Category: Conversation

Poaching which is an illegal act of hunting wild animals to take off some vital parts for commercial purposes or for subsistence has become a call for concern lately. Initially, subsistence farmers did poaching as a diet substitute but today, it is being done for commercial purposes; mainly for their body parts or alive as pets in the case of monkeys. Animals that are endangered by poaching include; rhinoceroses, pangolins, crocodiles, bears, sea horses, elephants, sea turtles, wild tigers, rosewood and porcupines just to mention a few. Their parts such as ivory (elephants), scales (pangolins), bile (bears), skins/fur/bones/teeth (tigers & crocodiles) and horns (rhinoceroses) are harvested and used to produce jewelry, carvings, ointments and most importantly medicines. Poaching is a common phenomenon in the southern part of Africa, although some central African countries such as Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo and Gabon are particularly noted for trafficking rosewood and other flora. Medicines made from these products are believed to prevent cancer, enhance virility, provide strength and treat skin infections.

Poaching started remotely in Africa in the 1980s and by 1990; the first reports of animal trafficking were reported in South Africa both locally and globally. Since then the number and activities have been steady rising with the latest reports from different organizations and institutions showing that about 1300 to 1600 of each species is poached yearly.

Global statistics and findings have shown that Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa are the main perpetrators while China, Vietnam, Thailand and Philippines are the main markets; a rhino horn can cost up to $65,000. Recent statistics show that China and Vietnam are the leading promoters of poaching by illegal groups that promulgate contraband business.

Law enforcement agencies, WWF, The International Ranger Foundation, Save The Rhino Organization, The Thin Green Line Foundation and Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC) and other wildlife organizations in Africa have revealed that some Africans also use animal tusks, bones, teeth, skin and horns to make beads, bracelet, decoration, carvings, clothing and medicine, although they are more involved at the level of harvesting.

Consequences of Poaching:

• If care is not taken, our planet will be robbed of many fauna and flora species due to the high level of poaching for the last decade due to the risk of extinction.
• Since 2009, about 800 rangers have been gunned down by poachers with the highest number reported in DR Congo and South Africa.
• Poached animals have been reported to spread diseases such as SARS, bird Flu and exogenous Ebola.
• Poaching has promoted criminality as many gangs now rob and kill just to acquire the poached items or to steal money earned from this activity.

Ben Simasiku a Zambian alongside Katowa Mary Mwendalubu, Yvonne Minganja and Sandra Samasiku were arrested in Zambia after being caught illegally possessing about 20 freshly harvested raw ivories weighing close to 115 kg.

The popular 69-year-old Chinese woman Yang Feng Glan was convicted in Tanzania and investigations showed that she had trafficked over 800 elephant tusks worth over $5 million within the last 20 years and asked to pay a fine of $1.8 billion. Boniface Matthew Mariango 45 years old, nicknamed by the law enforcement agencies as “Shentani” meaning devil in Swahili was also arrested in Tanzania and charged with the illegal killing of elephants in many Southern Africa countries. The Kenyan ivory trafficker Feisal Mohamed Ali was also convicted for 20 years.

Despite the efforts made by some governments and organizations to prevent poaching, preserve and conserve wildlife, the following difficulties are encountered; Many African governments do not see it important and so do not reinforce wildlife laws nor allocate resources nor put in place the proper infrastructure to train personnel to work in this sector. Laws and treaties have been enacted and signed by different countries and organizations to prevent poaching and animal trafficking in general but are not reinforced. Many stakeholders of wildlife conservation, preservation and protection are corrupt, receive bribe and allow poachers and traffickers to do their worst. Many stakeholders and rangers who foster the idea of anti-poaching do not have the required support, collaboration, infrastructure, resources, knowledge, and skills; some even lose their lives in the process.

Introduction

Wildlife poaching of iconic African wildlife such as elephants and rhinos has become a huge issue for the tourism industry in Africa. A booming black market trade worth hundreds of millions of dollars is fuelling corruption in Africa’s ports, customs offices, and security forces as well as providing new revenues for insurgent groups and criminal networks across the continent. Rather than narcotics, small arms, or other commonly trafficked goods, however, it is record-breaking numbers of poached elephants and rhinoceroses that are driving this cycle of exploitation and instability. Poaching is not a new problem in Africa. Its dramatic acceleration since the late 2000s, however, has significantly altered its implications (Anderson & Jooste, 2014). The following essay is going to discuss the implications of poaching in Africa on the tourism industry and discuss ways to minimize the poaching of iconic African animals.

Poaching of African Icons

By some estimates, the number of African elephants killed annually since 2007 has more than doubled to over 30,000. The trend crossed a chilling threshold in 2010 as the rate of killings surpassed that at which elephants breed, indicating that significant net population declines have begun (Anderson & Jooste, 2014). This is bad news for the tourism industry as one of the key drawcards that tourists come to see is the African elephant. At this rate this means that the elephants are on their way to extinction as they are unable to reproduce at the rate that they are being hunted by illegal poachers and trophy hunters. According to David Sheldrick’s Wildlife Trust’s iworry campaign, an African elephant is worth 76 times more when they are alive than dead. The report also found that the raw ivory value collected from the elephant is worth around $21,000 however when comparing it to the elephant’s lifetime value of approximately $1.6 million, its dead value is pale in comparison (Erickson-Davis, 2014). One of the key driving forces behind illegal poaching is the fact it can turnover a reasonable amount of money on the black market in a short period of time. Ivory has many uses which makes it a well-sought-after product. With high demand for ivory it has been constantly pushing up the price making it an even more profitable business. Such inflated prices, which exceed the value of cocaine and heroin in some countries, are overwhelming an already endangered species. The trend has even prompted a crime spree at some museums and auction houses with exhibits containing ivory or horn (Anderson & Jooste, 2014). Rhino poaching has skyrocketed. Illegal killings in southern Africa from 2000 to 2007 were rare, frequently fewer than 10 a year. An explosion in poaching rates commenced in 2008. By 2013, 1,004 rhinos were poached in South Africa alone. Soaring global prices for ivory and rhino horn are driving this poaching frenzy. In 2003, high-quality ivory sold for roughly $200 per kilogram. The escalation in prices for rhino horn has been even more dramatic than that of elephant poaching. Whereas a kilogram of rhino horn cost around $800 in the 1990s, it is now more valuable than gold (Anderson & Jooste, 2014). The proliferating number of middle- and upper-class consumers in Asia is the primary reason for the jump in prices. Typically valued as decoration, whether as carved jewellery or artwork or as mounted busts, ivory and horn have become a sought-after symbol of stature and wealth. In surveys of middle-class Chinese professionals, 87 percent associated ivory with “prestige” and 84 percent intended to purchase some. Another driver of the demand for rhino horn in Asia is the belief that it has powerful medicinal properties, including that it cures cancer. While such myths help explain the boom, consumers are surely overpaying (Anderson & Jooste, 2014).

Safari Tourism

Safari tourism is a huge contributor to many African countries’ economies. It describes an overland journey or trip by tourists in Africa to explore the culture, geography, scenery, and wildlife (Stone and Stone, 2015). Modern Safaris tend to focus on a group of animals known as the Big Five. Those animals in the Big Five include leopard, buffalo, elephant, lion, and rhino. Of the 14 most popular African nations according to 2015 figures safari tourism brought in approximately US$168 million annually. The main homes of safari tours are Botswana, Kenya, South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. The positioning of wildlife in parks both protects the attractions as well as making them accessible to tourists. Animal hunting and poaching however has put this industry which provides income and is the backbone of many African countries economy in jeopardy. With limited numbers of animals the appeal and excitement of a Safari soon begins to disappear. Without the animals there simply is no safari industry.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

Some of the consequences of wildlife trafficking are straightforward. It poses a severe threat to conservation and biodiversity in general. Poaching has led to the near-extinction of some subspecies, including the disappearance of rhinos in Mozambique in 2012. Safaris and tourism are huge foreign currency earners for African countries, including over $1 billion annually for Kenya. These revenues will be severely affected as visitors encounter not only fewer animals but more criminality in game parks and reserves. Poaching also threatens these deeply rooted African icons (Anderson & Jooste, 2014). There are already measures in place to help reduce the numbers of illegal poaching in sub-Saharan regions. One of the key ones is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an agreement between member nations, or parties, to regulate the international trade of wildlife. Currently, there are 173 parties to the Convention who have agreed to help protect more than 30,000 species of plants and animals (CITES, 2008). Parties fulfil their obligations, (1) by passing national legislation that provides the legal framework and funding necessary to implement the Convention’s recommendations, (2) by ensuring the appropriate agencies are involved with data collection and law enforcement, and (3) by reporting annually to the CITES Secretariat on measures taken to fulfil international obligations and on the number of specimens traded (Vasquez 2003). The power of CITES rests in its ability to impose restrictive sanctions on the trade of protected species by countries that are not complying with the Convention (Reeve 2006). Essentially, these sanctions can hurt the ability of non-compliant countries to profit from the regulated wildlife market. Another way that has been used by many countries in Africa to reduce poaching is setting up protected wildlife reserves and programmes to make it a lot harder for poachers to gain access to the endangered animals. These wildlife reserves are tasked with the conservation of endangered wildlife such as the African elephant and rhino.

Part-Time Rangers

An incentive to help with conservation efforts was recently set up in New Zealand which used the sale of alcohol to help raise awareness and funds for the conservation of endangered wildlife in Africa. The New Zealand Company Part Time Rangers recently brought out a range of beverages where some of the funds go towards funding conservation efforts of the African elephant and the White rhino. The company provides the Big Life with a share of their profits from sales in order to go towards the conservation of these animals. Big Life seeks to protect and sustain East Africa’s wildlife and wild lands, including one of the greatest populations of elephants left in East Africa. They use innovative conservation strategies and collaborating closely with local communities, partner NGOs, national parks, and government agencies. They are the first organisation in East Africa with coordinated anti-poaching teams operating on both sides of the Kenya-Tanzania border. Big Life recognises that sustainable conservation can only be achieved through a community-based collaborative approach. This approach is at the heart of Big Life’s philosophy that conservation supports the people and people support conservation (The Mission, n.d). Another project in which the Part Time Rangers support is one which translocates rhino from high poaching areas to help with conservation efforts. The project aims to translocate 100 rhino from high-risk poaching areas in South Africa to the comparative safety of Botswana. Where appropriate, the rhinos will be transported by air as opposed to road, in order to shorten the journey and lessen the amount of stress placed on the animals. The budget to translocate just one rhino is USD 45 000. The whole project, including ongoing and monitoring and security, requires a total budget of USD 4.5 million (The Mission, n.d). Translocating the rhino although is quite costly, it goes a long way in protecting this endangered species and can potentially be the difference between the survival of the species or not.

Other key methods of poaching reduction

Dehorning was a method that was used in order to reduce poaching. In early 1990s in Zimbabwe, white rhinos were dehorned in Hwange national park. De –horning and translocation of rhinos from vulnerable areas reduced poaching of black rhinos (Duffy, 2000). However, a lax in security led poachers killing all the horned and dehorned rhinos. Another method that was trialled was the shoot to kill method. In 1980s the Zimbabwe government authorized the shoot to kill policy as a strategy of reducing poaching and it was met with criticism (Duffy, 2000). In that period between 1984 to 1993 park rangers killed more than 170 poachers, then a Protection of Wildlife Act was passed in 1989. This act was meant to protect game wardens that feared being charged with murder, this Act meant they could be absolved of any course of action done in good faith (Duffy, 2000). The Act boosted moral around anti-poaching units and led to more poachers being killed than rhinos in 1990 (Duffy, 2000). This method however has been criticized by many as it is seen as inhumane and is believed to be in breach of human rights. Penalties and prison sentences were another method that had been tried however it had been rather unsuccessful. Penalties in the form of fines, prison sentences or a combination of both have received little success in protecting rhinos in Africa. For example, poachers caught in South Africa are charged a penalty of more than ZAR 40000 (US$4400) yet a single horn cost more than US$20000 in black market. Theoretically, as much as it must reduce a rational poacher`s incentive to poach it also gives more courage for poachers.

Conclusion

Poaching in Africa poses a huge threat not only to the existence of many endangered species, but also to tourism in Africa. Many African nations are heavily reliant on nature tourism like safari tours as their key contributor to the economy. Many of those in the African communities rely on the tourism industry to provide them with income and job security so without it they face huge financial strain and hardship. As highlighted above there have been many methods that have been used in order to try and reduce the number of poaching cases however very few have been effective. There has been huge traction surrounding supporting the stop of illegal poaching worldwide and many organisations have been set up to help fund conservation efforts. Many of the iconic animals are what people associate Africa with so without these animals there simply is a fairly minimal tourism industry there.

References

1. Anderson, B., & Jooste, J. (2014). Wildlife poaching: Africa’s surging trafficking threat. NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIV FORT MCNAIR DC AFRICA CENTER FOR STRATEGIC STUDIES.
2. CITES, (2008), What is CITES? Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Geneva: CITES Secretariat, available online at www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.shtml
3. Duffy,R. (2000): Killing for Conservation: Wildlife Policy In Zoimbawe
4. Erickson-Davis, M. (2014, October 6). Elephants worth much, much more alive than dead, says new report. Retrieved from https://news.mongabay.com/2014/10/elephants-worth-much-much-more-alive-than-dead-says-new-report/
5. Reeve R, (2006)‘Wildlife Trade Sanctions and Compliance: Lessons from the CITES Regime’, International Affairs , 2006, vol. 82 (pg. 881-97)
6. Stone, M. T., & Stone, L. S. (2015). Safari tourism.
7. The Mission, (n.d), Retrieved from https://parttimerangers.co.nz/our-mission
8. Vasquez JC. Oldfield S, (2003), ‘Compliance and Enforcement Mechanisms of CITES’, The Trade in Wildlife: Regulation for Conservation, 2003 London and Sterling, VAEarthscan Publications(pg. 63-9)

There are many monstrosities committed against animals globally on a daily basis. One of the notable crimes against animals is the illegal poaching of rhinoceros and elephants for ivory. Ivory is one of the most precious materials and it is used for an abundance of reasons. The main reason poaching has become a problem is because western culture believes ivory has medicinal purposes. This makes ivory extremely valuable to the African people. One pound of ivory can be worth upwards of $1,500 because of high demands in Asia (Fears). More specifically, the illegal poaching of elephants and rhinoceros in Africa has reached crisis levels. The illegal poaching is putting wildlife in danger, harming and even killing hundreds of people, because of this, action needs to be taken to prevent further decimation of these species, including more funding and better protection, to stop this issue from becoming irreversible.

One of the most popular uses for ivory is Western medicine or alternative healing. Many people believe that ivory possesses supernatural healing powers. According to Fears, ivory is used for piano, walking sticks, and traditional chinese medicine, along with other things. Since ivory is used for so many products, the demand for it is strikingly high. Growing levels of poaching emerged as a result of these high demands, and has had harsh effects. The slaughter of these majestic animals is hard to comprehend. However, poachers have no regard for these animals and are only interested in profiting off the ivory.

The idea of poaching arose in the Middle Ages and has continuously affected the elephant and rhinoceros species of Africa. The population of elephants and rhinoceros started to have a dramatic decline in the 1970’s. In “Poaching”, Ramsey states “during the 1970’s and 1980’s, ivory poachers killed 93 percent of the elephants in Zambia’s North Luangwa National Park.” National parks’ are meant to protect and preserve wildlife, they’re not meant for poachers to hunt. Preservation is essential to keep species from becoming endangered, or even extinct. Endangerment and extinction can generate a multitude of complications, including inbreeding of species.

When animals are endangered, they are more susceptible to inbreeding due to lack of population. Genetically, inbreeding causes animals to become feeble and unlikely to survive as long. “More than 38 percent of the elephants in North Luangwa National Park are genetically tuskless, compared to 2 percent in a natural elephant population, because poachers targeted the mature, tusk-bearing animals of breeding age” (Ramsey). As a result of inbreeding, elephants are now losing their tusks, causing them to be incapable to perform the same tasks they used to. Their ability to use their tusks for protection, digging, and picking up objects is compromised. Not to mention, while the tuskless and inbred populations increase, the healthy population decreases. If elephants are already tuskless and weakened, what will the next gruesome genetic affect will be? Poaching jeopardizes the existence of the entire breed. A world without these exquisite creatures would be heartbreaking.

Since these species, among other things, have faced an absurd amount of atrocities, they are put at risk for extinction. Extinction is feasible, considering the rate at which these species are decreasing. “In some instances, it’s the primary reason why an animal faces a risk of extinction. This is the case with the African elephant, more than 100,000 of which were killed between 2014 and 2017 for ivory” (Actman). When poachers murder animals at such a high rate, they have no chance of survival because they can’t reproduce enough to keep up with the death rate. Elephants have the longest gestation period of all mammals, carrying their young for nearly twenty-four months. Elephants simply cannot reproduce at a rate that can offset how quickly they are being killed. While animals are being harmed and killed because of these ruthless poachers, innocent people are being put into danger as well as poachers themselves. I could argue that the elephants life is as important as human life but most people would disagree with me.

Although poaching is illegal, poachers continue to hunt and kill these animals. Poachers aren’t supposed to be slaughtering these animals, so, they take drastic measures to ensure they don’t get caught. “In Africa, nearly 600 rangers charged with protecting wildlife were gunned down by poachers between 2009 and 2016 while in the line of duty” (Actman). Innocent rangers, making an effort to help this issue, are being put at risk of death. It’s gut-wrenching these poachers didn’t receive a punishment because they were never caught. This displays there was not a sufficient amount of questioning and/or investigating put into the review of this appalling crime. Not only are these poachers endangering and brutally killing this species of animals, they are killing humans that get in the way of this illegal activity. “In the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Virunga National Park, one of the continent’s most dangerous, at least 170 rangers have been killed during the past two decades” (Actman). Is a human life truly valued less than a meager piece of ivory? Poachers genuinely admire elephants’ tusks and rhinoceros’ horns more than anything, and they will stop anyone and everything that gets in the way of their prize. While poachers are putting others in extreme danger, they are also putting themselves in hazardous situations. It is absolutely dismaying how poachers undervalue human life. In addition, the victims and their families are left with no justice for the murdered rangers.

Poachers are getting themselves into threatening circumstances as a result of the desire for ivory. In addition to rangers being killed, poachers are being murdered as well. “A rhinoceros poacher was stomped to death by an elephant and eaten by lions in a South Africa wildlife preserve, and rangers found just his skull and trousers, authorities said” (Meldrum). Meldrum continued to explain, “South Africans weighed in on social media, with many celebrating the poacher’s death.” South Africans have come to the point where they’re happy and relieved about a poacher’s death because of how destructive their actions have been on the whole community. How is it possible that poachers have access to these so-called protected areas? If areas were actually sheltered and protected, the rates at which elephants and rhinoceros were dying would be lower. Simply put, the amount of acreage that the animals require is too large to be protected at all times. With so many ranger deaths, these positions are hard to fill. Again, attributing to the poaching problem.

Areas are not being protected to the magnitude they need to be. Due to the fact that these areas aren’t sufficiently protected, people are able to enter at their will. Once people enter these sanctuaries they are essentially able to do whatever they please, due to the lack of supervision. “The carcasses of 87 elephants have been discovered near a Botswana protected sanctuary, killed and stripped for their tusks” (Sullivan). Areas are continuing to find deceased elephants and rhinoceros, even though they live in protected areas. Once these people enter, they are able to harm any animals in the protected area. They are quick, organized, and ruthless in the death and ivory extraction of the animals. Poachers aren’t receiving consequences for entering and poaching animals in protected areas, so they have no urge to stop. They aren’t held accountable for their actions because there’s not enough police enforcement keeping them out of these regions. With more enforcement, police and rangers will be able to end this brutality, but it’s only possible to do with proper funding. Perhaps motion detectors, alarms, and cameras could be installed with proper funding. Hopefully, this would provide more of a deterrent for potential poaching.

Having proper funds allocated to support anti-poaching efforts is only half the battle to terminate poaching entirely. Adequate money is essential to have success within poaching areas, money directly affects the amount of security and safety, throughout these sanctuaries. For example, several areas have had their poaching significantly reduced to a smaller amount, or even to zero. “‘The success in Niassa shows that given the political will and proper funding, we can stop the poaching of elephants,’ James Bampton, the Wildlife Conservation Society’s country director in Mozambique” (Winsor). Preservation of these animals is possible with the appropriate amount of funds. Sanctuaries are putting an end to this vicious poaching and having a substantial measure of success. “The last time an elephant was recorded killed by a poacher in Mozambique’s Niassa Reserve was May 17, 2018, according to the Wildlife Conservation Society” (Winsor). Elephant poaching has come to a complete halt in Mozambique’s Niassa Reserve which certainly proves every place can have the same achievement. Efforts to stop poaching are crucial to the resolution of this epidemic. These increased measures of safety are only available with proper funding.

People are working towards finding the best solutions to keep the issue from increasing again. One way people are handling this is by working to diminish the worth and need of the products produced by ivory. “People are working to end poaching by trying to decrease demand for illegal wildlife and wildlife parts. If no one’s buying the products, there will be no need to kill the animals” (Actman). When the demand for wildlife products decreases, so does the poachers purpose to kill animals. If the poachers’ determination is reduced, they will have no intentions to continue to poach these animals. However, it doesn’t make sense for this to be the only solution for this complicated problem. Africa needs to take a multi-tiered approach to end ivory consumption and poaching.

Poachers continue to extract from elephants and rhinoceros because ivory is their main source of income. They are supporting their families any way necessary in a depressed economy. However, there are organizations implementing new approaches for poachers to earn a living. “There are also numerous nonprofits around the world working to end wildlife poaching. Some of these groups have helped to promote alternative, more sustainable ways for poachers to earn a living” (Actman). Poachers believe this is the best way to earn money fast, but in reality, they don’t realize the extent of these extremities they go through to retrieve ivory. Non-profit organizations find it of extreme importance to assist poachers all together to stop poaching. When assisted by organizations, these people are guided on the right path to find a career that will help them live sustainably, instead of poaching illegally.

Non- profit organizations can be extremely helpful to poachers that are willing to make a change. They have already been beneficial, and rates have gone down, but not to the degree necessary. “Conservationists warned that African elephants could be extinct by 2020 if poaching continued at these rates” (Ramsey). African elephants would possibly be extinct today if it wasn’t for anti-poaching efforts. Luckily, sanctuaries have made advancements, but not everyone has had total success. People need to keep trying to put regulations into place or else the problem will linger around forever. If people aren’t serious about keeping these changes, it’s very possible to have another outbreak of poaching. Along with Africa, the United States has put regulations into place to decrease the poaching rates.

When President Obama was in office, he saw poaching as an issue that needed to be resolved. He took matters into his own hands, and outlawed selling ivory, but along with that, there are a couple exceptions. “Preexisting items manufactured with ivory such as musical instruments used in orchestras, furniture and items such as firearms containing fewer than 200 grams are exempt” (Fears). This was a substantial effort by Obama to stop poaching, but it wasn’t enough to conclude this matter entirely.

In conclusion, there is a multifaceted solution needed to end the horror of ivory poaching in Africa of elephants and rhinoceros. Although ivory poaching illegal, it doesn’t stop the poachers. We need to change the perception that ivory has magical healing powers and outlaw all products made from ivory. Additionally, Africa needs proper funding to increase security for their animal sanctuaries. Cameras and more rangers are needed to guard the vast acreage of the sanctuaries in Africa. Africa also needs to be diligent in providing alternative employment for the poachers. The poachers feel that they are doing what is necessary to support themselves and their families. We need to change this way of thinking because preservation is possible. To keep these animals safe from extinction, a combined effort needs to be made to stop poaching.

While most endangered species are under threat from habitat loss due to encroaching human development, African rhinos face only one major threat: poaching, specifically for their horn. The IUCN (The International Union for Conservation of Nature), TRAFFIC, and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups have recognized Vietnam as “the principal end-use market” for rhino horn. Surprisingly, a study conducted by the World Wildlife Fund and TRAFFIC in 2013 discovered that “educated, successful and powerful individuals are the main market for horns.” Alarmingly, since a vast majority of rhino horn consumers are unaware of its unfounded medical advantages, the rise in demand brings the species closer to extinction. Sustainability in wildlife has been interfered by human beings regardless day- round protection of conservationists, leaving adverse effects on nature and individuals in Africa – home of the largest number of rhinos. Effective solutions are therefore extremely necessary to prevent the crisis of rhino poaching and to maintain other species of wildlife.

Rhinos are slowly becoming extinct due to human greed and rampant poaching. The species has been classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Surprisingly, Vietnam is the largest user country of rhino horns. Rhinos are poached and resold for an extremely big amount of cash by corrupt people to the black market. Illegal traders manage to sell the same horn in Asia for around $133 per gram and this price can range up to $300,000 per horn as the year of 2018 while that sort of profit margin is generally only feasible in drug or sex-trafficking. Rhinos were once abundant in Africa and Asia within approximated worldwide population of 500,000 in the early 20th century, however, in 2018, the International Rhino Organization reported that the number hovers around 29,500. Despite intensive conservation efforts, the excessive abuse and demand for rhinos horn has threatened the species towards extinction. South Africa is home to 80% of the rhino population, hence it is exceptionally crucial for the nation to preserve this species. The country experienced an exponential rise in rhino poaching from 2007- 2014 – a growth of over 9,000 percent (from 13 to 1,215). Most illegal activity occurs in Kruger National Park, a 19,485 km2 of protected area on South Africa’s north-eastern border with Mozambique. Kruger consistently suffered heavy poaching loses. Around 2013, the South African crisis spread to other countries in Africa. This poaching crime has led to severe consequences since more than 1,000 rhinos are killed each year between 2013 and 2017. Within a decade from 2007-2018, the total rhinos killed has increased to 7,100. Without immediate intervention, mortality rates are anticipated to exceed birth rates by 2026, resulting in a high danger of extinction for rhinoceros.

There are several reasons leading to the decrease in worldwide rhino population. First of all, the unequal wealth distribution and corruption is the trigger for illegal trading and international poaching criminals. The current poaching crisis actually began in Zimbabwe, where rhino poaching was facilitated by challenging socio-economic and political climate. Once the easy pickings were taken in Zimbabwe, poaching gangs turned their attention to neighboring South Africa, which in turn saw enormous rises in poaching from 2009-2014. As stated in a short document ‘Sides of a rhino horn’, African poachers are paid $3000 for per rhino horn, which is a sufficient amount of money to feed a family annual, but this is nothing compared to the real value of the horns once they are delivered to South East Asia countries, such as Vietnam and China where it is believed that rhino horn holds medical value in traditional medicine. Rhino horn has had a fake reputation for its ability to heal from cancer to malaria, while it is primarily composed of substances found in human hair and fingernails. The rhino horn is also regarded as an aphrodisiac and is particularly valued in Asian nations as a status symbol. This product’s demand is so high that one kilo of rhino horn in the black market could cost up to $100,000, even more costly than gold or platinum. There is absolutely no scientific basis to validate the medical purpose of this horn. Yet rhino poaching has become such a large issue over the year that it has been formally categorized as critically endangered by the species. Rhino horns are also used for artistic carving and daggle handles in Yemen, plus Oman to showcase authority and status. Moreover, the reality that Vietnam’s economy has grown quickly intertwined with improved living standards for people since the 1990s has considerably attributed to the problem of rhino hunting, whereas we should all have been informed and educated better to save ourselves and other species. Last but not least, it is bound up with traders ‘ and poachers ‘ morality and absence of consumer consciousness. If it wasn’t for misunderstanding and lack of knowledge about the actual value carried in a horn, poachers wouldn’t be able to create an insane thousand-dollar offer on rhino horns, demand would then reduce, and the species would be better preserved and protected.

The high price for rhino horn has attracted the involvement of ruthless criminals on rhinoceros, causing numerous drawbacks to nature and human beings themselves, especially in Africa. Today’s rhinos scarcity and rhino horn accessibility drives the price higher and intensifies the pressure on the declining rhino populations while elephants and rhinos are classified as part of the national heritage “Big Five”. Rhino poaching will quickly result in the species being eliminated. In other words, one of the heritages will have to be lost to Africa. In 2013, Vietnamese delegates including National Assembly Deputies, journalists, artists, environmental police officers and conservationists paid a 10-day visit and worked in South Africa on cross-country rhino horn trade issues. Delegates were directly witnessed the effects of transnational rhino horn trade on the survival of this species in South Africa. Vietnamese delegation and officials of Education for Nature Vietnam (ENV). While working in South Africa – where the main source of rhino horn is supplied to consumer markets around the world. The delegation also visited Kruger National Park. Here, the members of the delegation witnessed the aftermath of the transnational rhino horn trade. Congressman Vo Tuan Nhan said: “In Kruger National Park, we saw a terrible scene, the body of a rhino was shot dead for more than a week to get horns. South Africa was hunted for horns – and nearly two-thirds of them were killed right here in Kruger National Park.” Second, illegal rhino hunting leaves a negative effect on the environment because it can lead to loss of biodiversity. This will cause food chains to collapse as well as the extended drought that affects food and water resources. Sustainability is being messed up. People have made it more intricate for future generations without realizing the cumulative impacts. Third, ecotourism is negatively affected by rhino poaching. This can lead in job losses that have an adverse effect on the African economy. Tourists save up their money and come from all over the world to see them. Without the tourists African economy would decline. Plus, countless families in South Africa’s rural communities rely on wildlife tourism for their livelihood. The African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) is now concentrating exclusive on Africa as they believe that protecting Africa’s wildlife and wild landscapes is the key to its people’s future prosperity and have been committed to ensuring the survival of wildlife resources for over 50 years. In other words, poaching rhinos as well as other plants and animas are intensively damaging ecological sustainability, resulting in loss in economic growth, biodiversity and human well-being.

Nowadays, there are only 5 remaining rhino species in the world even though rhinos have been in existence for over 55 million years ago: The Northern rhino, including Northern white rhino (2 females left) and southern white rhino (20,000 left); the black rhino (5,042 left), the greater one-horned or Indian rhino (3,500 left), Javan rhino (67 left- critically endangered) and the Sumatran rhino (80 left-critically endangered). On 19th of March 2018, the death of the last male northern white rhino Sudan effectively ends his species with him. This subspecies lived in Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where wild populations were decimated by militant armies. By the time expert trackers determined that they were extinct in the wild, only a handful of zoo animals remained, and none were capable of breeding. Today, only two non-breeding females are living out their days in a reserve in Kenya.

There is never going to be a virtual reality fix for real and raw nature if no further action is taken. There are several strategies to prevent rhino poaching and to preserve wild species. First of all, imposing imprisonment for rhino horn trafficking in addition to heavy penalties is essential for the preservation. There should be prison syndicates for those who frighten poor people to do the poaching. The penalties will go towards promoting nationwide wildlife law enforcement and Africa’s attempts to conserve the rhinos and its habitat. Second, conservationists, patrols and the anti-poaching team should be provided with training, designated equipment, management to defend themselves and protect rhinos from poachers who are armed with guns and can threat the force anytime. Sudan died at the age of 45, which is equivalent to about 100 in human years. His life was only extended due to the caring and nurturing of the conservationists and the rangers who looked after him until his last breath. No life should risk the cruelty of others. Moreover, awareness campaigns, environmental education programs and wildlife summits can be arranged and sponsored to inform people about the importance of the rhinoceros as well as eliminate the idea of magical remedy held in the horn to educate and encourage many generations to raise their voice for wildlife species and to dismiss the taboo on rhino horns. Regarding technology development, tracking devices can be attached to the rhino to monitor its movement which will also tell us if it is still alive and whether action can be taken on time to rescue them. More than that, a Pro Tag device can also be implanted in the horn so that if the rhino is poached, it can be traced and the poachers arrested. These technolgies should be kept within the anti-poaching team so that poachers won’t be able to obstruct anti-team performance. Another innovative and advanced reproductive technologies, like in-vitro fertilization, can be attempted to bring more breeds and subspecies of rhino into existence to help recover its population. Furthermore, while more people were prosecuted than previous years, stopping corruption and speeding up prosecution processes continues to be critically important. Corruption and whino poaching are inetricably linked. Even though, significant efforts have been made by an anti-poaching team, including rangers, police, conservationists, however, “In far too many cases, rangers, police, government officials – even magistrates – are easily corrupted by powerful criminal forces with ready supplies of hard cash.” says Julian Rademeyer of Traffic, a group of which monitors the illegal trade in wildlife. Therefore, the government was committed to rooting out corruption. There is a need for a multi-faceted strategy including continuing anti-poaching and patrol surveillance, community conservation and environmental education schemes, captive breeding, translocations and demand reduction projects in Asia specifically and globally.

Concerning the problem of trade in wild animals, The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has also proposed leading transport enterprises such as Vietnam Airlines to announce not to transport endangered wildlife species from July 2017. Also, according to Deputy Minister Ha Cong Tuan, Vietnam has completed many legal documents in accordance with international conventions on wildlife protection, biodiversity and nature conservation, in which reported that rhino horn traffickers will be convicted to 5 to 10 years in jail if they commit poaching crime. More than that, Vietnam now has a campaign to request Vietnamese tourists and workers go to work in African countries like South Africa, Angola, Mozambique as well as foreign tourists coming to Vietnam to not support the trade and transport illegal products. All need to be done is to reinforce the execution on new cases to stop the issue completely.

Member countries of United Nations has also passed a resolution put forth by the US and Peru, encouraging “to make illicit trafficking in wild fauna and flora a serious crime” and to guarantee the prosecution of organized criminals groups.

What is poaching and how does it affect the economy of Africa? ​ (​ ​Rachel Nuwer,5 October 2017​) The Northern rangelands trust (NRT) was established in 2004 and supports 35 community conservancies spending 17,300 square miles in the northern and coastal Kenya

Conservation is not something the local people do purely out of altruism NRT member conservancies now benefit from some 15,000 visitors per year. The economic impacts of poaching is ecotourism, foreign aid, and boycotting.

In economic terms, the extinction of species can have a negative effect on local tourism. Due to poaching, fewer and fewer tourists are coming, and there are between 20,000-30,000 elephants being killed each year. Because of the elephant crisis poaching is causing Africa to lose up to 25 million dollars every year in loss of tourism. says Chris Roche of Wilderness Safaris, “A live animal creates employment, revenue share and economic multiplier effects,” what he means by this is that because of these animals there are jobs for the people in South Africa and that’s how they make money to guide and show the tourist around south Africa and without the tourist, there will be none to go to the hotels go to the savanna and all businesses will go down because there will be no tourist there and that’s what poaching is causing. Wildlife tourism attracts substantial numbers of tourists worldwide with Africa as the major wildlife viewing destination earning the bulk of its tourism revenue from such tourism. Iconic animals, such as the rhino, are major attractions for tourists to South Africa which holds approximately 80% of the World’s rhino population. However, the rapid increase in rhino poaching activities has reached a crisis point and should the rate of poaching continue to increase Africa’s remaining rhino

The economic effect of poaching

the population will become extinct in the wild within 20 years. How this affects tourists and tourism is still largely unknown. This study shows evidence that rhino poaching and anti-poaching measures do impact tourism in the short term and could affect future visits to Parks. Researchers looked at visitor and elephant data across 25 countries and modeled financial losses from fewer visitors in protected areas due to the illegal wildlife trade, which has caused elephant numbers to plummet by more than 100,000 in the last decade.

In South Africa, The killings are fueled by a demand for tusks and horns in Asia that has made ivory and rhino horn more valuable than gold or cocaine. Although the Chinese market is responsible for an estimated 70 percent of global poaching, ‘we’ve also got an ivory problem here in the U.S.,’ says Hemley, noting that the U.S. is considered the world’s second-biggest market for wildlife products. The State Department and USAID are also asking for $28 million to address the problem by helping bolster Africa’s protected areas, training foreign wildlife officials, and other activities. In America During President Obama’s tenure, financial resources to combat wildlife crime at the State Department’s law enforcement bureau rose from a few hundred thousand to today’s $50 million level. Hybrid partnerships across the conservation-security continuum improved, for example between Fish and Wildlife Services (FWS) and the Department of Defense’s Special Operations Command (SOCOM). The Administration also issued a comprehensive National Strategy for Combating Wildlife Trafficking. the program calls for the State Department to provide $10 million in technical assistance and training in Kenya, South Africa, and the sub-Saharan region, where elephant and rhino populations have plummeted at alarming rates.​ (​ ​Amar Toor​ 2013) ​“The White House unveiled an ambitious $7 billion plan to double access to electricity in Africa over the next five

The economic effect of poaching

years.”On the black market, rhinoceros horns sell for around $30,000 a pound, while elephant tusks fetch approximately $1,000 a pound. ​(​ ​Amar Toor​ 2013) ​“Experts say that on a global level, the wildlife trafficking market is valued at between $7 billion and $10 billion.”

While poaching is growing the rise echo tourist are rising up and boycotting the poachers.(news 24 2012) ‘We have gathered more than 22 000 signatures in this petition from South African communities and other countries across the world. Government has 60 days to turn around the situation or we call for drastic action, including a boycott.’ The extinction of a species can have a negative economic effect on a local community’s tourism industry. ​A community that relies on its wildlife to attract tourists​ is at great risk for economic hardship if the prevalence of poaching is high. Furthermore, a tourist boycott due to local poaching is a real threat. A boycott could have a detrimental effect on a community’s economy since restaurants, hotels, rentals, and other attractions would suffer. Although I do believe poaching is bad most of the time they don’t kill with bad intentions. There is an incredible amount of money involved in poaching as items such as ivory can be thought to heal everything in some cultures so people will pay a lot of money for it, and unfortunately, some people just see the money instead of the animal. But sometimes this isn’t the case very poor people may be forced to poach in order to feed their families and survive. In an article I read called “​The real reasons why people poach endangered species” ​an ex-poacher by the name of Albert mathe says “They see all this wildlife on the other side of the fence and they see it as an opportunity to either have food for themselves or have food to sell to neighboring communities,’ says Walsh. ‘It’s not like rhino horn where there’s a massive payoff.’ ‘What I wanted to do was find a story that showcased both sides of the fence,’ he says.​they know it’s wrong but it is the only food source they have to survive. Would

The economic effect of poaching

Do you think it is fair for someone wishing to kill an elephant to just come in and shoot it? Or for someone who wants a tiger skin carpet to come and kill a tiger? It has no purpose, it’s anti-ecological, it inflicts useless suffering to an intelligent animal, and it is immoral. Furthermore, if it was legal, there would be people killing elephants, big turtles and rhinos all around to sell their bones, bringing these species, already critically endangered, to quick extinction.

Poaching in Africa has hit the headlines many times over the years., wildlife officials in South Africa released the devastating statistic that 558 rhinos have been killed in 2014 so far, making it likely that the number of deaths will exceed 1004 recorded for 2013. And it is not only rhinos; elephants have also been hit hard with an estimated 20,000 killed in 2013. So why is poaching at an all-time high and what can be done about it? First, we need to improve security, particularly at borders between countries and at key locations in the ivory trade chain. To be effective, this needs to take a multi-country and multi-organization approach to ensure security all along the common ivory routes More support and training are needed in addition to improved law enforcement. Second destroyed its ivory stocks for the first time, sending a message to the world that trade in ivory will not be tolerated. But there is little evidence of whether this is anything more than a gesture or if it actually has any impact on poaching. And lastly, innovative drone technology is being tested to help rangers in the fight against poaching. These drones, which also operate after dark using night vision and thermal imaging, can be operated via laptop and act as an extra pair of eyes, helping to locate poachers within the reserve. More research is needed but initial trials have been positive.

Economic effect of poaching Reference:

1. https://wildlifejustice.org/our-cause/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAhKviBRCNARIsAAGZ7Cd0rQbrEAg WTaFg_NxhbP1m-xMUFsr6X5rZxwVCCbMgPKojDFF55O0aAuGcEALw_wcB
2. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/oct/16/angry-one-culled-elephant-200 00-poached
3. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/nov/01/elephant-poaching-costing-africa n-nations-millions-in-lost-tourism-revenue
4. http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160310-the-difficult-truth-about-poaching
5. https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Rhino-activists-threaten-SA-boycott-20120222
6. https://wildlifejustice.org/our-cause/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAhKviBRCNARIsAAGZ7CcK_6LNyav_njLwXM764bONSycYtlvXEuucCbdP3u7sWqZv9zxb-dUaAoJMEALw_wcB
7. https://www.businessinsider.com/elephant-poaching-economic-value-millions-dollars-2016-11
8. https://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/the-devastating-effects-of-wildlife-poaching/
9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5097124/
10. https://www.namibian.com.na/172011/archive-read/Negative-Impact-of-Poaching-on-Tourism
11. https://www.brookings.edu/research/greening-u-s-foreign-aid-through-the-millennium-challenge-account/
12. https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2018/11/trump-builds-obamas-fight-illegal-wildlife-trafficking/
13. https://www.theverge.com/2013/7/2/4485766/obama-announces-wildlife-trafficking-poaching-initiative-africa-elephant-rhino
14. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2016/03/03/5-ways-president-obama-protecting-wildlife-around-world
15. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/wp/2016/09/27/u-s-fights-african-poaching-as-consumers-feed-elephant-rhino-slaughter/
16. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13683500.2017.1343807
17. https://www.namibian.com.na/172011/archive-read/Negative-Impact-of-Poaching-on-Tourism
18. https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/elephant-poaching-costs-african-economies-us-25-million-per-year-in-lost-tourism-revenue-study
19. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/nov/01/elephant-poaching-costing-african-nations-millions-in-lost-tourism-revenue

Many people claim that the Stock Market crash of 1929, was the main cause of the Great Depression. Multiple predicaments led to the economic fall in the United States. World War I created a web of debts and reparations, created under the Treaty of Versailles. Nationally, stocks were being bought with credit. Agriculture began to take the plunge because the demand was decreasing, since the war was over. Slowly, the loss of money began to plague the American economy, along with international trade.

World War I put the international economy at risk. The Treaty of Versailles insisted that Germany pay $33 billion in reparations to France and Great Britain. Germany was unable to fulfill this debt, so instead, borrowed money from American banks. At the same time, the United States was owed $10 billion from Great Britain and France, which was partially paid off through German reparations. The money flow was hard to compromise, as the Gold Standard was still an issue for some European countries, which led to a freeze in global trade.

The national problems that the United States encountered, had to do with overproduction and the unequal distribution of income. Creation of product in newer industries, such as manufacturing, was striving, while textile and coal industries started to see a loss in demand. The ability to buy with credit or installment plans, helped production but ultimately led to the hindsight of the Stock Market crash.

The Stock Market allowed people to invest and ultimately make a lot of money. Many people who invested in stocks during the 1920s, did not have much money to begin with, and put themselves in a vulnerable situation. The optimism of investing was influenced by people such as John J. Raskod, who claimed that “a person who saved $15 each month and invested it, could have $80,000 in 20 years”. Surprisingly, only 2.5% of the American population owned stocks. The market started to see a fall, just after the peak it had in September of 1929 (Bernanke, B.S.,1983).Because of this, many holders sold their stocks. On October 29th, over 16 million shares were traded because of panic selling, due to the fall in stock prices.

Many businesses relied on the increasing stock market, so they could pay employees. When these businesses lost this financial security, people were unemployed at drastic numbers. Consumers, that were once employees, did not have money to spend, therefore hurting businesses (Calomiris, C.W., 1993). During this time, most people who were laid off, were also the ones using their money, paycheck to paycheck, with little to no savings. When they lost their job, they were unable to provide for their families. The government did not have unemployment insurance, nor was there enough public relief to help all of these people. In the 1920s, men were known to be the breadwinners, able to provide for their families. Because women’s labor was cheaper, the provider in the family switched roles, which upset an abundance of men. The steepening depression of the economy, was just similar to the mental well-being of many.

Between 1914 and 1919, agriculture prices were at an all time high. Because of World War I, and the failing European agriculture, many farmers were able to prosper (Wicker, E., 2000). But the 1920s held a different idea for American farmers. The downfall of many farmers, was the lack of modernization, and falling crop prices. Because of this, it was hard for these farmers to produce such a yield that would help make up for falling prices. The McNary-Haugen Bill, introduced the idea that the government should buy surpluses and either keep them until prices rose, or sell them to the world-market. Better transportation and supermarkets allowed for more regular supply management. Even with these improvements, farming families made about a quarter of what non-farming families made. Money loss was taking a toll, even in the most rural parts of America.

In the Great Plains of the United States, an environmental catastrophe was taking over crop yield along with the living conditions of many families. The Dust Bowl occurred during the mid- 1930s, due to stripping of soil, and over vegetation. These problems were directly caused by the enthusiastic surplus that farmers held during the 20s. Strong winds would pick up very dry soil, and would create fog. Drought did not help, nor cease the Dust Bowl. In return, many families were supported through federal aid. The AAA paid farmers to plant crops that would help the soil, instead of depleting crops such as wheat. Families from Oklahoma, Texas and Missouri, were forced off their land and moved to California. These people were very poor, but ultimately found agriculture jobs.

President Hoover was a fan of personal initiative, and a more laissez-faire economy. The RFC, or the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, was created to help businesses after the Stock Market crash. The idea was to provide financial relief to these failing businesses. But in a time where overproduction and lack of sells arose, the RFC didn’t provide relief that the country needed. The chain of supply and demand was interrupted because of lack of employment, which ultimately led to a lack of money to spend. In 1930, Congress passed the Smoot-Hawley tariff, which raised import duties to the highest they have ever been in U.S. history. This tariff encouraged other countries to raise their own tariffs, and deepened the international economic failure.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected into office in 1932. As a Democrat, he was determined to help the people of the United States in forms of public relief. He was able to personally connect with citizens by his fireside chats. In 1933, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act, which allowed FDR access to banking transactions and international trade. By the end of March, almost all the banks were open for business again. The CCC, or the Civilian Conservation Corps, allowed for unemployed men to work in conserving natural resources. The Federal Emergency Relief Act provided $500 million directly to states, and the rest was distributed to Federal Aid. Many more federal relief acts were enacted in President Roosevelt’s first 100 days. President FDR eventually helped the country out of the depression.

The 1920s and 30s, allowed the United States to reflect and unify. Because of the financial epidemic that hurt many, relief was enacted and the economy eventually picked up pace. Because of the environmental crisis, that was the Dust Bowl, the government has been able to progress and help prevent further phenomena. The effort the President Roosevelt exhibited helped push the United States out of a terrible time. Almost 100 years later, the United States has been able to modernize and prosper, as we learn from our past mistakes.

Over the past decade, the United States has experienced considerable growth in oil and natural gas exploration, development, and production (E&P) activities. The US has comprehensive local, state and federal laws, rules and regulations relating to the use, development and responsibility associated with commercial activity, including domestic oil and gas production. The varied environmental implications of these E&P activities are a major area of focus for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). However, The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does not have a direct role in the regulation of oil and gas extraction, but it does have regulatory jurisdiction over the release, or threatened release, of hazardous and toxic substances, such that once a release or threatened release occurs, EPA has remedial enforcement powers under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA).

Each state has its own regulations, and its agencies have the broad powers. The inclusion of independent reviewing bodies and reports provided a detailed, comprehensive assessment of state regulations.

These state regulations were typically found in state administrative code under environmental protection regulation or natural resource conservation regulation. Also, state regulations were often codified in dedicated oil and gas statutes. Naturally, regulations ultimately represent the most succinct and accurate depiction of a state program.

However, local government control over oil and gas production is generally not permitted by state law, except for local zoning input that in some states allows local government control over where and when oil and gas production activities can take place (to prevent, for example, residential neighborhoods from noise pollution, industrial traffic, or perceived health hazards).

But offshore oil and gas production operations in the Gulf of Mexico are regulated by several different federal agencies, including the: United States Coast Guard, Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management.

Therefore, state that I choose compare to research is North Dakota. It is the second crude oil production state in USA.

A number of initiatives have been implemented to address air, water, and land use impacts associated with oil and gas production nationally and in this state. These policies range from the implementation of mandatory emissions limits on oil and gas operations (e.g., under the Clean Air Act (CAA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), state regulations, etc.), to other federal initiatives (e.g., Bureau of Land Management (BLM) activities in this region and nationally), to voluntary programs and actions. Some of these activities encompass best management practices (BMPs) used by industry to reduce environmental releases.

The following examples highlight just a few of the relevant environmental policy decisions and ongoing initiatives shaping oil and gas development in North Dakota and elsewhere:

1. The 2004 Pennaco’s decision compelled Burea of Land Management (BLM) to revise Resource Management Plans (RMPs) to address cumulative environmental impacts stemming from new Coal Bed Methane (CBM) development proposals and other pending energy projects in the region.
2. BLM and states have been working with western surface land owners to resolve differences tied to the stewardship of federal mineral rights (e.g., split estate issues).
3. EPA is conducting a detailed review of the CBM extraction sector to determine if it would be appropriate for the agency to initiate a rulemaking to revise, as necessary, the effluent limitations guidelines for the Oil and Gas Extraction Point Source Category (CFR) to control pollutants discharged in CBM-produced water.
4. EPA has reviewed and approved innovative CBM waste water treatment residual disposal options, creating better economic scenarios for creating cleaner water for surface discharge or aquifer storage.
5. Several regional initiatives focusing mainly on air quality have been established in the past decade.

List of environmental laws: Green Gas Reporting program; National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) (oil and natural gas production); Industrial Waste (crude oil and natural gas waste); Effluent Guidelines (oil and gas extraction – synthetic-based drilling fluid); Underground injection control (UIC) regulation.

There are a number of additional voluntary initiatives underway that can continue to grow or be used as models for developing collaborative environmental stewardship programs in North Dakota. A representative sample includes the following programs: EPA’s Natural Gas STAR program; The Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP); The San Juan Voluntary Innovative Strategies for Today’s Air Standards (VISTAS) program; The Four Corners Air Quality Task Force.

In spite of the many policy initiatives, program developments, and industry practices that are now addressing oil and gas environmental implications, significant environmental concerns persist. Such challenges won’t be effectively resolved without enhanced communications and the active involvement of government (federal, state, and tribal), industry, and stakeholder representatives. Moreover, since production levels are expected to continue their rapid ascent in North Dakota, EPA continues to investigate and pursue a range of policy options in consultation with state partners, Tribal and industry representatives, and other key stakeholders. Although a specific actions and responses will continue to be investigated and pursued by EPA, partner agencies, industry leaders, and other stakeholder representatives, as appropriate.

EPA, state and other government agencies are challenged to keep pace with rapidly expanding oil and gas production as well as associated regulatory activities (e.g., rulemakings, permitting and inspections). In addition, the high volume of oil and gas projects poses unique technical and regulatory challenges for federal and state agencies alike. As such, effective regulatory oversight requires open communications, collaborative partnerships, and constant coordination. Improved environmental measurement, stakeholder involvement, and environmental management are integral to successful oil and gas production.

At a national and regional level, EPA is actively reaching out to oil and gas organizations to improve understanding, identify drivers and barriers, increase performance, and address the environmental implications of oil and gas production. In summary, EPA is well positioned to provide greater regulatory certainty and consistency in oil and gas oversight through enhanced data collection and analysis, improved information sharing and partnerships, and focused compliance assistance and enforcement.

John Keynes once said, “Ideas shape the course of history”. It was the conservation of these ideas that molded the very patent system in place today. To understand the effect that patents have on America one must first understand the origin. According to the United States Patent Office, the first patent in America was issued for the use of potash as a fertilizer by Samuel Hopkins. As of today there have been over six million patents issued today in America. Patents in America really started to pick up speed during the industrial revolution. Never before had such an economic boom incentivized the public to create better, more efficient ideas for success. Prior, places such as England had placed high fares on these patents with an overload of paperwork for the general public. This in effect, made patents a luxury that only the rich could afford. With only a small fraction of the population able to patent ideas, countries that implemented such difficult standards were killing innovation and therefore their chance at being on the ‘cutting edge’. It wasn’t till the young United States, started offering cheap easy accessible patents that ambitious new inventors could trust would hold their ideas in safety. People with ideas flocked in numbers to a country with seemingly limitless potential. From the year 1800 to 1850 the number of patents issued every year increased from 41 to 988. It is through these patents’ reliability and effectiveness that technology in the 19th century became a cornerstone great technological and economic boom.

One of the great indicators of the new patent age was the Crystal Palace that opened in 1851. People would travel from all over the world not to see the elegant, sleek, and futuristic glass frame but rather what was inside. The Crystal Palace featured the Great Exhibition which displayed the cutting edge scientific improvements that were ushered in by the industrial revolution. Friel highlights that one of the greatest spotlights came from the advancement of military technology. He writes, “Perhaps the most famous display in the American section of the Crystal Palace of the goods patented by Samuel Colt, a Hartford, Connecticut, maker of small arms, and by the Windsor, Vermont, rifle makers Robbins and Lawrence. Colt displayed examples of his patented pistols, along with the claim that they were made by machinery. Their success paved the way to the more highly publicized triumphs of the private manufacturers, like Colt and Robbins & Lawrence, whose Crystal Palace displays drew such attention” (Friedel, 322). The new small arms completely changed the way people saw weaponry. Instead of a knight who would need to train his whole life to fight in battle, machines could know make a relatively inexpensive gun that soldiers could operate with little to no experience. It becomes evident from this example that new ideas were being shared and spread across the country. It was this spread that led to the start of the military manufacturing that would change the way nations waged war. People such as Colt were changing the way people saw patents explore new markets.

Success came from reliable protections of intellectual property that pushed our society into new heights. The poster child of the industrial revolution was the textile industry. It is argued that no one had a bigger impact on this industry than Eli Whitney. Friedel writes, “The most famous of these was a Connecticut mechanic and promoter. In the 1800’s, while living in South Carolina, Whitney had patented a machine to speed up the cleaning of seeds out of the short staple cotton that grew in the upland South. Considerable question has been raised about the originality of Whitney’s ‘cotton gin’, but it did serve to gain him a reputation as an inventor”. The cotton gin was the first to remove the pesky seeps from cotton that required workers by hand to do what Whitney’s machine did in seconds. Whitneys patent was validated in 1807 and by the time of the civil war in 1861 there were over 3,000 textile mills in the US. By the middle of the 1850’s cotton was America’s leading export. With these new ideas came a great sense of accomplishment. Inventors became the new buzz, loved by investors contemplating the idea of new markets and hated by workers fearing they would be replaced. Ideas such as the cotton gin started a domino effect of production of new ideas. Stven Johnson highlights this effect when he writes, “Calculus, the electrical battery, the telephone, the steam engine, the radio – all these groundbreaking innovations were hit upon by multiple inventors working in parallel with no knowledge of one another” (Johnson). One great idea leads to the next and there on. It is all these ideas that compliment each other that make our ability to improve truly special.

None of the ideas that got us here today would be possible without the patent. Patents are valuable because they allow people to commercialize an idea for a certain amount of time without having to worry about infringement. One of the biggest fights over this infringement was highlighted in ‘The Last Days of Night’, when Moore wrote, “Even the attorneys litigating this billion dollar patent called it Edison vs Westinghouse. The issue before them… patent granted to Thomas Edison which described an incandescent electric lamp. It was without question the most valuable patent ever granted and Westinghouse was accused of infringing on it” (Moore, 56). Edison’s lightbulb was unlike anything before. His invention was the safest, brightest, and most advanced on the market. Edison was later able to have full control over his product thanks to the reliability of that patent. Although Edison was able to have total control over his invention, not all stories had a happy ending. Perhaps no story is more tragic or discerning as that of Nikola Tesla. Over his lifetime he filed for over 300 patents yet most of his technologies were known as a failure, until the present day. In modern day the idea of the alternating currents is still implemented in modern day electrical engineering. During a lecture he spoke, “Alternating currents offer advantages over today’s current which is popular in today’s day and age. I am confident that I will at once establish a superior adaptability of these currents to both the transmission of power and to the ways of motors” (Moore,103). It was this confidence that later turned into disappointment when the scientific community preferred and implemented Edison’s current over his own, leading him to make new endeavours that practically all ended in failures. This later led to him digging ditches for 2 dollars a day in the late 1800’s. Today he is renowned as a genius but yet when he passed he was reported as a ‘hollow shell’ of his former self with no investors willing to take a chance. Tesla was living proof that an inventor with a patent doesn’t always mean they will be successful.

Introduction on facism

When we talk of facism, it involves dictatorship where everything is centralised on the ruler. It is an old form of practice and is very deadly and tempting to go for and if not handled with care it will be clinged on you because the power is so sweet and can’t be resisted.

Facism as a whole

Facism is a type of government that is based on one party dictatorship and is totally built on one party state. Facism does not care of the people like that, it puts the nation and race as its first pirority and headed by a dictator. Facist have three concepts which they follow: facist of style through making violence the answer in a positive way as they say to everything and masculinity, strong leadership, facist goals which leads to having a great plan in heading the country, trying to create a good empire, facist negation such as anti materialism, anti conservationism and communism. Facism is marked by obsession and this obsession is targeted at getting everything. Fear is then instincted on the people because they don’t want to fall prey or going against the leaders. Many leaders still have this mindset in stating that the world should be a better place saying that their way of ruling is bringing out the real world either by rebirth or fear.

The Germans practiced this system of government strongly and making racism a key factor towards achieving it. They used the world war as a tool to open up the real truth thereby causing harm to the other part of the world. The nacist Germany was headed by the ruthless Adolf Hitler who never for once did what was not on his mind. The Italians were also part of it and saw this as a rebirth too. Facism brings fear and Is a bad system of government.

Facism (advantages and disadvantages)

Advantages:

Enhanced security: it brings about enhanced security, protecting the rights of the state to the lives of the people. Military rules and spending which some of us love thereby loving facism.

Patriotism: Stay United, Fascism, brings strong aim on the state, you all will have a pure mindset and saying, unleash his, her, or their fears

Limited media: Without information, it’s hard to fight, facism helps in making news spread around, there by trying to create history and not falling from opening up. Than to sit around and watch series, the media is limited and is linked to everyone.

Economic growth. The growth of the economy matters, As the government finds it desk to help the country grow economically, this fscism production helps as the economy is one of the promises installed at hand. If racism Is added then those who don’t belong will be deported and then the country will have fewer mouths to feed.

Disadvantages:

1. The resistance are always suppressed with violence,murder and other physical stuffs.
2. It is a short lived system of government that did not stand the test of time like other systems like, capitalism,socialism etc.
3. The facist disrespected human life by going to war which they love so much and it affected their people other people and never cared about them.
4. They did not care of the rights of the citizens and walked on them as they led.

Totalitarianism has to with two goals which preserved to be control over pubic and private life. It lacks democracy and it brings about things that is not right. Even with the name you can see is stands for be in total control of the state getting into the businesses of every citizen. Its concept is rare because it is not contested and it gives out love to the social aspect of the people, the school, economy, entertainment etc. It waves the decision of dictatorship.

Totalitarianism is a type of government that waves parties and bans claims regarding the individuals coming to take the state property and has a high degree on private and public life. This system of government is just same with the facism system and both rulers practiced this. Totalitarianism regimes are quite different from the other. Different measures are been put in place to make this practice great. Every year this system of government brings out or rounds off something which is only concerned with political power and as long as that is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty ,Authoritarianism ‘does not consider the world and human nature , a totalitarian system attemotst to make and in all aspects of the social life as said. Totalitarianism is a one man control office like fscism but with different views and control effects.

The Germans (Nacist) and Italians and other countries practiced this system also, making or trying to get the country to be off good standard. This particular system promotes good ideology and this will help the country to be off good standard and posses core values and rules.

Totalitarianism (Advantages and disadvantages)

Advantages:

1. No resistance to the opposition is created
2. The state has total control over people’s lives than any other thing and can create checkups or schedule if they want to
3. Just like this coronavirus epidemic is going round the world, if this system of government was still practiced in some countries then it will be so great as infected person’s will be isolated even without their consent and the whole state can too be in isolation/quarantined.
4. It forced group solidarity, implementing extreme rapid change among the state and people.

Disadvantages:

1. There is no individual freedom, all rights are limited
2. The traditional and social system are abadoned
3. Single ruler makes the call or is in control
4. It looks like a dictatorship system of government

Totalitarianism which the state handles the individual rights and rule of law. The state owns the system and polishes it to it’s own way. It takes over all economic and civil life. Fscism a different system on its own and a type of totalitarianism and even when it tried to make us think is just for an economic cause or an economic system there are still differences between fscism and totalitarian systems. If we look at this night system of government, you will find out that both have something in common which is too overide the citzens, not giving them listening ears and taking over their rights which is a bad thing to do. The rights of the citizens are inevitable that can’t be taken awsy from them.

Fscism brings out the real fictional or written history to emphasize what they are created for and superiority. They consider a one party system based on the totalitarianism involved. Facism brings out more as aspects on some vital inssues in the state thereby disregarding any other thing and having one standard. Some countries still practice this system of government but the label they use is neo fscist, trying to avoid to call themselves facist. This neo facist is a just a pass of what they believed in the world war two, saying there ideologies are related to the war that happened. In a totalitarian state, the government’s uses extreme force in the control sector, making the people vulnerable to their wishes. The state manages all the sectors like the: arts, science, education, politics, economy, religion etc. Morality rules over the State and every one is stated on his or her own course. While the other faces one dictatorship and have limited freedom as a citizen. It can be also called an authoritarian system but facism stands out more.

These two systems have been on the edge daily and many topics have been discussed about them by the political analysts. Adolf Hitler uses fscism In his own way and it turned out to be a system of government that can lol it’s people. Having control over everything is bad and keeping the people in isolation is bad too. Thes two systems come in twine and is very critical and needs a cool head to decipher properly. Even when compared fscism is still at the far end political spectrum and so it is more systematic than the totalitarianism system of government. The totalitarianism system just waves on having unlimited power. This system is been rejected everyday because of the views attached to it. Having to control the private and public life but the facist only limit them. We are entitled to our private life but the totalitarians seems is bad and take charge of it there by making the citizens have low esteem as a human. Arguments have been painted about totalitarianism and facism which is common and also they have also been put in place with other systems trying to find the odd ones and bringing out the ones which can be practiced without any doubt or so but not fully.

In conclusion I can say that practicing both is bad because the people come first and they need to be satisfied and not to be taken for a ride. These two systems will continue to come in contact with each other and if possible it may be put in place but for now is stuck at the bottom.

The Pursuit of Anti-Aging

Immortality has been a recurring aspiration since the ancient Greeks. The Fountain of Youth is a myth about a fountain that can restore the youth of its drinker that has its roots in ancient Greece. The search for this mythical fountain inspired explorations across cultures. There are also scientific roots in the alchemical endeavor to create an Elixir of Life, a way to prolong life. During the 16th century, philosopher Francis Bacon advocated for “extracting nature’s secrets from her bosom through science and technology”. Bacon’s fixation on understanding nature in order to control or exploit it has echoes in today’s scientific research, particularly anti-aging. Firstly, this essay will discuss Francis Bacon and his relationship with anti-aging. Next, we will explore the French physiologist, Charles Brown-Sequard, and his hormone therapy research representing the reappearance of the anti-aging obsession. Finally, we will discuss how this attitude can be seen in modern times with stem-cell therapy research. Therefore, the obsession of age prevention espoused by Francis Bacon weaves its way through human history, carrying the implication that nature can be controlled.

Francis Bacon was a philosopher during the transition from the Renaissance to the early modern era. Bacon particularly focused on natural philosophy and scientific methodology. In his book Novum Organum, Bacon proposed a new method for the sciences to replace the old Aristotelian methodology. During his time, many of Bacon’s contemporaries believed that the ancients had understood all the secrets of the universe and it was just a matter of recovering what was lost. However, Bacon believed that there were new things to be known and sought to determine how such knowledge could be employed practically. Bacon believed that the “Fall from Eden” caused man to lose both his “innocency and dominion over creation” but that these losses could be recovered. “Innocency” could be regained through religion and faith; and “dominion over creation” could be regained through the arts and sciences. ‘Let the human race recover that right over nature which belongs to it by divine bequest,’ he asserted. It was through a new knowledge to be gained from sciences that the lost dominion could be reclaimed. One of Bacon’s main ambitions was in exploring anti-aging. As Bacon explains in De Sapienta Veterum (1609):

“natural philosophy proposes to itself, as its noblest work of all, nothing less than the restitution and renovation of things corruptible, and (what is indeed the same thing in a lower degree) the conservation of bodies in the state in which they are, and the retardation of dissolution and putrefaction.”

This effort was further explained by Bacon in Historia Vitae et Mortis, which provides the basis of future endeavours by physicians to “become the instruments and dispensers of God’s power and mercy in prolonging and renewing the life of man”. Bacon clearly had an obsession with unravelling nature’s ‘secrets’, particularly those to do with anti-aging as it is present in many of his publications. This attitude sets a precedent for later scientific research, particularly during the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. An obsession with understanding the ‘laws of nature’ was significant in the works of several philosophers, crossing borders and centuries. This differed from the medieval view that the regularities in nature were a matter of mere custom, not law. This view of natural laws was prevalent across early modern philosophy, which allowed for scientific discussions of anti-aging in 19th century physiology.

During the 17th century, French philosopher René Descartes first explored the distinction between the mind as an immaterial substance, and the body as a purely material substance. This formed the basis of Descartes’ mind-body dualism, which meant that the mind (or the soul) was connected to the body. The substances are ontologically independent of each other but are ultimately connected as the mind is consciously correlated with the physiological mechanism of the body. To Descartes, since the body is material it could perish; however, due to the mind’s ontological independence, the soul could survive without the body. Therefore, the soul can be considered immortal. Furthermore, Oswei Tenkin explained that “passions, instincts, thought and will could be studied as phenomena dependent upon our external and internal sensations, and therefore, upon biological organization.” While there are several stances one could take in opposition to Descartes’ mind-body dualism, the rise of materialism in the 19th century by German and French anatomists challenged Descartes’ conception of the immaterial mind, and ultimately the immortality of the soul. Scientific advancements postulated that “feeling” and “sensibility” was the central phenomenon for an explanation of the body’s nature, as well as the mind’s nature. Consequently, there is no distinct division between mind and body, and the mind is material. The result was a philosophical insecurity as to the status of the mind and its immortality.

This insecurity led to the work of French physiologist, Charles Brown-Séquard who, in the 19th century, endeavoured to study the therapeutic effects of endocrine gland and other organ extracts. As Descartes’ ideal of an immortal mind had been effectively extinguished, Brown-Séquard sought to establish the body’s immortality in its stead. Patrick Walsh explains Brown-Séquard’s view “that ‘life’ resided in the glandular liquid and the blood, and that an individual could experience this ‘life’ effect if it were located, harnessed and then therapeutically injected in their body”. This view gave rise to his infamous rejuvenation experiments, which he claimed rejuvenated his aging and failing body. Thus, the scientific obsession of anti-aging continues. Brown-Séquard’s work in re-establishing youthfulness demonstrated the continuing attitude of manipulating natural processes for humankind’s advancement. While his work assisted in establishing endocrinology as a discipline, it is evident that Brown-Séquard’s motivation was not just in understanding the way the body works but also reversing the natural processes of aging.

Brown’s-Séquard’s anti-aging aspirations and efforts have reappeared in modern times in two different ways: “(1) the commercial and clinical enterprises that offer anti-aging products, regimes, and treatments; and (2) research and development efforts of biogerontologists – scientists who study the biology of aging”. This essay will focus on biogerontological research, particularly in stem cells and their uses in anti-aging. In 1998, Dr Michael West managed to immortalise skin cells and since then, West has been developing novel therapeutics using pluripotent stem cells. Pluripotent stem cells are considered the body’s master cell as they are self-replicating and can potentially produce any cell or tissue the body needs for repairment. These scientists aim to increase the span of “healthy living” years of humans. West predicts that the lifespan for healthy children born today could extend farther than what humanity has seen before:

“It is at least 150 years of age … I have no doubt, zero doubt, that in the foreseeable future, we’ll hear of a person who has lived to about 150. We know now it’s possible.”

There is a negative connotation with aging that has reappeared throughout history. West is reminiscent of this battle against aging that has permeated since Francis Bacon: “Aging is a universal phenomenon,” states West “it’s mankind’s greatest enemy, but as a species we’ve adapted to the realities of finite lifespans and death.” This demonstrates the incessant need to control natural processes. Today, it seems like stem cell research has replaced rejuvenation as the key to unlocking eternal youth. But is this even a door we need to unlock? The implications of extending the lifespan for humans would further exacerbate the over-population and misdistribution of resources currently experienced throughout the world. Extracting nature’s secrets could have the same implications as opening Pandora’s box. The consequences of anti-aging could have the opposite effect of hastening our demise.

There has been a continuing obsession with controlling the natural aging process of the human body. Francis Bacon endeavoured to revolutionize scientific processes with the underlying theme of extracting nature’s secrets. His ambitions with anti-aging epitomized this attitude which can be seen throughout the history of anti-aging experiments. Charles Brown-Séquard’s rejuvenation experiments sought to reverse the processes of aging against the background of a materialist surge in physiology. His idea that ‘life’ resided in the glandular liquid and blood and could unlock eternal youth was replaced in the modern era by stem cell therapy research. Dr Michael West believes that people living well beyond the expected lifespan today could happen in the near future. However, the implications of humanity living longer needs to be properly assessed: the question is no longer ‘can we expand our lifespan’ but should we.

Bibliography

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