Category: Contemporary Art

Introduction

Background

A change in art, particularly, its form, the means of artistic expression, etc., is an inevitable characteristic of progress. It would be wrong to consider art isolated from the rest of the domains of people’s life, e.g., the social, the political, the economic, and the technological ones. Quite the opposite, art serves as the means of rendering the alteration and the challenges that people face in the identified realms, therefore, portraying the process of the evolution of the humankind (Leslie 2013).

As a result, the art of the 20^th century turns out to be drastically different from that of the 21^st century due to the huge changes that the world has undergone in the identified time slot. True, some of the elements, such as the postmodernist tendencies, crucial themes, etc., turn out to be recurrent in art and, therefore, appear in the artworks of the 21^st century as well, there seems to be a gigantic shift toward a new representation of reality.

However, contemporary art bears a distinct difference from that of the 20^th century, primarily because of the tools chosen by artists as the means of expressing themselves. The specified tendencies can be observed in a range of art domains, yet nowhere is it as graphic as in installation. Particularly, in contrast to the installation art of the previous century, the current one incorporates the primary principles of globalisation and multiculturalism by inviting more people to participate and hiring professional performers that could help an artist represent a particular idea in the required manner. Thus, the principles of collaboration and participation can be deemed as the elements that draw a line between the two eras of installation as an art form.

A closer look at some of the specimens of installation of the 20^th century will reveal that it relied primarily on the material as the means of getting a specific message across to as many members of the audience as possible. When considering the reasons for the contemporary installation art to be more intrinsically participative than that of the 20^th century, one will have to admit that the phenomenon owes its existence to the recent technological breakthrough. Indeed, studies show that the information technologies that created prerequisites for the global community to emerge and communicate in the world network have played an essential role in making art accessible to literally every single member of the audience. As a result, the promotion of cooperation not only between artists worldwide but also between creators and their audiences was not only predictable but also inevitable (Lee, Kim & Lee 2014).

Goals and Objectives

Comparing the artistic installations of the 20^th and the 21^st centuries, as well as analysing the political, social, and economic factors that affected the change in the ways of artistic expression in the identified time slot is the primary goal of the paper. The research is also aimed at comparing some of the main works of the prominent artists of the 20^th and the 21^st century. Particularly, the art pieces created by El Lissitzky, Marcel Duchamp and Kurt Schwitters will be analysed. Furthermore, the possible pathways for the development of tendencies in installation will be identified based on the outcomes of the comparison.

Research Question

In what way are the art installations of the 20^th century and the 21^st century different from those of the earlier period, and what are the essential forces behind the change?

Thesis Statement

Despite the fact that the general tendencies in the development of the installation art seem to have been preserved, a comparison of the works by the 20^th– and the 21^st -century artists such as El Lissitzky, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters reveals that the themes have changed toward more optimistic and vibrant ones, and the ideas of participation and community have been incorporated into modern art pieces.

Literature Review

Post-Modernism in Installation

In order to understand the nature of the changes that installation art experienced at the turn of the centuries, one will have to consider the societal and, especially, the political changes that the world was witnessing at the time. The eruption of the WWI and the WWII triggered drastic consequences, and the idea of fear for the future of not only choice people but also the entire humankind was the key idea that resonated with many artists at the time.

In fact, some of the artistic responses to the atrocities of the war led to the creation of an entirely new genre. Dadaism subverted the concept of humanity, asserting that any species which came up with the idea as horrendous as the WWI did not warrant the right to exist and was intrinsically ugly.

Post-Postmodernism and Other Movements in Art Installation in the 21^st Century

One might argue that, thematically, the death of Postmodernism and its further rebirth as the Post-postmodernist movement in the late 1990s and the early 2000s implied that the new artistic concept should have a range of inherent qualities borrowed from its predecessor. However, an altogether more optimistic attitude toward the interpretation of the global changes seems too different from the 20^th-century desperate cry in the wilderness to be of the same ilk.

Marcel Duchamp

The idea of deconstruction and the ultimate destruction of art as the exact example of Dada found itself in the artworks of Marcel Duchamp, who became globally famous due to his art piece known as Fountain (see Appendix A) (The University of Washington n.d.). One might argue that, on the surface, the idea of Dada was to appal the audience; however, the author was evidently trying to shock viewers into paying attention to some of the essential events that occurred at the time and consider their implications for the humanity.

A closer look at some of the specimens of Duchamp’s 20^th-century installation art, which he called readymades, as well as those of the 21^st century, will show that, unlike other artists, Duchamp did not see the possibility of change for the better in the humanity, nor did he accept the idea of the humankind having any redeemable elements whatsoever (Apkang 2013). One of his earlier works, Why not sneeze? (see Appendix E (Duchamp 1921)) can be viewed as a graphic representation of the notion of the harm done to the world, as well as its irreparability. The empty birdcage already is a very powerful metaphor for the devastation that could be witnessed in Europe and that was slowly crawling across the globe to seize the entire world.

In fact, unlike other artists of the era, such as Lissitzky and Schwitters, who would later on switch to a more positive interpretation of the global changes, Duchamp would retain his pessimistic concept of the modern world in his later works. Étant donnés (see Appendix F), which is often underrated, can be considered one of the greatest installations ever conceived by the artist. Putting the art piece at the centre of the installation into several perspectives, it points to the fact that the universe does not necessarily have to be looked at through the Large Glass; instead, the alternative viewpoints can be accepted. In this respect the artwork becomes nearly optimistic; however, being Duchamp’s most mysterious creation, it is still open to interpretations.

El Lissitzky

Compared to the chaos represented in the installation art of the 20^th century, Lissitzky’s artworks can be deemed as very confident and optimistic. Particularly, these art pieces, which also incorporated innovative approaches and techniques, were much more disintegrated in their essence than the art piece described above (see Appendix B) (Lissitzky 1920). One might claim, therefore, that there is a propensity in the installation art of the 21^st century to be geared toward a pessimistic representation of the world and its progress. In Lissitzky’s art, the political and social turmoil that seized the world at the time was coupled with the terror of the totalitarian regime.

Therefore, Lissitzky’s installations were supposed to emphasize the nature of the conflict within that was tearing the nation apart. The identified ideas can be traced in the spatial arrangement of the elements of the art pieces in the installation, as well as their colour scheme. Unlike Duchamp, who used the concept of an object as the means of shocking the viewers into paying attention, Lissitzky used the principles of spatial arrangement as the tool for getting his essential ideas across. For instance, the simplification of shapes in Proun 13 (see Appendix D), as well as the transfer of the items used in the installation from the 3-D environment into the 2-D one can be interpreted as the expression of the psychological and artistic boundaries experienced in the post-war environment of the Soviet Union (Almer 2015).

Therefore, the approach used by Lissitzky was significantly different from that of Duchamp primarily in the use of colour schemes. Where Duchamp’s works incorporated depressingly monotonous shades of grey, Lissitzky experimented with colours and their saturation to a considerable extent, thus, creating the ultimate representation of Dada. The disorganized elements painted mostly in red, white, and black served as the means of stressing the lack of perspectives for the further development of the humankind, the sharp angles stressing the gravity of the situation.

However, apart from Beat the Whites, the author also produced several installations that were more in line with the depressive, anguish-filled atmosphere of the 20^th– and the 21^st-century art; for instance, his Proun 99 (see Appendix C), which was supposed to be the Supremacist representation of the future architecture, served as a grim nod to the ostensible opportunities of the future. The shadows, the sketchiness, and the overall tone of the art piece echo with Duchamp’s works, therefore, painting the landscape of devastation that the 20^th-century post-war world represented; nevertheless, the light elements in some of the installations, such as the Proun 13 mentioned above, leave the hope for an improvement in the future.

Addressing the issue of a change for the better and the possibility of hope in the mess that the 20^th century represented, Lissitzky addressed a range of topics that Duchamp stressed in his works. However, apart from rendering the issue of the psychological and social trauma that the events of the 20^th century have had on people worldwide, the artist also outlined the possibility of a future development in his art pieces. For instance, the artist pointed to the possibility of transferring from one art form to another in his artworks, which implied the use of 3-D tools in order to construct 2-D installations.

In other words, the art pieces created by Lissitzky can be viewed as the endeavour to connect visual art and architecture into a cohesive whole. Although, at the first stages of artistic development, Lissitzky’s works represented destruction and turmoil by which the world was seized, the later installations hint at the possibility of a positive change and even at the opportunities for different art forms to merge into a single entity that could work as a constructive element. In other words, from the ideas of Dadaism, which implied the deconstruction of art and its ultimate destruction, Lissitzky’s work evolved to the philosophy of artistic unification, as some of his later works, including some of the “prouns,” show.

Kurt Schwitters

Nevertheless, a closer look at the examples mentioned above will point to the fact that Duchamp’s and Lissitzky’s goals seem to be more commercial than that of the works by the artist such as Lissitzky and Schwitters. Whereas Schwitters, for example, seemed completely honest in his dread of the horrors that the WWI unleashed on the humankind, thus, portraying its decay and ultimate demise, Duchamp seems to be exploiting the ideas of regression and corruption as opposed to being shocked by them. Specifically, Schwitters’ Merzbau (see Appendix C) can be viewed as a representation of chaos that engulfed the entire world due to the effects of the WWI. The fact that the entire civilization was in shambles is emphasized in a very subtle yet relatable manner by the author, with the delicate details such as the cobweb, the dim lights, etc.

Most of Schwitters’ art pieces, for example, were literally made of trash. Thus, the artist stressed the gravity of the regress that was enveloping the world, putting an end to the human civilization. True, some of the elements of the Merzbau installation mentioned above admittedly included other ideas and concepts (e.g., an open window as one of the elements of Merzbau was supposed to signify a religious version of the light at the end of the tunnel (Ox 2014)). However, the general impression that Merzbau was supposed to create was a gloomy and brooding idea of “the shock and horrors of mechanized warfare and hyperinflation” (Leslie 2013, p. 60) that consumed the world at the beginning and in the middle of the 20^th century.

It could be argued that the art pieces created by Schwitters, in general, and Merzbau, in particular, implied the renovation of the world as the means of shaking off the horrors and atrocities of war and stepping into the brave new world, with new hopes and opportunities. Indeed, the elements such as the window mentioned above and, supposedly symbolizing the gleam of light, can be viewed as the endeavour of the artist to introduce the element of cautious optimism into his art piece.

The hint at the possibility of restoration incorporated into the works by Schwitters at times becomes the polar opposite of what other artists working in the same ilk attempted at expressing. As stressed above, the very idea of the art of the 20^th century implied that anything created by the human race that was capable of committing a mass massacre that the WWI was did not have any intrinsic value on its own, hence the subversion of art as a concept seen in other works.

Compared to Duchamp, who was clearly trying to prove that the only possible way for people in the 20^th century to create art was to destroy it, as he showed in his artwork known as L.H.O.O.Q. (Middleman 2013), Schwitters was admittedly more progressive in his representation of reality. While Duchamp nearly supported the idea of the destruction of art by taking famous art pieces and adding the element of madness to them (see Appendix C), Schwitters pointed to the opportunities that the humanity might have in the future. Although also being gloomy and brooding, Schwitters’ art can be viewed as a bridge between the desperate and depressive artwork of the 20^th century and the optimistic art of the 21^st century inspired by the surge of the technological development.

Despite the obvious differences in the way in which Duchamp, Schwitters, and Lissitzky expressed their artistic vision of the world of the 20^th and the 21^st century, the themes that they addressed in their art pieces clearly have a lot in common. From the necessity to destroy and undermine the philosophical tenets of art as a concept to the search for new means of artistic expression, they managed to render the state of confusion and turmoil in which the entire humankind was in the 20^th and the 21^st centuries. As a result, the recurrent themes create the unique environment in which the identified art pieces can exist and create a universe of their own, a gloomy and dark one, yet also suggesting a speck of hope for the humanity.

Conclusion

The art of the 20^th and the 21^st century, particularly, the installations created by the pioneers of new genres such as El Lissitzky, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters, was clearly geared toward depicting the world of destruction and devastation as a result of the WWI and the WWI, yet some of the works incorporate a barely noticeable yet consistent element of cautious hop in them.

Although the art pieces created in the early 20^th century entrenched the concept of anguish, destruction, and pretence as the primary ideas of art creation, therefore, subverting the very concept of artistry, in their later works of some of the artists, particularly, Schwitters, pointed to the possibility of a restoration of the society and the humankind, in general.

Nevertheless, the change toward depression, misanthropy, and destruction at the global level can be deemed as the primary themes of the 20^th and the 21^st century art, especially, as far as installations are concerned. The identified ideas peaked during the Dadaist movement that viewed the destruction of art as a concept as the indispensable outcome and, therefore, the ultimate goal of the humankind. Even though the later works incorporated the elements of cautious optimism, they still viewed the world as a barren land that could not produce anything worthwhile.

Reference List

Almer, A 2015, ‘Scissors versus t-square: on El Lissitzky’s representations of space’, Online Journal of Art and Design, vol. 3, no, 3, pp. 19-31.

Apkang, CE 2013, ‘Found object, recycled art, readymade or junk art? Ambiguity in modern African art’, Arts and Design Studies, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 41-48.

Duchamp, M 1917, Fountain, image, Web.

Duchamp, M 1921, Why not sneeze? image, Web.

Duchamp, M 1966, Étant donnés, image, Web.

Lee, HY, Kim, JY & Lee , WH 2014, ‘Interactive digital art based on user’s physical effort with sensor technology’, International Journal of Software Engineering and Its Applications, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 211-16.

Leslie, E 2013, ‘Wheels, suitcases, angels: Kurt Schwitters and Walter Benjamin’, Affirmations: Of the Modern, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 44-70.

Lissitzky, E 1919, Proun 13, image, Web.

Lissitzky, E 1920, Beat the Whites with the red wedge, image, Web.

Middleman, R 2013, ‘Anita Steckel’s feminist montage merging politics, art, and life’, Woman’s Art Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 22-30.

Ox, J 2014, ‘Analogy and conceptual blending are part of a visualization toolkit for artists and scientists: introducing the cognitive space transfer’, IEEE VIS, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 95-101.

Appendices

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Appendix E

Appendix F

Harrison and Wood observe that “The history of art is that of a long series of attacks upon social and aesthetic values held to be moribund, although the avant-garde position is frequently nostalgic and absolute.” ^[1] This could not be truer in the case of the essays under consideration, essays in the style of manifestoes or blank verse.

The essays by Claes Oldenburg and by Ad Rheinhardt; I am for an Art^[2], and Art for Art^[3] express two responses to pre-existing art movements and ideas, responses which are themselves mutually opposing. These two artists of the Twentieth Century may never have been at odds personally, but their ideas of how to move art forward from the past could not seem more drastically different. It is no wonder that their impacts have been quite distinct from each other.

What they agree on, and very strongly, is that the old ways of doing, making, thinking about, learning to do, and making a living from, art, need to change radically. They both dislike the way that that the sale and use of art was manipulated by others, rather than by the artist.

They both discard Abstract Expressionism, which was in and of itself a rejection of the whole effort to achieve realism ^[4], at least in the way that painters and sculptors of the previous 400 years had striven for. However, it appears that Oldenburg and Rheinhardt rejected Abstract Expressionism for different reasons. Certainly, the directions that they pursued, after having tossed the prior millennia of human artistic effort unceremoniously into the ditch, are radically divergent.

Claes Oldenburg calls for art to be everywhere. He calls for everything and anything to be potentially art, and for art to be part of every facet of life, including blowing one’s nose^[5]. He was clearly influenced in much of this by the Dadaist movement which began in Europe, perhaps in Zurich, in 1916 ^[6].

The Dadaists, part of a generation which had seen the senseless death and destruction of World War I touching the entire world that they knew, rejected just about everything that was accepted, whether in art, or in politics, or social justice. They adopted a previously meaningless word ^[7] to be the aegis for a new definition of art, as well as its creation and use, preferably to uplift and elevate those who were oppressed and disenfranchised ^[8].

Rheinhardt is far more elitist than Oldenburg; at least that is the way it seems from his essay ^[9]. (Messrs. Harrison and Wood describe the alternative to Pop Art as seeming like “authoritarian dogma” ^[10] , but do not associate these terms specifically with Rheinhardt – a tempting description of his essay, however. )

Rheinhardt started out as an enthusiastic proponent of Abstract Expressionism, but became disillusioned with its “biomorphism, emotionalism, and cult of individuality” ^[11]. Presumably this refers to a residual suggestion or reference to realism that persisted even in the works of a Willhelm de Kooning or a Jackson Pollack.

He may also have objected to the idea that the artist was achieving some sort of emotional catharsis in the process of throwing, dripping or otherwise applying paint to a surface. Finally, it seems that he wanted the artist to recede into complete anonymity, at least in the painting itself. The sort of mythology that grew up around characters such as Picasso or Dali, or even the afore-mentioned Pollack, was apparently anathema to him.

These aversions eventually propelled his art away from any sort of recognizable human, animal, plant or landscape forms. All that was left to his art, by the end of his life, was color (or the absence thereof) and a “Greek cross” of barely hinted squares of varying saturation^[12].

Rheinhardt wanted art to be only for art’s sake. He wanted art to be hermetically sealed off from the rest of life, and commerce, and everything else, never used for anything except for itself ^[13]. Rheinhardt suggested that the only pure art was art that did not try to depict or suggest anything at all. To emphasize this, he writes that art should be “non-objective, non-representational, non-figurative, non-imagist, non-expressionist, non-subjective” ^[14]. This is a fairly water-tight list.

He took on the entire world that surrounded art, again, very negatively. He wanted art museums to be art museums only; mausoleums of “soundlessness, timelessness, airlessness, lifelessness” ^[15]. This is a goal which sounds depressing and oppressive to modern ears more attuned to the frenetic engagement of the viewer, especially very young viewers.

He also disapproved of the “art academy” for anything but the “correction of the artist”^[16], rather than the education of a knowledgeable public. This constraint, taken together with the museum-as-bell jar concept, sounds as though it would amount to shooting the whole enterprise of art in its paint-spattered, if inspired, foot. It sounds as though Rheinhardt is urging that art be created for no audience but the artist; a rather sterile notion, it would seem.

If, as Rheinhardt directs, museums do not engage, and art academies do not engage, from whence is the future cohort of practitioners and appreciators to come? Rheinhardt certainly does not address this. His relentless negativity leads the reader to question whether he would have cared.

Perhaps he felt that his was the last pre-apocalyptic generation, after which such trivial issues as the survival of art as a way of making a living (whether by patronage or by successful marketing, neither of which option sounds as though they would be attractive to Rheinhardt himself) would become irrelevant. He explicitly discards the notion of art as a “means of making a living”^[17], which leads one to wonder how he expected to make a living himself.

He does say that there is always more art to create; “the more an artist works, the more there is to do”^[18]. This suggests that he believed that the urge to create art was so powerful, in those who were touched by the muse, that the urge would be sufficient to compensate for the inevitable sacrifices attendant on painting for oneself alone. In sum, his is not a very practical manifesto.

Although Claes Oldenburg is deliberately symbolic and vague in his essay, there is enough which is concrete to allow the reader to follow his ideas backwards to the Dadaists, and forward into his and other artists’ work ^[19].

Oldenburg’s “happenings” in the 1960s, for example, the creation of a store that sold faux food objects over a period of days, are a more contemporary version of the spontaneous and often shocking free form audience-participation events staged by the Dadaists, such as those described by Conway ^[20].

His selection, and designation as fit subject matter for art, of aggressively mundane objects such as hamburgers, or pastries, also harkens back to the Dadaist movement. These pieces bring to mind, for example, the toilet, submitted by Marcel DuChamp, as a work of art to the Independent Artists Exhibition in New York, entitled Fountain, and under the pseudonym Richard Mutt^[21].

Another means of transmuting the ordinary into art is seen in the super-stimulus^[22] of Oldenburg’s giant soft sculptures, such as Floorburger^[23](subtitled “Giant Hamburger 1962”), and Floor Cake^[24]. These pieces are realistic in all but their gargantuan size. They call into question the whole definition of an art object. The viewer is left wondering whether these could just as easily be advertising props, or toys for a day care center.

In his political activism, Oldenburg was also drawing on Dada influences. The monumental sculpture which his fellow Yale alumni sponsored for the Yale campus, Lipstick Ascending on Caterpillar Tracks 1969^[25], with its treble apparent references to a military tank, as well as the commercial commoditization of female beauty, as well as a lingam-like symbol, was accepted as an anti-war statement.

Its installation apparently caused a suitably Dadaist civil disturbance^[26]. Later monumental projects such as Clothespin 1976 in downtown Philadelphia, created with public sponsorship, apparently were part of his urge to sidestep the retail art establishment ^[27]; what Harrison and Wood term “the art rackets” ^[28]. This latter motivation seems to be another commonality with the Dadaists, with their ready-made art and do-it-yourself entertainment.

A slightly different direction is represented by the papier mache piece entitled “Empire” (“Papa”) Ray Gun 1959. This childlike construction is outsized and awkward, only distantly suggesting the ray gun of the title.^[29] It reminds the viewer of comic book space operas, while the title may be an oblique critique of the cold war obsession with weapons and science in the service of geopolitical aims.

This piece also reflects Oldenburg’s contention in his essay that art “takes its form from the lines of life itself” ^[30]. The droopy “gun” shows a gloppy resemblance to objects normally seen only in abdominal surgery or autopsy.

Oldenburg’s impulse to boldly use objects and materials not usually thought of in connection with art is echoed in the works of Joseph Cornell. This New York artist collected the detritus of modern life and created assemblages that conveyed definite messages, albeit very idiosyncratic and personal ones ^[31].

His piece Central Park Carrousel: In Memoriam 1950, is one such evocation of a time, place, event, and feeling which uses found objects^[32]. It is intriguing to discover that there was indeed a carousel, previous to any in existence recently, in Central Park which was completely destroyed by fire in 1950 ^[33].

Further, although there is nothing readily accessible to prove this, it seems reasonable to infer that Cornell either used materials from the defunct and beloved merry-go-round ride, or wants the viewer to believe that they are looking at bits of detritus from the fire site itself.

We can stand and wonder endlessly about the smoked mirror, the wire fencing that might have surrounded the ruins, the bits and bobs (such as what appears to be a strap handle), which could have come from the complex workings of the carousel itself.

However, only the artist could confirm these suppositions. Most of these small objects are whitewashed or painted to create anonymity, and/or uniformity, or to perhaps to recall the white paint which is so universally resorted to in order to conceal deteriorated surfaces. The Cornell used this unifying technique of white paint (or perhaps Gesso), in other pieces, as well. The deft arrangement shows his experience creating layouts for Vogue Magazine ^[34].

This piece is a lovely valentine to a lost joy, a deeply individual set of mementoes (or facsimile thereof) of an irretrievable landscape. Not one of the elements is what we think of as art supplies, except perhaps the frame (and even these were often hand constructed by the artist or found and re-purposed^[35]) and the protective glass in some of these works.

Finally, this work, as well as all the constructions of Cornell, seems to disregard and abjure consumer society as much as is possible, and expresses an obliviousness that gently and subtly shames as it ignores.

Another aspect of Oldenburg’s ideas and work which rippled out into the work of other artists is the use of the blatantly commercial objects to do…what? What does Pastry Case1961-1962 do, exactly? ^[36]. Perhaps, in its loving realism, it is meant to evoke the still life paintings of the Dutch masters.

Perhaps it is meant to skewer the buying habits of consumer society.^[37] Perhaps it was meant to be a metaphor for the human body ^[38], in all its variety, vulnerability, and perishable nature (note the candy apple with a bite taken out of it – what commercial establishment would allow such an unhygienic bit of contamination among the otherwise pristine or properly cut pastries?).

In any case, this and other consumer items portrayed, in increasingly monumental size, by Oldenburg, force the viewer to consider, at a minimum, what is art, what is a hamburger, and what does the shape of the object remind us of, what is the role of the subject (e.g., hamburger, pastries, cake, wall plug, clothespin) in our lives, and what is the role in our world of the things that the object reminds us of?

This focus on banal, everyday objects, especially mass-produced objects and items, is reflected in the (dare one say it) iconic Pop Art work, Campbell Soup Cans 1962, by Andy Warhol ^[39]. An entire paper could be written on this strain in mid-Twentieth Century art, and the colorful artist himself.

However, to see the relationship of this work to Oldenburg’s essay^[40], it is only necessary to look at the phrases “everyday crap”^[41], “comic”^[42], “eaten, like a piece of pie”^[43], “flipped on and off like a switch”^[44], and more. Oldenburg further suggests that art can be “blinking biscuit signs”^[45] and “Kool-art”^[46], “7UP-art”^[47], “Pepsi-art”^[48], and “ready-to-eat”^[49].

All of these describe, and practically prescribe Warhol’s use of quotidian images, images which are familiar in our environment to the point that they have become unnoticeable. Oldenburg’s essay, however, does not prescribe Warhol’s innovative techniques for transforming these images through his use of paint or silk screening.

These are techniques which lend themselves to mass-production, a notion which is in concert with the egalitarian urges of the Dadaists. Art, in the new art world order, was meant to bring liberation to those whose economic, educational, and social status placed them well outside the usual market for fine art ^[50].

Warhol’s graphic art techniques also allow for the involvement of a whole staff of helpers. This seems reminiscent of the famed ateliers of Old Master artists such as Rembrandt, but at the same time, reminds one of industrial production arrangements.

Turning to the impact of the other essay, it was noted earlier that Ad Rheinhardt’s manifesto was not only unbendingly negative, but also seems un-conducive to brisk art sales. However, as a way of liberating artists generally from the absolute necessity to be figurative, it is only necessary to stroll through MOMA or any other institution featuring works of the 50s onwards, to see that his words have clearly had an impact.

Perhaps they were effective themselves (somewhat doubtful, given the highly specialized journal in which his essay was published), or else he articulated unambiguously some powerful ideas which were in the air in the 50s and 60s.

His own works are the most unambiguous ambassadors for his ideas; for example Number 107 1950^[51], a painted collage of shades of white. This vertically oriented canvas of varying shades and thicknesses of white can be appreciated as serene and un-intrusive. The pattern of painted rectangles clearly follows Rheinhardt’s’s own ascetic reductionist rules ^[52] for purity.

Although he would probably object strenuously to this suggestion, the white patches of paint do, however, suggest something from nature, if only in the way snow piles take on different tones from the accumulation of soot and the changing angle of winter light, and if only because the human eye, by evolutionary design, creates meaning even where none is intended.

They are also orderly and restful in the same way that well-applied wallpaper is, but with the added interest of heterogeneous texture. It is nonetheless clear that this is a work of art, and not simply a series of wall paint samples; firstly, because the artist has defined it and labeled it as such, and secondly, because the paint is applied in a painterly fashion, with deliberation and care.

There is a perhaps unconscious creation of differences in texture, to which the eye, again by evolutionary design, naturally gravitates, in search of difference in the midst of sameness.

If Rheinhardt’s ideas did not directly affect others, they certainly were in current circulation. His notion of the pure abstraction of paint laid on canvas, with no apparent attempt at subject, is echoed in the works of Mark Rothko. The negativism of Rheinhardt seems to have found a fertile and sympathetic ground in Mr. Rothko.

He apparently suffered from depression and eventually took his own life ^[53]. His paintings of the late 40’s and beyond have been described as “veils of color”^[54], which is an accurate description of the mix of heavy and delicate layers which he applies to the underlying color in one of his works, No.3/No.13 1949^[55].

In this piece, the colors are conflicting, considered in terms of the color wheel, and their very difference creates interest in this work. The red and green and black almost vibrate after one looks at the canvas for a while, simply because of their complementarity and the wavelengths they reflect.

Another example of his work, No.5/No.22 1950^[56]also combines colors which clash and vibrate next to one another. However, the painting wall label notes that Rothko warned his public against merely appreciating the spectral effects, contending that he was out to express grand themes ^[57]. In this he seems to be in conflict with Rheinhardt, who contends that art should not be a “reflection of conditions”^[58].

The interaction of the colors is subtle, but rewards close observation, and is clearly intentional. What grand themes this particular canvas communicates may be elusive, but conflict is clearly present, and where there is conflict, there is the possibility of emotion and narrative, no matter whether the artist intended it or not.

These two essays by significant figures in modern art may have reached a rather modest audience when they were first published, but clearly both had a major and lasting impact.

If only in setting down in words the feelings which artists around them were trying to express visually, they have captured an era, a mood, and a set of ambient ideas, which are still vividly in evidence today. Their words express what we take for granted in this decade. The two artists had very different attitudes towards their audience and the role of art in society, but both rejected all that went before.

Reductionism, spontaneity, and a final liberation from the need to portray the observable world, or to fit into any preconceived notion of what “art” should look like; all these ideas and others are still reverberating in the art we see being created today. Oldenburg and Rheinhardt have done us a service by documenting artistic and social urges in circulation in the lively period of the 50s and early 60s.

Bibliography

Anfam, David. “Abstract Expressionism.” Museum of Modern Art. Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press. 2009. Web.

Central Park Carousel. 2010. Web.

“Central Park Carrousel: In Memoriam 1950.” Museum of Modern Art. 2010. Web.

“Claes Oldenburg.” Independent Gallery. 2010. Web.

Claes Oldenburg: “Empire” (“Papa”) Ray Gun. 2010. Web.

“Consumer society.” The Coolidge Consumerism Archive. 2010. Web.

Conway, Aaron. “Theatre of the Absurd or Theatre de la merde : The influence of Alfred Jarry’s Ubu plays on Paris Dada.” Sappy Prof Art Historian. 2010. Web.

Cooper, Phillip. “Joseph Cornell.” Museum of Modern Art. Grove Art Online; Oxford University Press. 2009. Web.

Craft, Catherine. “New York Dada? Looking Back After a Second World War.” Museum of Modern Art. 2010. Web.

Darwent, Charles. “Well-chosen works show how De Stijl – ‘The Style’ – movement led to a revolution in European art that still resonates today: Van Doesburg & the International Avant-Garde, Tate Modern, London.” The Independent. 2010. Web.

“Floor Cake (1962): Claes Oldenburg.” Museum of Modern Art. 2010. Web.

Harden, Mark. “Joseph Cornell.” Art Archive. 2010. Web.

Harrison, C., and P. Wood. Art in Theory: 1900-1999: An Anthology of Changing Ideas. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

Haskell, Barbara. “Claes Oldenburg.” Museum of Modern Art. Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press. 2009. Web.

—. “Claes Oldenburg.” Museum of Modern Art. Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press. 2009. Web.

Lipstick Ascending on Caterpillar Tracks. 2010. Web.

Livingstone, Marco. “Pop Art.” Museum of Modern Art. 2009. Web.

“Mark Rothko.” Art and Culture. 2010. Web.

“Mark Rothko: No.5/No.22 1950.” Museum of Modern Art. 2010. Web.

Oldenburg, Claes. “I Am For An Art…” In Art in Theory:1900-1999: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, by C. and Wood, P. Harrison, 727-730. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

“Pastry Case: 1961-1962.” Museum of Modern Art. 2010. Web.

Rheinhardt, Ad. “Art as Art.” In Art in Theory, by C. and Wood, P. Harrison, 806-809. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

Rothko, Mark. No.3/No.13 1949. Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Sims, Patterson. “Ad Rheinhardt.” Museum of Modern Art. Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press. 2009. Web.

Trachtman, Paul. “Dada: The Irreverent, Rowdy Revolution Set the Trajectory of 20th Century Art.” Smithsonian Magazine. 2006. Web.

Tzara, Tristan. Dada Does Not Mean Anything, reprinted in Tristan Tzara: Biography, DADAism, and Poetry. 2010. Web.

Footnotes

1. Charles Harrison and Paul J. Wood, Art in Theory: 1900-1999: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, (Oxford, Blackwell, 1992), 727. Harrison and Wood contend that Pop Art was more positive, and suggest that Futurism and Pop Art together made “Mama” (Harrison and Wood 1992), a fertile progenitor, in other words, for further art evolution.
2. Claes Oldenburg, “I am for an Art,” in Art in Theory: 1900-1999: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, edited by Charles Harrison and Paul J. Wood (Oxford, Blackwell, 1992), 727-730. This essay was a part of the exhibition catalogue for the show “Environments” (Oldenburg 1992, 727-730).
3. Ad Rheinhardt, “Art for Art,” in Art in Theory: 1900-1999: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, edited by Charles Harrison and Paul J. Wood (Oxford, Blackwell, 1992), 806-809. This article was originally published in a magazine called Art International, published in Lugano, Switzerland, in December, 1962 (Rheinhardt 1992, 806-809).
4. David Anfam, “Abstract Expressionism,” Museum of Modern Art. Abstract Expressionism was the movement of such artists as Jackson Pollack and Willhelm De Kooning. (Anfam 2009)
5. (Oldenburg 1992, 728) As an alternative, Oldenburg suggests an art you can pick your nose with.
6. Barbara Haskell, “Claes Oldenburg,” Museum of Modern Art.
7. Tristan Tzara, “Dada Does Not Mean Anything,” reproduced in Tristan Tzara: Biography, DADAism, and Poetry. This essay is difficult to read but gives a clear sense of the chaotic feel of Dadaism (Tzara 2010).
8. Catherine Craft, “New York Dada? Looking Back After a Second World War,” lecture given September 9, 2006 as part of the MOMA exhibit “Representing DADA”, Museum of Modern Art. This is a very useful resource for connecting the European Dadaists to the American versions thereof (Craft 2010).
9. (Rheinhardt 1992, passim).
10. (Harrison and Wood 1992, 806).
11. Patterson Sims, “Ad Rheinhardt,” Museum of Modern Art. MOMA’s webpage biographical sketch of Rheinhardt does not specify further. (Sims 2009).
12. Sims, in the MOMA webpage, is perhaps referring mainly to the all-black paintings of his later years (Sims 2009).
13. (Rheinhardt 1992, 806).
14. Ibid, 807.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid. 807.
18. Ibid. 808.
19. (Oldenburg 1992, passim).
20. Aaron Conway, “Theatre of the Absurd or Theatre de la merde : The influence of Alfred Jarry’s Ubu plays on Paris Dada,” Snappy Prof . These Dada soiree events, sponsored and staged by Dadaists such as Tristan Tzara and Andre Breton, included poetry (usually deliberately obscure or sexually inappropriate), presentation of spurious honors, and occasionally, riots and police action (Conway 2010).
21. Paul Trachtman, “Dada: The Irreverent, Rowdy Revolution Set the Trajectory of 20th Century Art,” Smithsonian Magazine.com. Trachtman colorfully chronicles the antics of the Dadaists (Trachtman 2006).
22. This is a term from animal behavior referring to the phenomenon which occurs, for example, when researchers offer baby chicks an outsized artificial craw, or open mouth, as an alternative to a normally sized facsimile of a mother bird’s open mouth. Most animals preferentially seem to respond to the super-sized or colored artifact even more than to the real thing. Humans seem to as well, for example, in preferring artificially enhanced flavors in foods.
23. Barbara Haskell, “Claes Oldenburg” Museum of Modern Art. Haskell records that Oldenburg sometimes executed “hard’, “soft” and “ghost” versions of the same subject, which Haskell suggests emphasized the formal qualities of the object (Haskell, Claes Oldenburg 2009).
24. “Floor Cake (1962), “ Museum of Modern Art, 2010. The descriptions of this and other soft sculptures show that the stuffing of these soft giant pieces is made up of cardboard boxes and other detritus, which may be a subtle critique on a consumption-mad, throwaway society (Floor Cake (1962): Claes Oldenburg 2010).
25. “Lipstick Ascending on Caterpiillar Tracks,” Yale.edu. (Lipstick Ascending on Caterpillar Tracks 2010).
26. (Lipstick Ascending on Caterpillar Tracks 2010) The Yale website indicates that this sculpture was seen as intruding into the space allocated for formal speechifying .
27. “Claes Oldenburg,” Independent Gallery.
28. (Harrison and Wood 1992, 806).
29. “Claes Oldenburg: “Empire” (“Papa”) Ray Gun,” Museum of Modern Art. According to the gallery display label reproduced in the webpage, this was one of the props used in an Oldenburg “happening“, which took place in a church basement. He issued Ray Gun currency which could be used to acquire the other papier mache and burlap art objects on display there. This neatly combined spontaneity, egalitarianism, and the use of non-art materials all in one place and time (Claes Oldenburg: “Empire” (“Papa”) Ray Gun 2010).
30. (Oldenburg 1992, 728).
31. Mark Harden, “Joseph Cornell,” Art Archive. Mark Harden has created a fine webpage on Joseph Cornell, with a brief biography and partial listing of his works (Harden 2010)
32. “Central Park Carrousel: In Memoriam 1950,” Museum of Modern Art. The webpage mentions wire, wood, and mirror among the media in the piece (Central Park Carrousel: In Memoriam 1950 2010).
33. (Central Park Carousel 2010) It was replaced by a carousel from Coney Island which was moved in some time later.
34. Phillip Cooper, “Joseph Cornell,” Museum Of Modern Art. Cornell had a varied working life, when he was able to get work, according to the MOMA webpage (Cooper 2009).
35. Ibid.
36. “Pastry Case: 1961-1962,” Museum of Modern Art, 2010. The sculpture is just about life size (Pastry Case: 1961-1962 2010).
37. “Consumer Society,” The Coolidge Consumerism Archive, 2010. Consumers were a well-defined economic and social entity for the first time in the 1920s. The Depression, World War II, post-war shortages and disruptions to consumer goods production had suppressed consumption substantially. Now, in the 1960s, with servicemen at home, married, raising the baby boomers, working in peacetime industries (or Cold War ones) and buying homes, consumers were being cajoled, berated, shamed, praised, and pushed hard by 1960s advertising in an effort to catch up and rebuild the US economy. (Consumer society 2010).
38. “Claes Oldenburg,” Independent Gallery, 2010. The Independent Gallery webpage asserts that the saggy food items Oldenburg portrayed are all human body analogues. (Claes Oldenburg 2010).
39. Marco Livingstone, “Pop Art”. The MOMA webpage offers useful definition of the Pop Art movement, as follows: “Lawrence Alloway (1926–1990), the critic who first used the term in print in 1958, conceived of Pop art as the lower end of a popular-art to fine-art continuum, encompassing such forms as advertising, science-fiction illustration and automobile styling. Hamilton defined Pop in 1957 as: ‘Popular (designed for a mass audience); Transient (short term solution); Expendable (easily forgotten); Low Cost; Mass Produced; Young (aimed at Youth); Witty; Sexy; Gimmicky; Glamorous; and Big Business’. Hamilton set out, in paintings such as £he (1958–61; London, Tate), to explore the hidden connotations of imagery taken directly from advertising and popular culture, making reference in the same work to pin-ups and domestic appliances as a means of commenting on the covert eroticism of much advertising presentation” (Livingstone 2009).
40. (Mr. Rheinhardt, it is fair to speculate, would have probably run in horror from any allegation of mentorship to the super-cult-of-personality that defined Warhol.)
41. (Oldenburg 1992, 728).
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. (Oldenburg 1992, 729).
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. (Oldenburg 1992, 730).
50. “Well-chosen works show how De Stijl – ‘The Style’ – movement led to a revolution in European art that still resonates today: Van Doesburg & the International Avant-Garde, Tate Modern, London,” The Independent.co.uk (Darwent 2010).
51. No web page is available from the Museum of Modern Art for this work.
52. He calls for “”one size canvas, the single scheme, one formal device, one color-monochrome, one linear division in each direction, one symmetry, one texture, one free-hand brushing, one rhythm, one working everything into one dissolution, and one indivisibility…” (Rheinhardt 1992, 808).
53. “Mark Rothko,” Art and Culture.
54. (Mark Rothko 2010) According to this Art and Culture webpage, Rothko was described by contemporaries as a “brilliant colorist”, but he retreated into a dimly lit studio to work, as time went on, and his use of colors darkened.
55. Ibid.
56. This piece is housed at MOMA (Rothko 1949).
57. “Mark Rothko: No.5/No.22 1950,” Museum of Modern Art. The gallery display label offers this tantalizing glimpse of the man and the artist in the following quote, “If you are only moved by color relationships, then you miss the point. I’m interested in expressing the big emotions—tragedy, ecstasy, doom.” Apparently he was not reading the Rheinhardt play-book! (Mark Rothko: No.5/No.22 1950 2010).
58. (Rheinhardt 1992, 808).

Printmaking is one of the core foundations of both conventional and contemporary art. It is an artistic printing technique that fosters the creation of images on paper or fabric. As a theme, printmaking comprises various dimensions ranging from classifications to applications to printmaking patrons. It is through inventions such as printmaking that art has significantly evolved into diverse contemporary forms and styles. The following is an evaluation of the dimensions of printmaking.

Categories of Printmaking

Printmaking as a conventional style of art falls into four categories which constitute relief, stencil, intaglio, and planographic printmaking. In relief printmaking, the predominant design that is to be transferred onto the printing surface is carved out of a solid material (Printmaking). Stencil printmaking entails rubbing or spraying paint around the areas of the design that was cut on a thin material then pressed on a surface (Printmaking). In intaglio, the design is carved to hold the ink and then printed that way onto the material or paper (Printmaking). In planographic printmaking, a print is created from a level surface as opposed to incised and raised surfaces. These types of printmaking have differences relative to the nature of the surface, which creates or forms the print that is to be transferred onto a fabric or paper.

Contemporary Applications of Printmaking

Firstly, printmaking was used as a medium of communication through which artists could cover their messages to society. In addition, the Japanese used printmaking to make copies of the Buddhist manuscripts in the 8th century. A lithograph is an example of a traditional printmaker that was mainly used in photographic printmaking. An example is the Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec – Jane Avril at the Jardin de Paris, 1893. The tool is considered to be conventional because it used a lithographic limestone on which an image was drawn using oil, fat, or wax.

Artists began to experiment with a modern approach to making prints from the 1970s. Wassily Kandinsky is one of the artists who started using modern ways of making prints. He used the abstract technique to create his first watercolor abstract, titled Study for Composition VII, Première abstraction. The masterpiece has no subsequent editions, it was the artist’s first created while studying Goethe’s Theory of Colors.

In conclusion, printmaking was grossly used in traditional societies to create prints that were used in various ways. Not only was printmaking used as a medium of communication but also as a tool for the celebration of religion and culture. In addition, it significantly impacted the modern ways of making prints in the sense that it acted as a medium of transition between contemporary and conventional art.

Contemporary Art

Contemporary art has quite refined from the conventional days to being used as a mirror of the modern social issues. The techniques and styles of contemporary art have been affected by cultural diversity and technology to form a set that is quite different from the conventional art forms. In general, contemporary art is different from conventional art in the sense that modern art lacks the aspect of uniformity and ease of understanding.

Techniques and Styles of Art in the Modern Era

The modern schemes of art that contemporary artists experiment, include abstract art, minimalistic art, sculpture art, pop art, and still life art. In abstract art, patterns, textures, and composition are created to depict simplicity, spirituality, and purity (Modern day movement). In addition, minimalistic art was used to create geometric shapes that depict unique realism (Modern day movement). Furthermore, sculpture art was used to carve, construct, model, and cast three-dimensional artworks (Modern day movement). In pop art, artists used commonplace commercial world items such as newspapers or road signs to convey a distinct message (Modern day movement). Lastly, still-life art was used to make art that focussed on the celebration of material pleasures and shortness of human life.

Contemporary Versus Conventional Techniques of Art

Primarily, the traditional techniques were meant to elicit a realism of life through narratives. Contemporary styles use technology, live elements, and performances to portray a certain message (Modern day movement). Furthermore, contemporary art explores diverse subject matters, unlike traditional techniques that focused on religion and culture (Modern day movement). Lastly, contemporary techniques are harder to interpret than conventional techniques because they lack uniformity of subject matters.

Impacts of Historical and Cultural Context on Art

Culture shapes a person’s views and perception on various subject matters. In conventional techniques, artists created a masterpiece to elicit the celebration of religion and culture. In contemporary art, artists used art techniques such as minimalism to elicit beauty and simplicity of life. History has and had an impact on contemporary and conventional art relative to what techniques were available to the artists for use.

Importance of Artists’ Self-expression

Self-expression is a vital element that enables an artist to be unique and stand out from other artists around the world doing. Self-expression also enables an artist to portray a distinct emotion (Modern day movement). An example is Ernst Ludwig Kirchner: Still Life with Jug and African Bowl. This is quite different from conventional art of which was specifically aimed to depict the celebration of culture and religion. An example is Leonardo da Vinci-The Last Supper.

In conclusion, dimensions of making prints, such as the categories and applications, and techniques, form the background for the modern techniques of making prints. In addition, cultural diversity, advancements in technology, and history have greatly impacted both contemporary and conventional art. As such, in the modern age of art, an artist needs to have self-expression to make unique art that can depict emotions and feelings.

Work Cited

Abdou, Kelly Richman. “What is Contemporary Art? An In-Depth Look at the Modern-Day Movement.” 2019. Web.

Writer, Stuff. “What Are the Different Types of Printmaking?” Reference. Web.

Both the artist’s and the audience’s political, religious, and social opinions are expressed via art. Since art is expensive, governments and churches are typically the only groups that can afford it. Political satire can oftentimes be risky territory for artists, particularly for those who reside under oppressive regimes. This paper focuses on exploring contemporary art as an example of social commentary using examples from Chapter 22.

Art frequently expresses the political, religious, or social beliefs of both the creator and the audience. Governments and religions are frequently the only groups that can afford art since it is expensive. Additionally, governments and churches utilize art as a means of expressing who they are, what they believe, and what they want other people to think because they want to have the most impact possible. Additionally, it’s common for artists to wish to express strongly held opinions through their work. This presentation could have thousands of slides and still not come close to providing a complete review of the political, religious, and social art that is currently available. Various are only a few instances of how art has been applied to these circumstances.

According to Chapter 22 of the textbook, after World War II, the Nuclear Arms Race began, which was unimaginable to the artists who turned to satire to express their dread and disdain for contemporary conflict. A prominent example of this is found in Stanley Kubrick’s film Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, which was inspired by the concept of “mutually assured destruction” (MAD) (Chapter 22 Art). Thus, artists after World War II used their talent to show a social commentary on the events.

As noted in Chapter 22, “the true artist can articulate a vision of what humanity can trust. In the midst of alienation, the artist can bring community, and in the midst of ugliness, beauty. The artist, in short, acts not only as a voice of protest but also as a voice of hope” (“Chapter 22 Overview”). For many years, the situation of politics and society has been the subject of artistic commentary. Artists have remarked both directly and subversively on everything from vanity and excess to corruption and greed through caricature, satire, symbolism, and allegory and have made fun of everyone from the faceless masses to the privileged elite. Political satire can occasionally be dangerous ground for artists, especially those who live under the rule of repressive regimes. This is because political satire is frequently widely disseminated through prints and other reproducible media and because such images have the power to strike a meaningful chord and leave a lasting impression.

Art can serve a societal purpose by questioning our perceptions of the world we live in and how we interact with it. Cultural and social identity, civil rights, sexual politics, racial and gender equality, and globalization are just a few of the societal themes that artists reflect, translate, and mediate (“Chapter 22 Overview”). Artists occasionally produce pieces that operate as windows, bringing insight and focus on complex issues, presenting distinctive interpretations, and asking challenging questions for the audience. These works are frequently motivated by personal convictions.

In summary, art is a vehicle for the expression of the political, religious, and social views of both the artist and the audience. Governments and churches are often the only organizations that can afford art because it is expensive. Political satire is frequently dangerous ground for artists, especially for those who live in totalitarian regimes. There are times when artists create works that act as windows, bringing clarity and emphasis to complex situations, offering unique perspectives, and posing difficult questions for the audience. Personal convictions are typically the driving force behind these works.

Work Cited

“Chapter 22 Art.” Web.

“Chapter 22 Overview.” Web.

Introduction

Modernism primarily describes the present world. During past centuries, different styles and forms of line took precedence. The premeditated departure from these forms of practices and adoption of new forms of expressions and innovation in human life and industry attribute to modernism.

From literature to the arts world, modernism is evident in that, there are new innovations in painting and supplies, changed perceptions and feelings, abnormal fantasies, and concepts. Modernism demands critical analysis by observers sequentially for them to learn new facts in areas of art, surroundings, and perceptions whilst making conclusions on observations. This paper will examine modernism in the field of art and painting.

Modernism in Art

Under modernism, presently, there exist new forms of architecture, organizational behavior, social trends, and art change. All this have resulted due to innovations caused by industrial revolution in terms of social, economic and political stipulations (Lewis pp.38-39).

Vast experiments done from mid nineteenth century to late twentieth century suggests that, modern approaches arise through abandoning of old techniques and embracing new innovative and personage techniques. Traditional historicism and romantic subjectivism are no longer in the modern society.

Artists and technicians of 19^th century used realism to give out views and suggestions. Later, impressionism took centre stage, hence replacing realism. Impressionism originates from France and it depicts the painting school of art. Artists based this on the argument that, there are no objects but rather, work done in the mind account for object observation. This is because; various pictures created in the conscious mind and in studios, elicited different feelings while sending information and creative thoughts (Witcombe Para. 1-3).

Picture paints were dominant in the 18th century. Some paintings depicted the ills in the society like dictatorial emperors and leaders. At the dawn of the twentieth century, genius artists like Wassily Kandinsky and Matisse, made a landmark in modernism by contributing to the construction of Blue Rider in Munich and realization of present time surrealism and cubism. This made it possible for people to view pictures and actions of artists’ works in cinemas thus, making art a unique and modern discipline.

In art and design, chart art obsolete became futile as photography taken through photo cameras illustrated modernism. Modernism is all about using sophisticated methods and techniques to replace the existing none, which will offer more and excellent observation to keen and critical observers.

In essence, modernism is a shift from views purported ideal to those deemed critical in understanding the present world. Paintings done in the past about the state of people and past society presently help to give direction to in the world of art (Greenberg Para. 12-14).

The present Europe and America have undergone a series of changes in their visual and performing art, which artists attribute to changes in political and social environments. For example, during 1930s, there was cultural diversification in music created as compared to the pre-existing periods; hence, some music genres such as Jazz music remained dominant among the youths in Europe and America. Communication and transport currently is mainly through road and air as compared to the past where people used rail and animals.

Artistic painting in modernism applies different colors ant tints to imply a specific group of people, struggle or various impressions. Most youths in developed countries have a culture of seeing themselves as more modernized than their counterparts in developing countries, a subject that raises many questions in the world of art. After the Second World War, modernism started taking a direction geared towards consumerism.

New technological advancements especially in electronic industry started to replace the past art. In this regard, traditional techniques and art features make up traditional art while consumerist art paintings imply modernism. In addition, sculpture constructions and paintings stopping at cubism sent a signal to the world on conventional actions, hence the currently existing extensive features of art.

For example, women artists in New York and London made artistic paintings to bring inherent officials and social ills into the limelight, which enlightened the society on social evils committed by individuals, organizations, and governments.

In addition, some artistic clay works common in Africa during past centuries assisted in building shelter places and other artistic materials. For example, artist Jackson Pollock, could used canvas materials using imagery and noon-imagery techniques to make long lasting materials like painting brushes, picture boards and floor materials (Gombrich pp.1-10)

In 1960s, expressionism took centre stage whereby, abstract painting, color field painting lyrical abstractions and arte povera became common, contrary to past painting techniques. Book materials like newspapers, encyclopedia, and novels appeared with pictures of certain writings to give emphasis leading to a period of minimalism. Nevertheless, current cottage and assembling industries use new art techniques to make paints and decorations on equipments for example, ceramics, electrical wire coatings, and installation equipments.

Conclusion

In conclusion, modern artists employ modern techniques, which outweigh past artistic painting and sculpture art techniques. These modern techniques, which give divergent views, have changed our art industries, hence emphasizing the concept of modernism.

In addition, constructive cultural hibernations give rise to modernism, a practice embraced by many. In coming years, modernism will cover social and political views rather than idealistic and critical mindsets-postmodernism. Just like traditional art where paintings and sculptures underwent canonization, so will modernism.

Works Cited

Gombrich, Ernst. The Renaissance Conception of Artistic Progress and its Consequences in Norm and Form. Studies in the Art of the Renaissance, 4 (1971): 1-10. Print.

Greenberg, Clement. Modernist painting. 1960. Web. <http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/modernism.html>

Lewis, Pericles. Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print.

Witcombe, Christopher. Art for art’s sake. Modernism. 1997. Web. <http://arthistoryresources.net/modernism/artsake.html>

Introduction

With the onset of print and digital sources of information, all knowledge has become available to people, which opened a vast field of topics to draw inspiration from for artists and designers from around the world. The traditions of advertising have also changed with time. The need for catchy images as a technique to maximize sales has always persisted. At the same time, the images created with the utmost imagination developed into a form of art (Meggs and Purvis 77). Conceptual image facilitated this transition becoming one of the most influential movements that left an imprint on both modern art and design.

History, Development, and Meaning of Conceptual Image

The history of the conceptual image as an approach to graphic design unraveled with the decline of the previously widely used technique – narrative illustration. The image that tells a story was one of the popular and effective ways to convey an idea. It often depends on the context that the person has to have to understand it. For example, the works of Henry Darger, who often depicted scenes with an abundance of people in the middle of an action, relied heavily on the understanding of a historical, social, or another context (Davis 2). The problem with the narrative illustration was that it was often centered on objects of the real world (Male 180).

With the advancements in photography, print, and paper quality in the 1950s, this problem became even more evident, which marked a certain decline of the narrative approach to design as a form of visual art and advertising. Photography made depictions of the world as realistic as possible, which developed a slight resentment towards such realism in certain circles of designers (Lester xii). That partly gave rise to the fascination with conceptual images that not only crossed the border of reality but also united the communicative power of words and pictures.

In a sense, conceptual images draw inspiration not directly from the real world but its perception, forms, and color. That is what designers and artists discovered in such an approach – a new way to catch people’s eyes and provoke them to feel, contemplate, and juxtapose. Putting concepts inside a picture that is seemingly non-telling and makes no sense at first glance becomes a new way of expression that kept the viewer attracted and entertained. The image telling a story that, once understood, partly strips the picture from its purpose and leaves only the aesthetical pleasure to gain from it. On the other hand, the conceptual approach offers a lot more space for imagination and creativity.

If a practical application is concerned, an image is a way of communication, and a designer often plays the role of the mediator between the public and the seller of a product the image is set to advertise (Lupton and Phillips 9). In a situation when a potential buyer is not familiar with the product, there is a need for something that can initiate a process of communication, something that can catch an eye to build interest in the contact. The conceptual image became one of the best design methods to establish such a connection. Initiation of a communication process in a world with a dense flow of information requires originality, which the conceptual approach abundantly provides if the designer is talented enough. Color, shape, tone, type, text – all of these instruments form the toolbox of a modern graphic designer.

The Influence of Conceptual Image on Modern Art

There is a seeming contradiction between art and design that lies in the intention. Art is generally created by the will of either heart or mind that is full of passion and deep thought. Design is roughly a way to present a product, which implies the facilitation of a process of trade. What unites them is communication. Both an artist and designer want to reach the target audience with their thoughts by means of visual images. The conceptual image is a new, deeper way of communication that brings a consumer to a new level of perception making them think and contemplate. A good designer educates the public, brings it closer to the world of pure art, and establishes the connection between the societies of consumers and artists.

In the modern world, there is a constant process of interpretation and reinterpretation of literature, history, science, and, of course, art. There seems to be no answer to what came first: the work of an artist or the work of a designer. In the end, many of the famous figures in graphic design studied and practiced art in schools, colleges, and universities. The emergence of good design works contributed to the erasing of the lines that divided art and design. Provided the visual piece of the advertisement campaign is successful and well known it can be considered a contribution to visual art. For example, the symbol “I love NY” designed by Milton Glaser has become an official logo of a city and launched a wave of similar projects that build identities of numerous cities. It became so influential around the world that it was given a place in the Museum of Modern Art in New York (Sooke para. 3). Thus, the transition from design to art and back is quite unstable and depends on the success and popularity of the work. In the modern world, perhaps, everything that has a concept lying at the base of it can be considered modern art.

The Influence of Conceptual Image on Modern Design

The onset of the conceptual image as a new trend in graphic design if not revolutionized then certainly changed the perception of commercial design significantly. One of the trends graphic designers marked was the use of text as an active element of an image (Meggs and Purvis 466). In the works of conceptual designers like Arnold Varga, words, phrases or letters orchestrated the whole composition, drawing attention and setting the mood. The text ceased to be merely a tool of language but acquired conceptual meaning through rethinking the form of letters, unusual placement, color or texture. Conceptual image, as it was stated above, in its own way built a smarter and more sensitive consumer nurturing their taste for creative advertising and developing a good sense of style.

In the same way, it has also influenced the graphic designers themselves raising the standards of quality and inspiring healthy competition in creativeness. The implicit meaning of the whole image started to play a larger role in graphic design as an advertising technique. Since the middle ages, many commercial posters used objects and words directly related to the subject of advertisement (Meggs and Purvis 151). The conceptual image brought more experiment and creativity. The emergence of a vast variety of music bands and private TV channels in the 60s, 70s, and 80s showed the true power of imagination that was set free with the help of the conceptual image.

Famous Contributors to the Movement

One of the most notable characters who pushed forward the popularity of conceptual images in graphic design was Arnold Varga. In the late 1950s achieved the award “Art Director of the Year.” The latter once more proves the strong ties between good graphic design and art. He believed that honesty and informativeness are the top priority as long as the visual attractiveness stays intact (“Arnold Varga”). He did not think of an advertisement as something that would necessarily make the customer buy the product but as a piece of art that possessed enough information about the item and was creative and attractive.

Another famous contributor to the movement was Seymour Chwast, one of the inventors of Push Pin Graphic. His broad scope of works that included child book illustration, folk art, and comic books made his creations communicate ideas in a non-sophisticated manner. Even the gravest and most serious subjects he managed to depict simply and effectively. His unique style incorporated Victorian-style letters, play with figures, and the complete flatness of the image. Due to his efforts, many people took a different look at common items that surrounded them.

Milton Glaser is also one of the greatest conceptual designers of his time. The world-famous logo of the New York City, School of Visual Arts, Brooklyn Brewery, Bob Dylan album cover, and other famous works were iconized and even now recognized as examples of exceptional design. Many of his works are stored in art museums around the US and the world. Glaser showed the world the implicit power of graphic design stating that the meaning can be put in many different forms and nothing stops one from experimenting.

Conclusion

All things considered, the contribution of the conceptual image movement to modern graphic design and art is immeasurable. Varga, Chwast, Glaser, and others showed that good advertisement and art are strongly connected, and the result of this connection creates a visual culture that shapes minds and develops a taste for beauty. Conceptual image invited people to think rather than to observe, look deeper to grasp the meaning of things.

Works Cited

“Arnold Varga.” History of Graphic Design, n.d. Web.

Davis, Ben.The Insider’s Outsider. 2008. Web.

Lester, Paul Martin. Visual Communication: Images with Messages. Cengage Learning, 2013.

Lupton, Ellen, and Jennifer Cole Phillips. Graphic Design: The New Basics: Revised and Expanded. Chronicle Books, 2015.

Male, Alan. Illustration: A Theoretical and Contextual Perspective. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017.

Meggs, Philip B., and Alston W. Purvis. Meggs’ History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, 2016.

Sooke, Alastair. “Milton Glaser: His Heart was in the Right Place.” Telegraph, 2011. Web.

Introduction

With the growth of technology, art has taken to a new angle where artists now use computers as their main tool in the various art disciplines. There are various examples of digital art which include locative media, networking, generative drawing, information visualisation, wearable art, digital photography, digital performance, 3D animations, electro acoustic composition, as well as multimedia among others.

The earliest digital images to be created made a debut in the 1950s courtesy of Ben Laposky who created images known as ‘oscillons’. The late 1950s saw a new breed of other artists who created artworks digitally and since then, the world of art has been revolutionary (Smith, 2008, pp. 1-3). This paper looks at the impact digital technologies have had on ideas about and uses of drawing in contemporary art.

The impact digital technologies have had on ideas about and uses of drawing in contemporary art

The impact of digital technology on traditional disciplines that include drawing has been huge and artists have had to transform their old ways of printmaking, painting and sculpture. The whole prospect has been very interesting and its amazing how artists now use computers to draw, paint and print out their pieces of art. This has demanded artists to be more creative in the formation of their ideas and they have also had to learn how to do what they love using computers (Davison, 2006, pp. 1-2).

However, this has not failed to present some limitations since some tools like the ‘Scanner chrome’ are expensive and this has left out some artists from this technological process.

There has also been a disparity between the work the artists do on the computer and the final job they print out. Many a time, the final job has come short of their expectations, factor that has been taken back to a computer’s settings. The major problem here has been the use of colour whereby artists have printed out drawings or paintings which fall short of the screen display.

This has been attributed to the differences in colour value between the monitor and the printer. This is therefore leaving artists with no choice but to settle for projection of their artworks on big screens since they tend to loose their value upon printing. Digital technologies have also impacted negatively on the values of illusion and expression in the sense that drawings have lost their authenticity. Anything made on the computer is open to being copied and this has made many artists loose their originality.

To produce one artwork, artists find themselves collaborating with hardware and software technicians and this makes the reproduced work a “team effort” kind of thing. This has amounted to numerous frustrations among the artist fraternity where many of them are disgruntled with the results.

On the contrary, digital art has been applauded in that it is fast and flexible in the sense that artists get to finish their jobs fast. They also have the choice of editing their drawings on the computer without the risk of damaging them and finally print them out once they are satisfied (Davison, 2006, pp. 1-8).

Traditional art may involve discarding numerous materials just because they got messed up when the artist tried to make changes to the initial drawing. Traditional drawing is also time consuming and tedious. When it comes to painting, digital technology has scored highly and many artists have found computers very useful. Computers come with software such as Adobe, Live Picture and Photoshop which enable artists to come up with paintings which are more real in the shortest time.

The good thing about this software is that they are easy to run and thus open doors for many artists. However, the manipulations of images these programs offer tend to take away many artists from their primary ideas and this may lead to distorted artworks. On the other hand, digital technology has evolutionalized traditional art in that artists are able to come up with hybrid pieces of art courtesy of the various software (pp. 1-8).

Comparisons between generative drawing and information visualisation

Generative drawing is a kind of art that involves the use of computer software, a machine or a set of rules to compose, generate and construct artworks which could give multiple results in a complete artwork. The term generative refers to the multiplication of units to create an artwork. This procedure is not limited to a particular technology as it may take various forms.

The completed artwork is not necessarily “high-tech” but must have the potential to operate autonomously. Good examples of this kind of art include contemporary artists such as Brian Eno and John Cage. For instance, Eno’s contribution to Koan’s SSEYO music system birthed the Generative Music 1. Other examples of generative art include works done by Sol LeWitt who did an artwork, Anne Wilson who did sculptures and Celestino Soddu who did architectures (Christiane, 2003, pp. 13-145).

Generative art has also been used widely in the making of electronic music by several contemporary artists. In addition, computer animations and graphics also define what generative art is since it is used in their making as well. Some perfect examples of these animations and graphics work include the works done by Perlin Noise, L-Systems, as well as the use of physical modelling. These animations have become very popular and they are used in many applications today.

They have been used in the creation of movies, cartoons and television commercials and their purpose is to pass on unchoreographed details since they can speak for themselves without much of these. Good examples for these works include video game machines and the Pixar films which are artistry animated to provide viewers with the best results. Generative art is also broad in that it has been adopted by video jockey (VJ) culture as well as demo scenes which appeal most to the young generations.

They are used in recording studios, nightclubs, funded labs and animation companies. Generative art has also been used widely in architecture and industrial design in the creation and selection of samples. In addition, the use of robots and math art also inclines towards generative art. Several artists have adopted this systematic art and some of them include Kenneth Noland and Jackson Pollock (Galanter, 2006, pp. 2-10).

Information visualisation is a kind of art whose aim is to amplify cognition. It thus exploits graphics with the aim of helping people interpret and understand the artworks more. This art has been favoured greatly by technology since now artists are able to access affordable and high performance graphics (ISR, 2001, pp. 2).

Information visualisation has been adopted by many professionals today to interpret data of different magnitude. For instance, this kind of art is used in providing context in weather reports as well as financial reports. Images that maybe used to pass on this kind of information include bar charts, pie charts and line graphs.

The artists ensure that they portray the dynamics and stabilities which add strength to the work in an effort to stimulate people to interpret the data as intended. Information visualisation is regarded as sublime in the sense that the artworks produced are absolutely great. The artworks are also regarded as uncanny in that their mystery provokes the minds of people leading them to formulate concepts and relate what they see with what is being talked about.

Information visualisation can also be referred to as conceptual art since it seeks to inform the masses through the generation of thought provoking artworks. They can therefore not be described as aesthetic but as works that are informative with the aim of educating people on various issues and can therefore be described as an “aesthetic of administration”.

Some of the contemporary information visualisation artists include Lisa Jevbratt who worked on the rhizome, Collection Daros art works from Switzerland, the works of Julie Mehretu, Marina Zurkow, Julian Bleecker and Scott Paterson among others (Sack, 2002, 1-22).

Generative art on the other hand is credited for giving its fans the ‘wow’ factor due to the intensity of creativity in them. The artworks appear clever though people get bored watching and analysing them some minutes into the excitement due to their limited information. This is a setback brought about by computer programmers who indulge in generative art without a background in fine arts. They therefore cannot meet the required standards that an artist should when laying out these artworks.

In addition, the programmer’s goal is to create a visually appalling piece of work and his dream dies right there thus denying the artwork of substance. Generative art is supposed to generate paintings that have both an aesthetic value and a degree of complexity that keeps people’s attention on them.

It is therefore right to say that when compared to information visualisation, generative art is more aesthetic than informative. Information visualisation is more information focused and the artworks used represent data which is of importance to the viewers whereas generative art is more bent on the creation of visually attractive algorithms which do not have to necessary carry an informative message (Christiane, 2003, pp. 13-145).

A strong feature that rules in generative art is that it does not apply to the use of complexity science as in information visualisation in the production of artworks. Complexity science is reductive and this is a strong opposite in generative art which is bent towards multiplication of units.

Another difference between generative art and information visualisation is that generative art is random whereas information visualisation can be described as chaotic. The reason why information visualisation arts are refered to as chaotic is because they deal with figures that are unpredictable. For instance, weather is unpredictable and so are the operations in the stock market.

An example of randomised generative art is the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart who did music. His composition was based on the blending of random dices which made his type of music interesting to listen to.

He managed to do so by ordering and disordering the mix to create an interesting piece which would have been otherwise plain. Other examples include Elsworth Kelly, William Burroughs and Carl Andre. Generative art is thus more self-opiniated as compared to information visualisation which is dictated upon by the figures in the market (Galanter, 2006, pp. 2-10).

Information visualisation on the other hand is not random and a set of rules must be followed in the creation of the artworks. The artwork must tell an informative story and that is the main reason why it cannot afford to be random. However, telling a great story that will capture the attention of the viewer requires breaking some of these rules.

Conclusion

Digital technologies have with no doubt had a major impact on the ideas and uses of drawing in contemporary art as evidenced by this paper. The birth of computers has evolutionalised the world of art and it has come with its benefits and limitations.

From this study, drawing in contemporary art has become faster and more creative courtesy of the many features that come with computer software such as Adobe and Photoshop among others. These software have enabled artists to become more creative and complete their artworks in the shortest time possible.

The limitations include lack of authenticity since data compiled on computers can be accessed by many people. This has led to reproduction of similar artworks and this discredits the original creator. Some of these software are too expensive and this discriminates on the junior artists who may be struggling to get to the top.

The comparisons between generative art and information visualisation have shed light on the differences and similarities between these two areas of digital practice. Information visualisation is more descriptive and thus richer in passing information to the viewers whereas generative art has more aesthetic than educative value.

References

Christiane, P., 2003. Digital Art. Thames and Hudson Limited, 8(3), pp. 15-145.

Davison, M., 2006. Impact of digital imaging on fine art teaching and practice. Staffordshire University, 6(1), pp. 1-8.

Galanter, P., 2006. What is generative art? Complexity theory as a context for art theory. Interactive Telecommunications Program, 4(2), pp. 2-10.

ISR., 2002. Information visualisation research. University of California, 2(1), pp. 2.

Sack, W., 2002. Aesthetics of information visualisation. UCSC Education Journal, 1(1), pp. 1-22.

Smith, D., 2008. Around and about digital new media art. World through digital art, 4(2), pp. 1-3.

Introduction

A lot of directions and currents of art culture occurred in the 20th century which for a long time will be perceived as the directions which have refused all art traditions. It is accepted to designate these new directions with terms “modernism”, “new art”, or “avant-garde”. This paper discusses four directions in art and their differences in terms of content and application. The directions that this paper considers are Fauvism, Cubism, Surrealism and Futurism.

Analysis

The new art of the 20th century is a variety of sections and directions. The creativity of separate representatives of the avant-garde does not fit at all in the frameworks of any art currents. Besides, many representatives of the avant-garde at various times created products which are related now to various avant-garde currents.

The first current of avant-garde is considered the fauvism. The most known representatives of a fauvism is André Derain, Maurice de Vlaminck, Albert Marquet, Georges Rouault, and the most famous of them – Henri Matisse.

The fauvism became the phenomenon which has designated basic and realized rupture with traditions of previous art – from Renaissance to the 19th century. The realism and aspiration to reflect the validity have been essentially rejected. As the basic distinctive features of a fauvism the following can be named:

• The use of bright colorful combinations, irrespectively of colors of real subjects;
• Sharp deformation of proportions and forms of real objects;
• Creation by the means of these artistic touches pictures which would not remind real objects, but create a special emotional spirit with their singularity, brightness, and beauty.

As an avant-garde current, fauvism was followed by cubism. The cubism denies the image of subjects in that manner as we represent them. It aspires to find a way of expression of their essence. The cubism reduces forms to the basic geometrical schemes, displays subjects on components and unites them in abstract whole of the flat decorative image. This geometry of separate elements of a picture was underlined in the word “cubism”.

The aspiration to transfer objects represented in pictures by means of combinations of various planes was the general feature cubist products. In the pictures of cubists as if the most schematic characteristic lines of objects were represented. Unlike the pictures of fauvists, products of cubists were not distinct by the decorative effect – the leading role was taken away by the combinations of forms and lines. The cubism was even a bigger challenge to the traditional relation to art, than the fauvism.

A special place in the art of the 20th century is occupied by futurism(as the word implies as well as from the Latin word futurum-“future”), a direction in the art which adherents aspired to create a new dynamical style destroying all traditions, canons and receptions of the old art. The futurism has arisen in Italy originally as a literary movement. A group of artists-futurists has acted in 1910 and declared as their purpose the destruction of the old culture and an embodiment in art the dynamics of an industrial epoch and the big cities born by it.

Trying to express the active relation of the artist to the world to transfer «internal dynamics» of the subject, a saturation of consciousness of the modern person an abundance of impressions restricting each other, futurists became on a way form creation: they decomposed the subject to line-forces, volumes-forces, set crossings and shifts of planes, flows of plans. The futurism existed up to the end of the thirties of the twentieth century.

The language of realistic art was taken on arms by a direction called “surrealism” (from fr. surre’alisme – super realism). This art direction has arisen in France after the First World War and leant on the doctrine about the nature of the subconscious. The basic stage of development of this direction could be considered the inter-military decades. Representatives of surrealism perceive the world as a complex of alogisms, paradoxes, and social madness. When this direction occurred it pretended for the role of world outlook political force.

The representation of this direction is mostly connected with creativity of Salvador Dali and René Magritte for which the evident-subject form of expression of the art concept of improbability, dark forces of the person and society in forms of an easel picture and graphic sheet are characteristic. Their products represent irrational combinations of especially subject fragments of the reality apprehended in a natural kind or the paradoxical image of the deformed.

Works Cited

Diehl, Gaston, et al. History of Modern Painting. Trans. Rosamund Frost. New York: Hyperion Press, 1951.

Matthews, J. H. The Imagery of Surrealism. 1st ed. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1977.

Leymarie, Jean. Fauvism: Biographical and Critical Study. Trans. James Emmons. New York: Skira, 1959.

There is no use denying the fact that art has always been an integral part of human society. It has always helped people to reflect their feelings and emotions or show issues that are topical at the given stage of the development of society. That is why, every age has certain artworks that could characterize it. The modern age could be characterized by the development of science and technologies which introduce a great number of possibilities to researchers and artists who want to embody the peculiarities of the epoch and show people their feelings connected with a certain process, discovery or nature phenomenon. It resulted in the appearance of a certain sphere of art closely connected with science and the newest technologies.

In Condensation Cube, a work of 1963-65, by Hans Haacke, the field of biology and ecology is touched. The artist presents “a hermetically sealed, clear acrylic plexiglass box, thirty centimeters on the side that holds about one centimeter or so of water” (Jarzombek 1). The condensation appears against the inner surface of the given box and changes its look. Thus, obviously being the bright example of the modern art, Condensation Cube helps to author to introduce several questions which are interesting to him and raise the question of the relations between art and science and the way in which one can help another to develop and be more understandable for people who wants to reconsider their vision of the nature and science.

Speaking about the given artwork, it is necessary to mention its author, Hans Haacke and his ideas about the development of art and its connection with other sciences. Being a famous German artist, he devotes a great number of his works to the theme of relations between art and science. The given sphere is very interesting for the artist as it helps him to demonstrate the nature of some inner processes and reconsider the vision of our world (Vincent para. 7). Creating his artworks, Haacke underlines their connection with various sciences, such as biology, ecology etc (Shapolsky et al para. 5). With this in mind, it is possible to say that science is used as the background for the development of the authors idea.

Thus, there are several ideas peculiar to Haacke and connected with the Condensation Cube. First of all, it is the question of life and identity. Being quite simple at the first gaze, the given cube however, has a very powerful symbolic meaning. Analyzing it in terms of biology, it is possible to come to the conclusion that the artist tries to show his impressions connected with some nature phenomena. Thus, in Condensation Cube Haacke “explored cycles of evaporation and condensation in response to temperature and barometric changes” (Wilson 132). Being one of the most important processes of our planet, it shows the way in which the life exists and renews every time.

Thus, the usage of the concept of life is peculiar to a great number of Haackes works. The fact is that the great scientific progress introduces many various visions of life and the way in which it evolutes. Thus, Cube helps to present another perspective on it. The processes of evaporation and condensation are very important for the existence of various life forms and, that is why, the cycle comprised of these two processes could be taken as the symbol of the whole life which exist on our planet and its cyclicism (Wilson 132). The given artwork also presents the vision of the life through the prism of scientific thought and development of various theories.

Analyzing the Condensation Cube, it is also possible to outline the fact that it could be taken as an ideal example of the collaboration of art and science. The author takes into account various scientific theories that describe the process of the creation of condensation. Thus, to create the needed conditions, the scientific approach should be used. That is why, the Cube is placed in the water. Thus, some laws of nature connected with condensation are also taken into account while creating the conditions need for evaporation and condensation. However, at the same time being an artwork, the given object helps the artist to show his feelings and emotions connected with our world and peculiarities of its existence. That is why it could be taken as the bright example of the cooperation of art and science.

One should also take into account the materials used for the creation of the given artwork. The Cube is made of plexiglass and is placed in the water. The choice of the materials is no accidental as they help to show the relations between nature and science. Water is one of the basic elements of our universe which promoted the appearance of life. However, plexiglass is the artificial material created due to the scientific progress and development of human thought. That is why, these materials create the opposition which again demonstrates the modern stage of relations between nature, science and art and helps people to realize the fact that they are interdependent and influence each other.

Creating the given artwork, the artist also takes into account the peculiarities of its exhibition. The fact is that the Condensation Cube would work only under special conditions needed for the beginning of certain processes. Besides, “in almost all art museums, the temperature is set at a cool 65 degrees Fahrenheit, which means that at a relative humidity of about 45 percent” (Jarzombek 1). Plexiglass is a bad thermal isolator, which means that the temperature is the same as it the atmosphere and the conditions for the evaporation and condensation are created. With this in mind, it is possible to say that the peculiarities of the exhibition have the great impact on the whole artwork and influences the viewers who look at it.

With this in mind, it is possible to say that the choice of the given materials is quite relevant. It has already been mentioned that it helps to outline some peculiarities of the relations between nature, science and art. However, it the choice has also been made in accordance with some important scientific processes that helped the Condensation Cube to work and produce the needed effect on people who want to see it. The relevance of the given choice is also proved by the fact that the cube looks modern which is one of the main peculiarities of all art of our epoch. The artist manages to create the best possible choice.

It should also be said that the given artwork is of great interest for people who want to enjoy the Haackes works and personally for me. The fact is that it demonstrates some very important processes in the way which is very understandable and clear. Looking at the Condensation Cube one realizes the power of nature, science and art and the way in which they could be combined. It is one of the most important aspects of the whole work. Even if a person does not have the idea how these issues could cooperate and interpenetrate, the given artwork could help him/her to see some process and reconsider the existing approach. Finally, it could also be taken as the clearest and the most understandable work of the given author as there is no need in a certain background if a person wants to understand it and get the idea of the authors vision of the world.

With this in mind, it is possible to make a certain conclusion. It should be said that the modern world could be characterized by the blistering development of various branches of science and technologies. Being the soul and spirit of any epoch, artists are not able to ignore these processes and they create new artworks that reflect relations between science and art, showing people the possibility of their collaboration and interchange. Haackes Condensation Cube is one of these works. It shows the way in which some very important natural process happen and how laws of nature and science could be united in a single artwork That is why, it is possible to say that Haacke manages to create the masterpiece which touches such questions as life and identity, art and science. Cube helps people to believe in the integration of these two issues, their common character and great perspectives awaiting them.

Works Cited

Jarzombek, Mark. Haacke’s condensation cube: the machine in the box and the travails of architecture. n.d. Web.

Shapolsky et al. Hans Haacke. Institutional Critique. n.d. Web.

Vincent, Alice. “Who is Hans Haacke, the new Fourth Plinth artist?”. Telegraph. 2015. Web.

Wilson, Stephen. Information Arts. London: MIT Press, 2002. Print.

Introduction

Orient object and its consumption has been suggested by Kim (2006) as an infiltration into the disciplinary procedures of ethnography used to delineate an aesthetic discourse of beauty used by professionals and merchants to represent the ahistorical, apolitical engagements with the east much exploited in mass media and scholarly texts in the west. This paper shall try to present the aesthetic as well as commercial interpretation of artist Yue Min Jun as an artist, in the eyes of a westerner but with the consideration of personal history and struggle to define and mold a person as an artist.

Yue Minjun born in 1962 in the town of Daqing, Heilongjiang Province in China is considered one of the successful contemporary or avant garde Chinese artists. He is currently based in Beijing known for oil painting showing his laughing face in various scenarios and time frame although this has been replicated in sculpture, watercolor and even mass produced prints.

It was said that Yue Min Jun worked in the oil fields of northeast China where his father also worked before he studied in the Oil Painting Department of Hebel Normal University in China in 1985. It has been said that he had to convince his employer to use some of his time to study from 1983 to 1989. His style was apparently inspired by Geng Jianyi in the 1989 China Avant Garde show in Beijing that depicted Geng’s laughing face. During this period, he has also been greatly disappointed with the Tiananmen Square tragedy so that in 1990, he moved in the outskirts of Beijing. According to Davis (2007), his style was developed with his artist friends supported by foreign art investors.

On laughter, Yue Min Jun said, “I have always found laughter irresistible-well, at least I don’t dislike it. I paint people laughing, whether it is a big laugh, a restrained laugh, a crazy-laugh, a near-death laugh or simply laughter about our society: laughter can be about anything. Laughter is a moment when our mind refuses to reason. When we are puzzled by certain things, our mind simply doesn’t want to struggle, or perhaps we don’t know how to think, therefore we just want to forget it.

The 90’s is the time when everyone should laugh. Artists are the kind of people who always like to reveal to the simple, innocent and humble souls the never-ending illusion of our lives,” (quoted from Yuen Min Jun, 2008).

Discussion

Many variations and techniques are implemented by Yue Min Jun in his art, but all these are depicted as background or setting to his formidable, permanent, signature and logo laughing face.

His most expensive work “Execution” showing irreverent and scantily clad Yue Min Jun with the hilariously sardonic smile laughter in varying angles about to be executed, a play on the Tiananmen Square tragedy thousands were allegedly killed in a pro-democracy rally in 1989. Previously, the painting was bought by investment banker Trevor Simon with a third of his salary. As part of the required conditions, he kept the painting for 10 years. When “Massacre of Chios” sold for about US $4.1 million in Sotheby Hong Kong, one week later, “Execution” was bought for US$5.9 million at London’s Sotheby’s.

Yue Min Jun’s more recent group exhibits include international shows such as “Dreaming of the Dragon’s Nation: Contemporary Art Exhibition from China, in Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin, Ireland, the “Guangju Biennale 2004: A Grain of Dust, A Drop of Water” in Korea, “Art on the Beach: Sculptures” at the Enrico Navarra Gallery, in Ramatuelle, France, “20 Years of Hanart TZ Gallery” at the Hong Kong Art Center, “China, the Body Everywhere?” at Maseille Museum of Contemporary Art in France. His solo exhibits are the following from the most recent to the earliest: “Yue Min Jun: Sculptures & Paintings” at the Schoeni Art Gallery, Hong Kong in 2004, “Yue Min Jun: Beijing Ironicals,” Prüss & Ochs Gallery, Berlin, Germany and “YueMinJun,” Meile Gallery, Switzerland in 2003, “Soaking In Silly Laughter; one of Art Singapore” Soobin Art Gallery,” Singapore, and “Yue Min Jun: Handling One”, World Art Center, China in 2002. He also had a solo “Red Ocean-Yue Min Jun, Chinese Contemporary”, London, England,” (Yue Min Jun, 2008)

Techniques

Yue Min Jun’s style is based on contemporary branding, an off-shoot of popular marketing strategies where a well-known logo, in this manner Yue Min Jun’s laughing face will fit into any background or setting. The face in eternal hilarious, sarcastic, cynical, and hilarious laughter, showing model-type countless teeth is, “Emblematic and easy to recognize, Yue’s self-portrait manages to reference the 7th-century Laughing Buddha, the happy Communist worker of the 20th century and postmodernist irony all at once,” (quoted from Davis, 2007).

Market Value of his art works

By 2007, Yue Min Jun’s art work has multiplied about 100 times in value in a span of two years so that 13 of his paintings sold at auction for more than $1 million making Yue Min Jun set records “That beats the records of painting legends like David Hockney, Brice Marden and Ed Ruscha, all artists who have already had major museum surveys devoted to their work,” according to Davis.

In a US exhibit at the Queens Museum of Art in Corona Park, 30 paintings and two sculpture groups were exhibited. It showed the same quality that saw his almost unbelievable rise although many of those works were dated 2000 or beyond. In fact, the exhibit installation itself was seen to have been done in a rush, showing a phenomenon that needs to be captured (Davis, 2007).

As previously noted, the relentless laughter is the central motif: the eyes are a line, shut, a face and if body is shown in an exaggerated gleaming pinkish complexion, with the open mouth and its row of identical white teeth disappearing in an eternity of open mouth. As depicted in his previous paintings, the head was disproportionately big, more pronounced with the big, open mouth, basically the same in all of his works, identical and consistent: same clothes or costume, figures that come to life in the same proportion of sculptures.

Sculpture and other works

In 1999, Yue Min Jun created the Contemporary Terracotta Warriors made of bronze replicating his painted self. This is a take-off from China’s Qin Dynasty army of terracotta warriors that kept watch of the dead royalty. These were cast in the same mold, and identical one set carried long sticks as shown in the 2005 Queen Museum of Art gallery, while another earlier set estimated in 2001 showed him in contemporary white shirt and black pants.

Another work “Noah’s Ark” showed him in six identical bodies cramped in a small rowboat squatting and holding on to their knees in silent laughter. Another three again in their underwear cackling as depicted in the Execution, were on a painting of the Galaxy bodies called “Solar System”.

Yue Min Jun rejected the label “cynical realism” but admitted to not minding however else people would call him. It was said his art was developed in the New Art Movement period in the mid ‘80s when the “China / Avant Garde” was staged in Beijing. It was in this year that Yue Min Jun got the first glimpse of his signature. One of his contemporaries in this period is Zhang Xiaogang who also uses the repetitive technique, or symbolical signature of undernourished, stiff family portraits. Both artists and their art works depict or send a consistent message not easily apparent although obvious in manners to those who are in the know.

The Chinese Art from Mao Tse-Tung’s time Onwards

Between 1880-1920, consumer culture developed intensifying Far East collectibles and art in America and Western nations (Jacobson, 1999). Catalogues and magazines touted Japanese, Chinese, Javanese and other Asian art and products such as screens, cabinets, rugs vases, and prints should be regarded as the sine qua non among the French settees or Dutch bedsteads in the American home (Kim, 2006)

Chinese art dominated the “eastern” and “oriental” image for centuries specifically when it comes to the western scholars and observers. It showed of dainty watercolor paintings of flowers, gardens and Chinese pagodas floating to a mist. In the period of Mao Tse-tung, it was said that after the war many artists relocated to the hinterland in west China. Here they lived substandard and dire lives as they taught art in schools but had to take in other jobs as they held on to their art (Yiu, 2008). In this period, artists played on Chinese and Western techniques as they developed both or their own unique style. These artists include Zhu Qizhan (1892-1996), Lu Shoukun (1919-1975), Yuan Songnian (1895-1966), Wu Guangzhong (b. 1919) and Fu Shuda (d. 1960). As Yiu (2008) described the style of Fu, “flying white” technique – which refers to the areas that remain white as a result of the brush running out of ink – to depict strands of beard, the tassel and the shininess of the sword,” (p 4).

Other styles have also been apparent, a successful blend of east and west such as that of Pang (1945) with the use of oil as medium, line drawings using Chinese fine bush as seen in Tang Dancing Girl. Here, grace is accentuated by the use of subtly modulated lines, use of clear contour, and shadow in clothes that strengthen volume of the figures. Use of emotion was also apparent, indicative in the objects depicted in the scenes, such as an unused pipe in a painting that depicted a wife reading a letter. Yiu (2008) suggested that Pang’s works in this instance were neither accepted western nor eastern. Chinese art were given more depth with the struggle the artists had to make to have their voices heard though visual art.

Another outstanding example of artwork is that of Qi Baishi whose 1949 landscape using his signature brushwork provided concise composition and bold strokes. The confines of tradition and political authority were challenges that the artists have to defy and this continued in a period when China finally opened its markets to the world.

As compared to Yue Min Jun’s period, “political pop” was developed by his contemporaries where Chairman Mao’s head is floated on commercial logos like Coca-Cola’s bringing the issue of western “idolatry”, of icons like Marlyn Monroe, Picasso, or even Michael Jackson (Davis, 2007). “All I did was borrow what they do, reproducing myself as an idol over and over.” Consequently, Yue Min Jun’s style is fused with pop art, with contemporary popular cartoons, a brand identity in itself. This has also been depicted ina hat series with the same laughing face donning a variety of hats as shown in the QMA exhibit: from Catwoman’s, helmet, a beret, a chef, to a Birtish policeman and an endless list more. As Davis (2007) wrote, “What the series nicely illustrates, however, is the way Yue’s character is universally adaptable, a sort of logo that can be attached to any setting to add value.

The thing about logos is that they don’t lend themselves to nuance. They are about providing an instantly legible stamp.”

Kuo (2004) quoted late nineteenth century and early twentieth century artist Huang Pin-hung to have written that, “An artist at the outset of his career should pay attention to three matters: First, brushwork and ink… through [the] practice of calligraphy, painting and reading. Second, the origin and development of art… through copying and viewing. Third, creativity… accomplished through traveling and painting from life,” (p) 50. This has been interpreted further by Kuo as relating to tradition of which an artist learns from the ancient masters through copying. In the case of Yue Min Jun, copying his biggest influence for his signature fellow artist Geng Jianyi and thereby inspired by other works, scenes or popular characters such as the terracotta warriors of China itself, the biblical Noah’s ark, use of pop icons such as his 2000 artwork “Marylin, Red No 3” or even “How are you Vermeer?” and “Hello Manet.”

As Kim (2006) commented, consumerism is a prerequisite for social recognition and beyond to self-definition yet warily accepted as seductive and suspicious. It seemed Yue Min Jun capitalized on this premise as consumption itself, according to Kim (2006), is a practice and ideology as well as establishment and concretization of new modern sensibilities. Kim (2006) added that, “as a signifier, consumption often connotes destruction and wastefulness; even singles out within the felicitous field of economic discourse …[that] implies the threat of overconsumption,” (p 379). Noticeably, Yue Mi Jun’s art has been heavily touted and accepted by western audience. The western consumer has bitten well its commercial appeal, romantizing and maximizing a history shared by billions, and probably by the global citizens who in one period of their time have experienced oppression, shocked by a reality of bloody greed of power.

As Kim (2006) further implored, western texts on oriental mysticism and art “demonstrate how fungible the Orient-as-concept can be within modern narratives of cultural translation and purification, the moral crisis of being possessed by objects, and the unsettling consciousness of experiencing the “past” and the “present” as coeval in everyday life,” (p 380).

Conclusion

Yue Min Jun’s art is a successful employ of wit, passion, focus, and western’s branding culture. Popular culture has emerged as a work of marketing, and although Yue Min Jun’s stumble on the emblematic logo of his sarcastic laughing face could be accidentally fortunate, it is also to be noted where his wit and imagination were coming from.

Years of hardship and oppression, silence and pretension yielded to an art form that although taking advantage on the culture of modern marketing, has rooted from an artist’s pain, and the need to express. China was not a very supportive environment during the earlier periods and the blossoming of Yue Min Jun’s art. Politics could have easily affected the outcomes of his labor as it is easily noted it was a western expatriate who first bought his most precious painting. Incidentally, it was a mockery of a faulty political act, the demise of thousands seeking for freedom of expression.

Yue Min Jun, although perennially pictured as that laughing bastard in a culture called visual art, has more to say than just pop art. The lines and contours of his face also were perennially emblazoned on that laughing face, and the perfect complete white teeth as pop audience always knew, was just cosmetic. In the end, what may be easily apparent which is the laughter, is itself a decoy, a trap, a way to catch attention. And when the viewer gets closer after being intrigue with the laughter, another message is conveyed via the close-up view of Yue Min Jun’s face. Its distortion successfully depicted pain and anguish, and the repetition of the image in various settings and medium only multiplies a message that tries to reach to his audience.

The effort of Yue Min Jun’s reaching out beneath his mocked laughter has paid off well.

References

1. Jacobson, Dawn (1999). Chinoiserie. Phaidon.
2. Yue Min Jun (2008). “Biography”.
3. Davis, Ben. (2007). “Guy Smiley”, Artnet Magazine. Web.
4. Yiu, Josh (2008). “The Khoan and Michael Sullivan Collection of Modern Chinese Painting.” Apollo, 2008. pp 1-6
5. Kuo, Jason (2004). “Transforming Traditions in Modern Chinese Painting: Huang Pin-hung’s Late Work.” Asian Thought and Culture 35.
6. Kim, Thomas W (2006). “Being Modern: The Circulation of Oriental Objects.” American Quarterly, Volume 58, Number 2, 2006, pp. 379-406

Appendix