, scientific, and cultural reforms in order to increase universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and human rights along with freedom, as indicated in the United Nations Charter. UNESCO influences law by creating mechanisms such as conventions and treaties, which directly impact and influence a variety international and domestic laws. Therefore, UNESCO is an established intergovernmental organization which directly focuses on positively influencing laws on domestic and international levels.

UNESCO’s Impact on Laws Through the World Heritage Convention

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization has created many mechanisms which impact international and domestic laws, such as the World Heritage Convention. In 1972, UNESCO adopted the World Heritage Convention; an international agreement, concerned with the protection of the world’s cultural and natural heritage. The agreement is based on the idea that places on Earth of outstanding universal value, should form part of the common heritage of humankind. The countries who ratify this Convention have become part of an international agreement, united in a common mission to identify and protect the world’s most valuable natural and cultural heritage sites. An example of a case that UNESCO influenced through its World Heritage Convention is the “Commonwealth vs Tasmania (1983) HCA 21 (‘Tasmanian Dam Case’)”. At the time, Tasmania wanted to build a hydroelectric dam on the Franklin and Gordon river system, however, a group of environmentalists protested against this proposal because of the area’s environmental value. However, Tasmania argued back, saying that the building of this dam was a residual power. Like the protesters, the federal government also recognized the river as a region of significance and listed it under the World Heritage Convention as a World Heritage Site. The federal government passed the World Heritage (Property Conservation) Act 1983 (Cth), which highlighted that areas of environmental value should be protected, with this particular river being included as one such area. This meant that there was now a state law allowing the construction of the dam, and a federal law demanding that it should be stopped. When taken to the high court, the court ruled that the federal government was validly using the external affairs power of the Constitution (s 51 (xxix)) which gives it authority to legislate on any matter of international concern. The High court held that the Commonwealth had the power to make laws that govern conduct in Australia. Under section 109, the federal law would override state law, stating that ‘when a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid. Because of this, the construction of the dam was stopped and the Franklin River was ultimately preserved. This clearly displays how UNESCO was able to influence laws, through its adoption of the World Heritage Convention. This convention acted as a mechanism that impacted international laws and domestic laws and rights. It also shows how international law takes precedence over the power of states in Australia because Commonwealth law always prevails. Thus, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is extremely effective in positively influencing international and domestic laws, through its ability to create mechanisms such as the World Heritage Convention. This is evident throughout the Tasmanian Dam Case.

The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations: Amnesty International’s Influence

Non-governmental organizations are nonprofit organizations that operate independently, focusing on common interests and aims. These organizations are unable to be recognized under international law and therefore have no legal role. However, non-governmental organizations are still able to influence laws by applying political pressure to nations, encouraging them to abide by international laws and make changes to domestic law. A prime example of a non-governmental organization that has influenced both domestic and international law is Amnesty international. The organization was created in London during 1961 after an article titled “The Forgotten Prisoners” was published by a lawyer named Peter Benenson. Amnesty International primarily focuses on promoting human rights, with their main mission being to end the abuse of integrity, freedom of expression, and freedom of discrimination. They regularly campaign for compliance with international laws and standards, encouraging countries to make important changes to domestic laws. Therefore, Amnesty International is capable of influencing laws through its ability, as a well-known organization to place political pressure on countries.

Amnesty international has influenced international and domestic laws on a number of occasions. According to the 2018 Amnesty Report by Roxanne Moore, “Historic Day for Queensland: 17- year-olds out of adult prisons”, the Queensland Parliament recently passed a bill that will mean 17-year-olds are no longer held in adult prisons or tried as adults in the justice system. Amnesty International played a significant role in the achievement of this by putting political pressure on parliament to amend these laws. Specifically, Amnesty put many submissions forward to parliament/government, wrote numerous letters to decision-makers, and held lobbying meetings. Amnesty brought this to the attention of the Queensland population, who joined the campaign, emailing politicians from the Queensland parliament and addressing their opinions on this issue. After facing this political pressure from Amnesty activists, the Queensland parliament announced that it would be introducing a Bill that aims to end the treatment of 17-year-olds as adults in the justice system. The Bill passed 43 to 41 votes, leading to a permanent change in Queensland law. This would not have been achieved without Amnesty International’s service, for the organization was the source which exposed the horrific conditions in Queensland youth detention and placed political pressure on the government to make a change. Therefore, Amnesty International is effectively able to influence both domestic and international laws, as a non-governmental organization.

Conclusion: The Interaction and Influence Between Domestic and International Laws

To conclude, domestic law and international laws are different due to the way they are created, enforced, and applied within political areas. However, they can still interact to influence each other through treaties and other legal manners. Domestic and International can also be influenced by intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. These may include networks such as the United Nations and Amnesty international due to their power to reflect the values of people in society and place pressure on nations to amend laws.