Morocco is a country located in Northern Africa. There are only three countries – including Morocco – that have access to both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Morocco is a romantic place with a naturally high degree of cultural diversity. Its rich history of immigration ensured that a number of immigrants from Arab, Berber, and a lot of European countries had chosen Morocco as their home. As a result, the Moroccan Style interior design provides a number of possibilities to demonstrate and highlight these nuances and peculiarities that exist in different cultures. It is important to understand that these details must agree and complement each other in order to add up to the overall style of an interior successfully.
The Moroccan Style Interior is, therefore, also characterized by an immense diversity in architectural solutions which is easily noticeable in its highly detailed and intricate carvings, a high number of arched doorways, fabrics of various bright and vivid colors, and many other essential elements. As already stated, these parts have to exist in agreement. While highlighting individual details, one has to make sure that they will not push other equally important elements aside. As diverse as the style in itself may be, it would still be important to follow a similar color pattern for each and every separate detail.
Every individual element of Moroccan Style interior must serve the purpose of forming this style as a whole. There are four key features that ensure this: mosaic, furniture, window treatments, and accents. Mosaics are used to decorate most of the Moroccan houses and other buildings and residences. Mosaics are also used to decorate such objects as mirrors, bathroom sinks, coffee table tops, and some other elements of the interior. Furniture mostly consists of elements of wool, silk, glass, leather, clay, and metal. The primary component is mostly wool that comes in such forms as kilims, ottomans, poufs, and large cushions. These pieces of the interior would allow the style to look comfortable and “soft.” Window treatments are achieved with the use of silk curtains that elegantly decorate the windows. Ethnic patterns and bright, rich colors are mostly used to decorate windows, beds, floor, and other elements of the interior. Accents must follow traditional Moroccan patterns that include placement of lamps, wood elements in furniture, doors, windows and mirror frames. A more detailed approach would also include African cuisine and spiced tea aroma.
Should each element of this design find its implementation, the Moroccan Style interior will be reached. Such interior would create a comforting and soft feeling of being in a vibrant and exotic place that would provide a bright change in the traditional styles of many other countries. This exotic mixture of different approaches to decorating an interior indeed creates a feeling of going to an African land of highly diverse and extraordinary traditions. Also, this style would highly contrast with the prevailing trends in modern interior architecture that most houses possess. All in all, although somewhat costly, Moroccan Style interior would most likely be the most exotic and exciting experience for any customer.
The interior design style has changed significantly throughout history. Many various styles have been applied in interior design, and all of them go by different names and usually come from some specific place or time period. This paper demonstrates today’s interior design style, which is called modern. The name of that style comes from the French word moderne, meaning new, contemporary. However, it is essential to understand that modern and contemporary are different terms when it comes to interior design style. Modern is the name of a particular style, whereas contemporary stands for the style that is currently popular or often used. In this paper, significant factors that have influenced the modern interior design style are explored. In addition, the paper contains primary characteristics of the style that have shaped it and made it special.
Modern Interior Design Style Influences
The first section of this paper explores the significant influences that have contributed to establishing the modern interior design style. The world nowadays is rapidly changing, impacting all aspects of people’s lives. Interior design is no exception since it is influenced by many various elements of the civilization’s development. These include the development of the economy, scientific and technological advancement, and the impact that some aspects of interior design might have on human health. The factors mentioned above and the interior design style are associated because the industry of interior design is a broad discipline that combines knowledge and technologies of many fields. It is crucial to understand that interior design is a matter of not only external beauty but also comfort and practicality. Therefore, people apply the combined knowledge gained through the years in interior design to satisfy their needs.
Development of Economy
The first major factor that has influenced the modern interior style design is the development of the economy. As the level of people’s material life increases, the basic needs of consumption level are rising as well. These include the demand for housing and a comfortable living environment, which has led to the promotion of the rapid development of the interior design industry. Nowadays, people have more opportunities to design their living places as they desire because of the economic advancements in the civilized world. As it is known, any design concept is people-oriented, meaning that each element of design, including the application of color, line patterns, and others, aims to satisfy people’s needs. Therefore, since the development of the economy expands the variety of opportunities to make the living environment as comfortable as possible, this factor has a significant influence on the interior design styles, including the modern style under discussion.
Development of Science and Technology
Another significant factor that significantly influences the development of the interior design industry is scientific and technological advancement. The rapid development in this field has led to the discovery or creation of new materials that can be used in interior design. These include artificial lighting, artificial leather, floor heating, air conditioning, and other human-made materials and technologies. In addition, the number of modern facilities rises that specialize in producing the materials mentioned above with the application of modern technologies. Therefore, those materials become more available and easier to purchase, meaning that it is less challenging for people to obtain them and design the interior of their living place according to their needs and desires. Moreover, technological advancements simplify the building processes, so it takes less time to decorate the house or the apartment compared to the former times.
Impact on Human Lives and Health
The final significant influence on the interior design style addressed in this paper is the significance of the design specificities for human lives and health. As it is known, the importance of decorating the indoor environment lies in beautifying and protecting the living place, including its surface and interior space. For these purposes, decorative materials and items should have particular characteristics so the people living in the place can feel both comfortable and safe. That way, designers seek to protect the building’s main structure, improve its physical performance, and make the indoor environment comfortable and beautiful. Human health is also a significant factor in interior design as many synthetic materials can negatively impact health when used in the indoor environment for the long term. Additionally, people’s psychological health is also a concern as the interior design style should meet their psychological needs. Overall, the modern interior design style addresses the human taste of life, health, and comfort and satisfies the corresponding needs.
Characteristics of Modern Interior Design Style
As with any interior design style, modern has its particular characteristics that define its uniqueness and specificities. The second section of this paper addresses the four modern interior design style characteristics that can be traced within the buildings, including houses, apartments, and offices. These characteristics represent a unique marker that allows determining the modern design style and the corresponding interior specificities. The characteristics include the expression of a natural fashion, functionality, aesthetics, and adherence to the practical principle. For each characteristic, several images are presented for the detailed illustration of the modern indoor environment.
The Expression of a Natural Fashion
The first characteristic of the modern interior style design is the expression of a natural fashion. To a certain extent, the pursuit of the highest fundamental standards of design is natural. Modern interior design integration involves the use of natural materials and natural colors. As researchers claim, the purpose of such integration is to create a comfortable natural style, improving the indoor environment for people and making them feel the recovery of their soul and spirit returning to original simplicity. The simple natural style is the most prominent specificity of the modern interior design, which involves using bamboo, wood, stone, and similar materials. Although such materials can seem relatively rough, they can also efficiently adjust the temperature and humidity indoors, which is highly beneficial for human health. In addition, the colors and texture of natural materials, make people feel fresh and renewed.
Functionality
One more characteristic of the modern interior design style is functionality. Researchers state that “all interior design and decoration of the design theme and objectives are around the use of the function of the room.” For instance, the bedroom wall decoration with warm colors reflects the function of warmth and quiet. The decorations of bathroom walls are used to adopt water-resistant tiles using gluing technology, which reflects the waterproof function. In addition, the functional requirements of the modern interior design style imply spatial positioning, so the decoration specificities mentioned above are not lost, and their functions are complete. In other words, the decorative design performed with different materials, colors, and methods should meet the different functional needs of people.
Aesthetics
The following essential characteristic of the modern interior design style is aesthetics. Researchers claim that “Architectural interior decoration should also adapt to the architectural modeling, focusing on the aesthetic and artistic value.” There is even an opinion that the core values of the decoration process cannot be addressed if it does not mean the beautification of the design in addition to landscaping. The modern indoor decoration should be further enhanced according to the aesthetic principles and highlight the aesthetic nature of the design. The natural style of the modern interior design also helps highlight the details of the decoration process, whereas the random use of colors and materials is not appropriate for the modern indoor environment. Overall, the complete interior decoration in the modern style requires achieving the aesthetic principles of modern design in full.
Adherence to the Practical Principle
The last characteristic of the modern interior design style is its adherence to the practical principle. Researchers state that with many years of experience and practice, modern designers have concluded that applying the proper construction technologies is the key to the success of the design process. According to recent studies, design is a human activity aimed to satisfy humans, so the designer should consider ergonomics and environmental psychology according to the people’s actual needs. These elements are critical when it comes to creating a comfortable and practical design of the indoor space environment. In other words, the modern interior design style should adhere to the practical principle to meet people’s material and spiritual needs. Therefore, adherence to the practical principle is one of the key features of the modern design of the indoor environment.
Work Cited
Wang, Meng Qi, and Zhu Gao. “On the Natural Fashion in Modern Interior Design.” DEStech Transactions on Engineering and Technology Research, 2017.
Immediately after the development of the art and craft style, the field of design changed significantly, and ass such, new and better products surfaced.
The main aim of establishing the art as well as craft style was to search not only an aesthetic design but also decoration. In addition to this, it was started as a way for reacting against machine-produced styles.
In the old days, craft products were elementary in form and did not have superfluous decorations.
Kettley & Smyth (2011) “asserted that the expectation in designing the method was that with increased physicality in the mode of representation, involving more of the senses the perception of materiality would be increased.
In other words, the participants would exhibit both conceptual and sensory understanding more fully, and be more inclined to attribute the design with potential for personal meaning and authenticity” (7).
Today, craft aesthetic has been fully realized, and this is evidenced in every product being produced. It is traceable in
Contemporary products, interiors, communications as well as media among other fields. The implication of this is that; they are authentic products of a maker or a designer.
According to many research studies, while some designs are identified as being products of designers or makers, as well as small studios, others results from large corporations and industrial productions (Engestrom 2005).
Using three examples of contemporary designs that incorporate the aspect of actual hand craft, that is; film, title sequence as well as music clip, this paper will focus on explaining the elements of their aesthetic and production that convey the contribution of their designer.
In addition to this, the paper will identify how these elements speak about authenticity and even sustainability of the products (Knight &Thomas 2012).
Discussion
With regard to film, title sequence as well as music clips, there are several elements of authenticity contained in them that depict the contribution of the producer. In order to understand these, it is essential that each product is assessed.
One example of contemporary design that incorporates the aspect of actual handcraft is films production. “Films incorporate the aspect of nostalgic impulses, and as such it increases the film’s authenticity and production” (Campbell 2009).
Nostalgia refers to sentimentally longing for the old and past typically with regard to place or period in which there were personal associations.
Therefore, nostalgic impulse in contemporary films refers to a situation where the maker of the film produces a film basing it on events of another film, which was produced long time ago (Engestrom 2005).
Recalling appealing scenes in a classic film and incorporating them in a modern film increase both the value and desirability of the film maker. An example of a film incorporating the element of nostalgic impulses is the film ‘Rewind’.
This film is based on scenes of three films produced between 1980 and 1990. They include Robocop, Driving Miss Missy Ghost Busters and Baby Boom (Campbell 2009).
A scene in the ‘movie Rewind’, depicting an event in the movie ‘Robocop’.
Contemporary film makers also incorporate the aspect of moving image. Film makers have websites from where customers can watch the movie trailer from prior to purchasing the films.
For instance, the producer of the film ’Rewind’ has established a website, that is; bekindmovie.com, from where the movie trailer can be watched (Campbell 2009). Also, through You Tube, one can watch trailers and get an overview of the films.
The two elements are viable in the authenticity as well as sustainability of films. With regard to nostalgic impulses, authenticity and sustainability is depicted by fondly recalling the VHS era meaning that the films are of digital age with their surfaces incorporating tributes to analogue sensibility, which are computer generated (Walters 2008).
For online moving image, Knight and Thomas (2012) indicates that “access to online moving image collections and archival materials has allowed a greater degree of interaction between those viewers and moving image materials” (17).
Authenticity and sustainability are depicted by the movies being romantically cinephilic. Further, the authenticity and sustainability are depicted by catering to atomized audiences.
It is through this that people become united in the pleasures constituted in cooperative endeavors as well as shared culture (Walters 2008).
Another example of contemporary design that incorporates the aspect of actual handcraft is title sequencing. A title sequence can be described as a method by which titles, key production as well as the cast members are presented or even how conceptual visuals and sounds are utilized.
In the movie the terminator, the producer gives a detailed description of the characters as well as their roles in the movie (Metcalf 2009).
Title sequence in the ‘Movie Wild Boys’.
Among the authenticity elements in title sequencing includes superimposed opening credits. As compared to classic films, the contemporary films incorporate the aspect of superimposed opening credits where not only is the title and the name of the producer is acknowledged but also the characters who are either directly or indirectly involved.
While the characters of the movies play a direct role in a film, individuals such as sound controllers, lightning controller as well as theme setters act as indirect parties to the film and as such, they also play a significant role.
Another authenticity element is the use of suspense. Suspense is an authenticity element, and as such, it refers to an uncertainty feeling regarding the consequences of a certain action and more often, it refers to the perceptions of an audience with reference to a dramatic piece of work (Galbraith 2001).
Suspense is used in films as a way to keep the audience desiring to know what will happen next that is to keep guessing. It is used in catchy areas of the film and it keeps the views glued to the screen (Levine 2009).
By incorporating superimposed opening credits, the public view about the film is usually positive, that is, the authenticity is increased since each and every character in the movie, whether directly or indirectly involved is acknowledged.
A superimposed opening credit is an indispensable element as it makes a film be acknowledged as a standard movie and encourages viewing (Inwood 2007).
With regard to suspense, it shows the authenticity and sustainability of a film by making the view making a decision that he will not miss any episode.
Suspense is also used by the film maker to create value for the viewers, and again, this increases the authenticity of the film (Metcalf 2009).
The third example of contemporary design that incorporates the aspect of actual hand craft is music clips production. In modern art works, the producers incorporate the various elements in music products to increase the authenticity of the film. Elements constituted by music clips include the instrumentals, music effects and genres.
With regards to Music instrumentals, when blended with Vocals, they make up a song. Instrumentals are the beats, and they support the vocals and, therefore, coming with a desirable article (Levine 2009).
Another authenticity element is music genres. Music comes in different genres. Example of music genres includes; rhythm and blues, rock and roll and techno music among other genres.
When a music producer ensures that different genres of music are employed, it follows that his works’ or product’s authenticity is increased.
Even in real life, people have several music genres as favorites (Kettley & Smyth 2011). This means that listening to one genre will come monotonous at some point and, therefore, one will become bored.
With regard to instrumentals, it is an essential authenticity element of music clip production. It is commonly established that life without music is meaningless.
Therefore, when a music producer incorporates the aspect of sound tracks in his music products, it follows that the authenticity of the music clips is remarkable and increases with the continued viewing and hearing (Browning 2010).
Different music genres are essential, and as such, a music producer must employ them. The ability to use different music genres signifies that the music producer has a sense of authenticity creation.
With different genres, the music fanatics will be able to enjoy, not only the vocals of the music but also the instrumentals accompanying the song. This encourages the continued viewing of the film by the viewer and as such, authenticity is created.
Conclusion
From this analysis, it is evidently clear that authenticity is of a film is a particularly vital aspect for the media industry and producers must be continually vigilant in establishing those that bring authenticity to their products.
With reference to the media works, this analysis has established that some of the elements that create authenticity for film products include; nostalgic impulses and online moving images (Engestrom 2005).
For the title sequence, the elements that show or increase authenticity include both the superimposed opening credits and suspense.
In addition to this, those that bring authenticity to music clip art work include both music genres and instrumentals to the music.
Generally, contemporary producers must ensure that they use these elements in order to increase their authenticity. Wade (2008) suggests that “surprise, which I closely connected to suspense, increases the reader engagement”(286).
References
Browning, A. 2010, Making it, video recording, Handmade, Melbourne. Web.
Galbraith, M. 2001, Embedded Systems for Computational Garment Design, Masters Thesis, Oxford Digital Thesis Program 2000. Oxford Digital Thesis Program. Web.
The long history of art and architecture allows experts to compare and contrast existing styles to determine factors that influenced their inception. In order to do such an analysis in this paper, two styles were chosen. On the one hand, examples of the modernist movement will be explored. Modernism is an approach characterized by a wide-scale transformation of artistic, literary, and musical styles in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. On the other hand, to compare with Modernism, the Arts and Crafts movement will be examined. It appeared in the nineteenth century as a response to impersonal and mechanized directions in the art that the society took.
In the paper, it will be argued that both Modernism and Arts and Crafts focused not only on aesthetics but also on the utility of their designs. However, there is a difference in the use of materials and the overall presentation of their features – modernist designs are streamlined, simplistic, and use a stark contrast of colors while Arts and Crafts items are more complex in implementation, warmer in the color palette and more substantial in shape. Importantly, several examples from both movements will be explored, including Bauhaus as a modernist art school and Voysey design as an example of the arts and crafts movement.
Exploring Modernism
The term modernism has developed a specific meaning when it comes to art and architecture. As defined by Harrison (1997), Modernism is related to a form of value linked to separate works of art to distinguish them from other styles. Today, critics view modernism as a breakdown of the traditional styles inherent to the Western culture that used to connect the appearance of works of art to the appearance of the natural world (Harrison 1997). Typically, such a breakdown is associated with trends and traditions in the use of shapes, materials, and colors in order to form new and unique combinations and yield a visual experience that has never been present. Therefore, a painting of a person that looks like nothing in real life is usually characterized as a ‘modern’ painting despite it being a half-century-old. This suggests that the modernist movement that developed in the twentieth century acquired a historical character inherent of that time. In particular, it was the inception of Cubism in 1907-1908 and the immediate aftermath that gave a start to modernism.
Bauhaus as an Example
As an example of the modernist movement, the Bauhaus school of design will be explored. Initially, the Bauhaus was associated with an educational establishment founded by Walter Gropius in 1919 in Weimar, Germany (Sudjic 2014). Despite the fact that the establishment existed only until 1933, art connoisseurs around the world consider it the home to the classical modern and Avant-guard styles in both applied and liberal arts. Even today, the Bauhaus is used as a synonym for rational and functional art, especially when it comes to architecture and furniture design. Most importantly, the aesthetic inherent to the style seems not only modern in 2018 but also beautiful. On the other hand, owning Bauhaus houses or items of décor in the 1920s was considered unusual or shocking. Such an attitude toward design is not surprising because many prototypes of Bauhaus furniture and other items were produced with the motto “people’s needs instead of luxury needs,” as suggested by Gropius’s successor, Hannes Meyer (Saletnik & Schuldenfrei 2013, p. 36).
The idea of designing to cater to the needs of people rather than satisfying the need for luxury is reflected in the Dessau building of the Bauhaus school itself. It is simplistic in its design while such features as floor-to-ceiling critical windows give it a unique utilitarian look (Figure 1). It is seen from the design of the building that the most important philosophy of the Bauhaus movement was treating design and visual art as a unity. The building shows the most prominent features of the philosophy, signifying equality between such disciplines as typography (‘Bauhaus’ written in large white letters) and architecture.
Figure 1. Bauhaus school building (Bauhaus n.d.).
For Bauhaus designs, functionality came first, which explains why consumers have gravitated toward integrating both original and derivative designs into their homes (Whitford 1984). Examples of original pieces of the Bauhaus furniture include Marcel Breuer’s Club chair (model B3) (Figure 2), Wilhelm Wagenfeld’s table lamp (Figure 3) and glassware, Josef Hoffmann’s silverware (Figure 4), and many others
As a contrast to the ideas and designs of the Bauhaus movement in design, it was chosen to explore the Arts and Crafts movement, which started as an opposition to the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. The most distinguishing feature of the Arts & Crafts style is the use of high-quality materials and the emphasis on the utility of design items. The style got its start in the United Kingdom in the second half of the nineteenth century and later spread to the United States across the Atlantic at the end of the century, which made it possible for the movement to last up until the 1920s (Kaplan 1998). Practitioners of the movement such as Charles Francis Voysey (C.F.A. Voysey) believed that there should be a physical connection between an artist and his or her works, which suggested that Arts and Crafts heavily relied on handcraft for producing beautiful items of design.
Because the movement originated as a response to the increased use of machinery in creating pieces of design and architecture, its UK proponents were overall negative toward using innovative equipment within the creative process. However, as the style transferred overseas, its US followers were more welcoming of the idea to use technologies. As an example of the Arts and Crafts movement, the works of Francis Voysey will be further explored. C.F.A. Voysey is renowned for his design works in such spheres as architecture, furniture, and textiles. During his early work, Voysey predominantly focused on designing wallpapers and fabrics characterized as ideal examples of the Arts and Crafts style (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Arts and crafts fabric design (Voysey’s fabric design n.d.)
Voysey’s Design
For the sake of the analysis and comparison with modernism and Bauhaus in particular, Voysey’s architectural work will be explored. Despite the artist’s blatant opposition to modernism and the pursuit of utilitarianism, it can be suggested that his works still had the inventiveness and certain simplicity inherent in early modernism (Cole 2015). Voysey’s approach to designing houses contributed to the reputation of him as a typical English domestic residence architect. In his styles, Voysey gravitated toward stone window-dressings, slate roofs, and white-rendered houses (Figure 6). Importantly, all of his designs, including furniture (Figure 7), we’re focused on the appreciation of natural materials. Compared to modernism and Bauhaus in particular, Voysey’s architecture was simple but not simplistic and complex but not overly complicated (Simpson 1979).
Figure 6. Arts and crafts architecture (Voysey’s architecture n.d.).Figure 7. Voysey’s furniture (Voysey’s secretaire n.d.).
Comparing examples of Modernism and Arts and Crafts, it can be suggested that both of them have the unique quality of utilitarianism and the focus on embracing materials used in their designs. For Arts and Crafts, such materials included wood, stone, and fabrics. For modernism, they included steel, concrete, glass, and others. In addition, it should be mentioned the Arts and Crafts style came right before modernism, which suggests that there will be similarities in how both schools approached architecture and other design directions. For instance, there is distinct gravitation toward simplifying architecture in Voysey’s work while in the Bauhaus direction of modernism, the simplification reached its peak and proceeded to envelop to this day.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that the innovative approaches that both Modernism and Arts and Crafts had a tremendous impact on how current design styles came to life. For instance, some connections between Arts and Crafts and the farmhouse style of home décor, especially when it comes to preserving houses built in the late nineteenth century. Modernism still has its influence on current design approaches such as minimalism or industrial interior décor.
To summarise, Modernism as a style developed as a result of simplification in design and architecture that started with the Arts and Crafts movement. As seen from the example of the Bauhaus style, modernism focused on the use of contemporary materials associated with the process of industrialization. Because of this, the emphasis was placed on unique shapes and simplistic designs. In Arts and Crafts, the use of machinery was minimized in order to elevate the beauty of the connection between an artist and his works. This meant that natural materials were embraced while designs were more intricate and handmade-like.
Reference List
Bauhaus n.d., image, Web.
Cole, D 2015, The art of CFA Voysey: English pioneer modernist architect & designer, The Image Publishing Group, London.
Harrison, C 1997, Modernism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
The literature review aims to shed light on the most recent research on the topic to develop an approach to investigate the issue further. According to Petermans and Pohlmeyer (2014), subjective well-being is an emerging topic of research in the field of design, although, no consensus has been reached in the scientific area as to what represents the essence of well-being. From an interior architecture perspective, the combination of objective conditions created by a designer and the subjective experiences of individuals within the space. Objective well-being, as applied to the context of design, represents the extent to which external conditions can contribute to the high quality of life (Patermans and Pohlmeyer, 2014).
This perspective was also supported by Blyussen (2014), who suggested that a range of objective parameters in design contribute to the overall well-being of an individual. Therefore, the purpose of design in such a context is to create the highest-quality environments to increase the livability of interiors.
In modern research, interiors have been viewed from the perspective of cultural and social significance. Within such a view, interiors go far beyond being spatial arrangements or collections of objects, and, thus, can communicate to their users who perceive them objectively (Ionescu, 2018). The transient and adjustable nature of interior design underlines its qualitative difference, which has profound meaning for establishing an objectively positive environment (Brooker and Stone, 2008).
For example, a writer’s room is much more than a closed-off space in which someone works but also took for transferring various areas of imagination (Bauer, 2016). The combination of objects that have no function but represent beauty and those that have utility represents a dichotomy that would characterize a social and historical environment in which interiors were made. The fact that spaces change with time justifies their adaptive re-use as an “inherently critical function of interior design” (Ionescu, 2018, p. 2). As buildings are intended to last, the inside out changes contribute to the developments of new interiors that would represent the outside world.
Welcoming both aspects of health and well-being into interior design experience represents the potential for facilitating new experience levels for their occupants. Design professionals integrate their knowledge bases on materials, environmental constraints, building codes, construction materials and methods, as well as a range of other aspects to facilitate the well-being through the design experience (Kopec, 2017).
Therefore, the element of objective well-being in architecture requires the adjustment of traditional design thinking. As mentioned by Kopec (2017), the first adjustment is to create environments that would be non-toxic in the sense of having an adverse influence on the health of human beings. The goal of such a design that would promote well-being is doing no harm as well as removing or controlling environmental hazards. The objective well-being of individuals residing in interior spaces created with the goal of doing no harm is expected to increase.
Research on evidence-based design and healing environments is important to the discussion of objective well-being in interior architecture. For instance, the functional viewpoint is necessary to consider because it reveals how design can contribute to the healing of inhabitants (Desmet and Pohlmeyer, 2013).
The same way in which exterior environments have always brought a sense of meaning and pleasurable experiences to observers, interior architecture provides a context for the acknowledging of what is valuable. People act as ingredients to internal environments and bring life and objects to establish a setting that would explain their attitudes, life experiences, values, as well as the general well-being (Allanwood and Beare, 2014). The aspect of subjectivity plays a significant role in designing interiors as it may point to the overall well-being of authors from a third-party standpoint.
A more in-depth look at subjectivity in design can be provided through the analysis of specific examples. For instance, the work will apply the design perspective on Le Corbusier’s design of Villa Savoye. According to Rosner (2020), Villa Savoye was created under the influence of the “machines for living” philosophy, which is a Modernist approach toward designing that incorporates both a functionalist and aesthetic value. Subjective well-being is reached in the case of Villa Savoye because the dwellers of the space are placed in an environment of peacefulness that is reinforced by unique design elements. Therefore, the study of subjective well-being in designing interiors is expected to integrate the analysis of Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye as a positive design illustration.
Background on Subjective Well-Being
The combination of subjectivity and well-being in interior architecture is an emerging topic of research in the design studies field. Revealing the strategies used in design that are targeted at the subjective improvement of users’ life quality is essential for the study of interior architecture in context. Although, it is necessary to narrow in on a specific aspect of subjective well-being that could be traced in real-life examples of architecture. Thus, it was chosen to focus on the idea of positive design, as put forward by Desmet and Pohlmeyer.
A design is considered positive when the three elements of design for pleasure, for personal significance, for virtue coincide, characterizing an interior that could bring positive feelings. Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye is a representation of the positive design in its essence, being a symbol of the Modernist movement in architecture. An in-depth analysis of the villa’s interior will provide a closer look at how the three aspects of positive design are integrated into the architecture, allowing to reach a high level of subjective well-being.
When designing interior environments, architects are predominantly concerned with fulfilling various considerations that are linked to the objective side of the narrative. Typical characteristics of this may include the availability of enough daylight, the quality of the acoustics, or the accessibility and organization of inner spaces. Nevertheless, long-term happiness and value are found in the activities in which a person engages rather than one’s circumstances, and this approach will be explored further. Subjective well-being represents a vital topic in the study of interior designs in context as it reflects the way in which a person perceives space and what value it gives.
Exploring Positive Design
In the discussion about subjective well-being, it is essential to discuss the Positive Design framework. The framework was initially developed by Desmet and Pohlmeyer (2013, p. 6) in the efforts of bringing together “all forms of design, design research and design intention in which explicit attention is paid to the effects of design on the subjective well-being of individuals and communities.” The framework combines three components (Figure 1) of “subjective well-being, such as design for pleasure, design for personal significance, and design for virtue” (Desmet and Pohlmeyer, p. 6). All three elements can be traced in the Modernist approach toward interior design and will be discussed further.
Figure 1. Positive design triangle (Desmet and Pohlmeyer, 2013).
Design for pleasure is a part of the model associated with the feelings and experiences of happiness, which may be extracted from enjoying one’s surroundings at the present moment. In this context, design functions as a key source of pleasure that positively influences the subjective wellness of an individual. Design for personal significance focuses on establishing an environment of joy that emanates from the sense of individual meaning.
For achieving high levels of subjective well-being, it is imperative to pursue personally significant goals. In such a context, design acts as a facilitator for reaching future objectives as a symbolic manifestation of personal achievements and meaningful values. Design for virtue is a component that explores happiness that results from morally correct behaviors. A carefully designed space can emit a sense of goodness when it can offer privacy or a feeling of relaxation and safety to its users.
The aspect of positive design, which is the core of the framework, is reached when the three elements discussed above intersect. Therefore, the positive design is the one that can facilitate pleasure, offer personal significance, and reflect virtue. The distinctiveness of such design is the explicit intention to increase subjective well-being as well as the fundamental drive for the process of creating an interior. The narrative of a positive design can be traced in Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye, which represented the five points of architecture. These included the pilotis, a roof garden, a free interior ground plan, windows located horizontally, and a free façade.
The five design principles reflect the designer’s approach toward an architecture that is based on providing pleasure to the observers and the users of the space. Considered one of the most important design pieces of the Modernist movement, Villa Savoye was created with very few restrictions on the part of Le Corbusier’s client. This allowed the architect to combine the critical elements of the positive design in one piece, in which the exterior and interior work together to create a truly remarkable historical monument.
Figure 2. Villa Savoye (Villa Savoye, no date).
The exterior of Villa Savoye (Figure 2) communicates the message of design for pleasure because of its close interaction with nature. When a person finds himself or herself in nature, they usually enjoy the moments of peacefulness and being “here and now” (Desmet and Pohlmeyer, 2013, p. 11). This component of positive design shows that the architect intended to create a space that would be a source of pleasure and different pleasurable activities. For example, the rooftop garden (Figure 3) is a combination of interior and exterior design that gets the dwelling’s occupants closer to nature while also being able to enjoy the minimalistic feature of the Modernist design.
Figure 3. Rooftop garden (Villa Savoye rooftop garden, no date).
The interior design of the Villa also promotes the message of design for pleasure because of the open space plan and large windows that open an occupant’s eye to the greenery outside. The interplay between private and public spaces is what contributes to the aspect of design for pleasure. Usually, the living spaces of a house are relatively closed off and secluded to ensure that the residents have privacy. In the case of Villa Savoye, the living space is surrounded by a communal terrace that is divided from the living area by the sliding glass door (Figure 4).
Figure 4. (Villa Savoye window, no date).
Design for personal significance, which is associated with bringing happiness and joy to the inhabitants of a space. Le Corbusier achieved this goal by ensuring that the interior of the Villa has not only aesthetic but also utilitarian value. One of the most striking features of the interior, the light pink wall (Figure 5), adds color and brightness to the predominantly monochrome color palette of the space. Combined with the contrasting green forest that is seen in the large windows, the wall lifts the mood. Several chairs and sofas pointed in the direction of the floor-to-ceiling windows encourage dwellers to sit down, relax, and enjoy the surroundings.
Figure 5. Pink accent wall (Villa Savoye pink wall, no date).Figure 6. Rugs and chairs (Villa Savoye furnishings, no date).
A closer look at the furniture and décor items reveals that each piece is unique and has its own value in the context of design for pleasure. For example, the unevenly cut rug with a colorful geometric pattern is a unique and unexpected touch to the interior, that otherwise would have been too monotone and predictable. Despite the fact that Le Corbusier approached his architectural creations as “machines for living in,” the addition of seemingly random but purposeful elements adds to the design for personal significance philosophy (Rosner, 2020, p. 46). The approach of creating machines for living implies the design of “objects capable of high poetry.
We approve so much of this object, were are so fond of it, we would so much like to live with it, that our desire adds to its utility the higher dignity of beauty” (Rosner, 2020, p. 46). Thus, Le Corbusier’s interiors, which may seem as simplistic and utilitarian, are enhanced by various feelings that people may experience living in the spaces. The patterned rug in a bright color palette may be a mass-produced object that has its purpose. However, being embedded into Villa Savoye’s interior, it transforms into a valuable design object that speaks to the positive design approach.
Le Corbusier’s positive design characteristics also include a design for virtue, which is concerned with the stimulation of being a morally right individual. This aspect is illustrated in the love that the designer had for the central symbols of the Modernist design, such as unique chairs (Figure 7). While such chairs may be mass-produced, they receive a decorative status within the environment that was created with the purpose of virtue in mind. The definition of virtue also implies going good for other people, supporting them, or bringing comfort. In Le Corbusier’s context, the utilitarian objects are intended to both bring comfort and relaxation while also adding to the design value of the interior.
Figure 7. Club chair in Villa Savoye (Charlotte Perriand chair, 2003).
Critical Reflections on Positive Design
The analysis of Villa Savoye’s interior architecture provided a closer look at subjective well-being, with the focus placed on the positive design. It should be mentioned that interiors possess immense capability to improve the subjective well-being of their residents or visitors apart from ensuring comfortable conditions for life. As evidenced by the example of Villa Savoye, architects use positive design as a tool to work on the wishes and needs of dwellers within the design process.
Thus, since there is a potential owner of a space, the issue of ownership arises. While it is a designer that created an environment of subjective well-being for a client, it is not always clear who owns the design. From the inhabitant’s perspective, he or she may be the owner of a space. However, in environments such as retail or office interiors, the owner is not as transparently identified. In the case of Villa Savoye, today, the building is considered a public space and a museum, which means that there is no distinct definition of an owner.
However, due to the remarkable nature of both interior and exterior architecture of the villa, Le Corbusier will most likely remain as its loosely designated owner due to the immense contribution to Modernist design. Overall, considering the issue of ownership in positive design may not be an issue of concern despite the fact that a resident or space and its designer are not the same people (Petermans, 2012). Achieving subjective well-being is not a matter of ownership but rather the approach taken in creating a space and the intentions behind it.
Concluding Remarks
The analysis of subjective well-being in interiors has revealed that positive design combines three essential features, “which include a design for pleasure, design for virtue, and design for personal significance” (Desmet and Pohlmeyer, 2013, p. 7). The interior approach that was used by Le Corbusier in the creation of Villa Savoye in France showed the interplay between the three aspects of positive design, which made the interior of the villa the perfect example for illustrating how subjective well-being can be achieved. Villa Savoye is considered an architectural masterpiece in terms of its exterior design, with its pilotis, the flowing façade, horizontal windows, and the rooftop garden.
However, it is imperative to note the value of the interior as related to subjective well-being in Modernist design. The lightness of the interior both in terms of the color palette and the free plan creates a sense of freedom and design for pleasure. Those who enter the space are not stranded by the multiple components of an area, such as heavy curtains or large velvet chairs. Instead, every design detail is intentionally simple, utilitarian, and has a unique Modernist quality that cannot be mistaken for any other style. The interior of Villa Savoye is the ideal representation of positive design within the subjective well-being framework because it includes elements that combine in themselves both design and the emotional connotation of wellness.
Considerations for future research may include the study of the relationship between interior design and the overall health and well-being of guests and dwellers. The way in which design can impact the mental state of a person, as well as his or her intentions for further development, presents an exciting ground for exploration within the architecture in context framework. This is necessary as the analysis of Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye showed that positive design could elicit good feelings and evoke a sense of subjective well-being, which is imperative to have in the current hectic and fast-paced environment.
Reference List
Allanwood, G. and Beare, P. (2014) User experience design. New York: Fairchild books.
Bauer, D. (2016) Beyond the frame. Case studies. Brussels: ASP Publishers.
Bluyssen, P. (2014) The healthy indoor environment: how to assess occupants’ wellbeing in buildings. New York: Routledge.
Brooker, G. and Stone, S. (2008) Interior architecture: context & environment. Worthing: AVA Publishing.
Desmet, P. and Pohlmeyer, A. (2013) ‘Positive design: an introduction to design for subjective well-being’, International Journal of Design, 7(3), pp. 5-19.
Ionescu, V. (2018) ‘The interior as interiority’, Palgrave Communications, 4(33), pp. 1-5.
Kopec, D. (2017) Health and well-being for interior architecture. New York: Routledge.
Petermans, A. (2012) Retail design in the experience economy: conceptualizing and ‘measuring’ customer experiences in retail environments. Hasselt: Hasselt University Press.
Petermans, A. and Pohlmeyer, A. (2014) ‘Design for subjective well-being in interior architecture’, Proceedings of the 6th Annual Architectural Research Symposium in Finland, 2014, pp. 206-2018.
Rosner, V. (2020) Machines for living: modernism and domestic life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Culture is the reflection of the nation. American society has undergone vivid changes in the cultural development observed under the impact of social and moral values dominating in different periods. Culture culminates from the dynamic ways in which people relate to their environment and with each other in the struggle to enhance life and to survive. Culture embodies the values, belief systems, customs, and norms of a people shaped by the people’s interaction and interactivity as they relate to their environment. The paper presents an exploration of the dynamism of culture, how particular culture dynamics of a particular society have evolved. The complicated process of the national culture formation contains the combination of various social factors influencing its structure and role in the community, changing cultural functions and the human place in them.
According to Levine the process of cultural development cannot be fixed in time. The conditions of the past and present social atmosphere influence the values and cultural representation of people in every social group. One of the most vivid examples of cultural change is considered to be the popularity transformation sticking to the views of the Shakespearean epoch. According to the cultural theory of the author, the perception of Shakespearean views and their cultural position in society has changed a lot. Modern people can not dive into the atmosphere of the world of art is popular a long time ago. He stated that the Shakespearean world and his masterpieces unite nowadays only people belonging to the elite class of the community. The readings of Shakespeare can be included only in the educatory sphere of people’s life.
Levine’s view of the Shakespearean culture representation in the modern world proves the fact that culture is considered to be the product of time correlation. Culture shows the reflection of the previous cultural views on the modern world through having different forms and perceptions by the community.
“Shakespeare’s relationship to the American people was always in flux, always changing. It is possible to isolate a period during which the increasing separation of Shakespeare from modern people becomes more evident” (Levine, 33).
Culture must be perceived as a system of symbols and meaning creation. Perhaps the most fitly insights on the culture that will run in tandem with the concept focus of this paper are those that present culture as a complex system and a set of symbols as well as meanings that even their originator’s contest, that are without boundaries, that are always in flux, and that interact and compete with one another. About the foregoing, it can be understood why and how such cultural transformation can be expected in any society. Revista Chicano et al (1982) outline that, “Culture provides pleasure which contributes to its reinforcement and perpetuation. If no longer satisfactory or pleasurable, change occurs. Culture changes through adaptation, borrowing and invention”
The scholars outline that culture constitutes that dynamic fabric formed by a people’s values, language, religion, beliefs among various other elements that define who the people are. The key thought in the foregoing is “dynamic”. Culture is not an object but is indeed a dynamic process that is effectually responsive to various forms of influence hence the dimensions of acculturation, cultural pluralism, multiculturalism, etc. What is notable is the extent of influence that the Shakespearean genre has had over various cultural forms in American Society and the world over. The explorations of American culture together with its transformation in particular respect to if cultural and social heritage underline the rapid change of the cultural position. In light of the foregoing, the essence of the paper is to zero in on the explorations of the cultural transformations in a particular society substantiating notions that culture is dynamic and is always subject to various forms of change, evolution, and mutations, etc. The paper will explore the change in the cultural role and regard for the Shakespearean population in American society.
“Not until the nineteenth century, however, did Shakespeare come into his own-presented ad recognized almost everywhere in the country.” (Levine, 16).
Levine outlines what he terms as the emergency of cultural hierarchy in America. In his outline, he mourns how art media commentators attempted to categorize art in hierarchy attempting to decide for the people what is best and not, what is contemporary and not. Levine attacks how art pacesetters attempt to regard particular art forms above others, failing to acknowledge that culture is dynamic and multifaceted. According to the author dissemination and the meaning of the culture in every society are under the impact of historical factors and material. Nevertheless, he sticks to the point that its people who form their culture with their own hands; people create the atmosphere they live in and contribute to the cultural system to adjust it to their time and epoch. This interpretation of the cultural position can be appropriately proved by the dramatic change of the Shakespearean views in modern society.
In light of the foregoing, the essence of the paper is to zero in on the explorations of the cultural transformations in a particular society substantiating notions that culture is dynamic and is always subject to various forms of change, evolution, and mutations, etc. The paper will explore the change in the cultural role and regard for the Shakespearean population in American society. A closer exploration of the dynamics in the regard to the artifact in contemporary American society will indicate a shift in the cultural regards of the role and value of the artifact.
Regarding the Shakespearean culture as a significant stage in the history of American society, the culture has experienced a paradigmatic shift which has seen the recognition and the regard of the artifact as one central cultural component of the entirety of the American society in disregard of the race and the aspect of ethnicity in multicultural America. It can be noted that the largely Christian American society has highly and appreciated and treasured the position of the Shakespearean culture.
This has been characterized by the shift from the treatment of the genre as the relic of the subservient culture group into the adoption of the entirety of the cultural and spiritual significance of the artifacts into the American social, cultural and spiritual fabric. The regard of Shakespearean culture as sentimental and exclusive to the cultural heritage of the American society has transformed through the years.
“Shakespeare’s popularity can be determined not only by the frequency of productions and the size of the audiences for them but also by the nature of the productions and the manner in which they were presented” (Levine, 13).
The transformation can be will deciphered in the premise of globalization which has opened up societies and rallied popular and common values of egalitarianism and the universal disdain and condemnation of tendencies that are in sharp violation of basic human rights. The significant note to make in the foregoing outlines is that is the thrust of the cultural transformation dimensions that have been experienced by the American society with particular regard to how the American society has shifted its regard of the Cultural heritage. Popular culture indicates that the world is rallying around values of equality and harmony. These are the pervading themes in modern world culture. The passing of time together with other factors constitute the change of a people’s values and norms which also culminate from the realities pertinent to people’s lives in a particular period. In this sense, it can be argued that the values of American society during the epochs of Shakespearean culture were largely shaped by moral views of ancient times. The values derived much from the then-contemporary ideologies and philosophies that scandalously held the modern society as more intellectually endowed and hence privileged over the past generation.
Thus, the paper managed to prove the fact that the process of culture formation is never fixed in time or any particular social group. There are a lot of factors influencing cultural development; people are the background of any cultural process of formation. Nevertheless, as it was shown in the example of the Shakespearean period, every significant step in the history of culture is always presented in the modern world. It is we who should influence our culture and contribute to its development moral values and national traditions to leave a print in the history of its future.
References
Levine, Lawrence. Highbrow / Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America, London, England.
Each exhibition at MOCA is a unique opportunity for people to enjoy the beauty of the world they live in and to see how the professionals recognize the main aspects of the modern world. The exhibition under consideration is “From the Recent Past: New Acquisitions” with 50 artworks which disclose the world of photography, painting, sculpture, and video to the visitors.
The works by Frydlender, Furnas, and Janes are introduced to the public by the senior curator Alma Ruiz (“From the Recent Past: New Acquisitions”). In general, the works offered have been created between 2003 and 2010, this is why it is possible to observe some new approaches at presenting artworks as well as evaluate the possibilities which were available at the beginning of the 2000s.
People from different countries are eager to donate this exhibition in a variety of ways: photos made by Guo Yilin are given by Rosette V. Delug and works by David Thorpe are introduced by the Drawings Committee.
Of course, this list is far from being full, still, these works are one of the most successful examples of how past and present may be united. The world of art is rich indeed, and From the Recent Past: New Acquisitions is a good opportunity to learn more about the methods of how art is made by and for people.
In fact, this exhibition is available to people from March to July, this is why those who have already got a chance to enjoy the beauty of photography or video peculiarities should encourage other people who want to know more and be closer to the ideas and works offered by the professionals from different countries and with different working approaches.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA)
Vija Celmins: Television and Disaster 1964-1966 is the exhibition that is available to all visitors of LACMA. There are a number of periods during which people demonstrate their best qualities and the impact of cultural background of their vision of art. At this exhibition, it is possible to observe the works created by Clemins in the middle of the 1960s.
This amazing painter came to the United States from Latvia and showed her unique possibility to focus on one moment that could change the whole life. For example, her “Hand Holding a firing Gun” may cause a number of emotions: fear concerning inabilities to predict personal end, energy that comes from the firing gun or excitement that is observed as soon as the bullet reaches the target.
It is necessary to admit that the 1960 in many countries were characterized by violent treatment to people as well as to a variety of things. This is why it is not a surprise to find Clemins’ works devoted to violence, deaths, conflicts, and other examples of disorders.
In comparison to other exhibitions offered at the Museum, Vija Celmins: Television and Disaster 1964-1966 makes each visitor feel the taste of the 1960s and become a part of the history that was created long time ago. Technical background used by the painter seems to be a justified decision to prove how dry, scared, and, at the same time, passionate period is disclosed in Celmins’ works.
The exhibition may be found at the second level of the Ahmanson Building. It is open from March 2011 to June 2011 (“Vija Celmins: Television and Disaster 1964-1966”), so, many people still get a chance to enjoy the beauty offered by Vija Clemins.
Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibition (LACE)
Not many people are ready and able to organize an exhibition that could attract the attention of many visitors. However, the curator Cody Trepte is good at art exhibitions, this is why almost each his work becomes a unique chance for people interested in art to enlarge their level of knowledge. What Trepte chooses is the attention to Conceptualism in art with the help of which ideas are prioritized in comparison to forms.
At this exhibition, it is possible to find the works of four artists who contributed the sphere of Conceptual Art in the 1980s. They are Larry Johnson, Mitchell Syrop, Meg Cranston, and Sarah Seager (“On the Line”).
These people demonstrate the power of language in their artworks: it is not enough to present an idea, but it is more important to prove that form does not matter when the idea is considered. Text-in-art forms are preferable for this exhibition, this is why it is not only interesting to observe the achievements in the chosen sphere but also make use the words and slogans offered.
One of the most memorable works is introduced by Syrop and called “Why Does It Take a Lifetime”. The visitors are free to come to the Museum and share their opinions about conceptual works between March, 3 and April, 17.
If people want to reevaluate their lives or discover some new approaches at understanding the essence of life, they are welcome to the exhibition On the Line and think about their dignity and worth relying on the ideas offered by three amazing artists.
Sometimes, it seems to be so difficult to write about art and define the positive aspects of a particular exhibition. This is why if a person has a chance to look at works and feel the atmosphere of Conceptual Art, it is better to choose LACE.
Brooke Hodge and Her Works
The work of each artist is another powerful attempt to demonstrate how unique and unpredictable the vision of the world can be. The main theme supported in the works by Brooke Hodge is the idea of connection between contemporary fashion and architectural trend.
At MOCA, she was the curator of Skin + Bones: Parallel Practices in Fashion and Architecture where she made a considerable contribution to the world of art as well as architecture. What she finds obligatory to do is to pay attention to various details around: it seems to be better to introduce a work and create appropriate environment so that the visitor is able to comprehend the main message of the work.
With the help of her works, people are free to learn more about various types of identities: cultural identity aims at disclosing the peculiarities of the world around, political identity shows the conditions under which artworks are developed, and personal identity focuses on the ways of how people understand art and its trends.
One of the most significant ideas of Hodge’s works is to prove that it is easy to involve a person into the world of art and make him/her think about architecture as an integral part of human life.
In my opinion, the achievements demonstrated by Brooke Hodge are worth attention. She does not find it necessary to stop at one particular point but take any steps just in order to prove that she can do more. Her works involve many people as they have a number of grounds, and if you are not interested in one point, you may be passionate with another aspect of the same work.
Works Cited
“From the Recent Past: New Acquisitions.” The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. 2011. Web.
“On the Line.” Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibition. 2011. Web.
“Skin + Bones: Parallel Practices in Fashion and Architecture”. The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. 2011. Web.
“Vija Celmins: Television and Disaster 1964-1966.” Los Angeles County Museum of Art. 2011. Web.
It is like time travel to look at vintage images from the 1960s of Yves Klein creating art using the naked bodies of young women, blue paint, and paper surfaces. Watching his process of creation, it is easy to see why some members of the public threw up their hands in bafflement and disapproval at ‘modern art’, and still do so today.
It is also easy to understand the reaction of governments that provide funding for cultural activities. If the daily news is any measure, they often dismiss such displays as antics, immoral, trivial, or simply not constituting art at all.
Institutions of culture, such as museums, may have similar concerns. However, in our decade, they seem to wish to err on the side of accepting as art things that might not be art, rather than risking overlooking a work or an artist that history will show to have had merit.
Klein himself seems to have been trying to detach the experience of art from anything that would engage the viewer, largely in an institutional setting, whether by eliminating multiple colors, focusing on blue to the exclusion of all others, by directing women to use other women’s bodies as paintbrushes, or by proposing buildings entirely without walls or furniture. However, as odd as all this can seem, he has been accepted by prominent institutions, such as the Hirschorn Museum.
His proposals fit into a continuum of detachment from the real and the concrete that has been evident in the art and the writing on art in the 20th century.
In his piece entitled “The Evolution of Art towards the Immaterial”, Klein describes how he arrived at the idea that even two colors were too many. He felt that the presence of two colors would involve the viewer in a visual exercise that he did not intend. After seeing that the viewers responded to a wall of paintings of different colors by trying somehow to form them into one coherent whole, even if he did not intend that to be the interpretation. This phenomenon reflects the institutional locale in which his work appeared.
After all, if viewers were seeing one painting at a time in a private home or a corporate office, they could not make this visual collation and re-interpretation of his paintings.
In reaction to this experience, he says, “I precisely and categorically refuse to present on one surface even the interplay of two colors”[1] In this instance, the support of institutions of art actually worked against his purposes.
When one looks at the footage from a subsequent decade, documenting his works using blue women, which are conveniently recorded in snippets on YouTube[2], it is very tempting to see this as a stunt. However, in light of the readings, this approach to art fits neatly, if bizarrely, into a progression of thought and practice over the middle decades of the 20th Century.
For example, consider Michel Foucault’s adroit questioning of the whole concept of authorship[3] in What is an Author? In the case of the blue women, there is a reasonable question as to whether the author is Klein, the woman manipulating the paint-covered woman, or perhaps even the paint-covered woman herself.
The whole institutions of publishing, where the name associated with a work is crucial, as Foucault notes[4], and the emphasis on attribution in museums are all called into doubt by the use of such a technique.
As another example of how Klein’s work fits into the mood of the time, consider Germano Celant’s encouragement of “an innocent art’[5] in his piece entitled Arte Povera. In the context of Celant’s insistence on utter simplicity, nothing could be simpler.
What does the ‘poor’ artist need except a bucket of paint, a surface, and a naked body? Klein’s technique neatly eliminates the need for the whole tradition of academic art training, and associated colleges, trusts, foundations, scholarships, internships, artists’ colonies, not to speak of the entire business sector of art supply stores.
Finally, Klein’s approach to art fits with the egalitarian stance of Joseph Beuys’ essay; I am Searching for Field Character. When he states, “This most modern art discipline – Social Sculpture/Social Architecture – will only reach fruition when every living person becomes a creator, a sculptor, or architect of the social organism”[6], he could be describing the ultimate logical working out of Klein’s technique. The artist could be the brush if need be.
There is no need for training, no need for fancy diploma. The individual can simply strip, apply paint to self, and apply self to surface. The random nature of the result is clearly acceptable. Neither talent nor training is needed. Everyone can be his or her own artist. No need for art authenticators, or auction houses, or forensic art experts, and all the institutions associated with them!
In light of these readings, the 1960’s work of Klein can be seen as a logical evolution away from art that one looks at and wonders about to, eventually, art that one lives, perhaps literally.
The readings make clear that the mid-century period was a time in which the relationship of art to all sorts of institutions was being called into question. However, it has been increasingly a time when museums have been more liberal and open to new forms than ever before. Without their support, any artist would have difficulty in publicizing their work and ideas.
This continues to be the case, even in the era of the internet. Thus, there seems to be a continuing tension, observable in the context of these readings and now as well, between a need for institutions and a wish to dispense with them entirely.
Bibliography
Beuys, Joseph. “I Am Searching for Field Character.” In Art in Theory: 1900-2000, by C. Harrison and P. Wood, 929-930. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
Celant, Germano. “Arte Povera.” In Art in Theory: 1900-2000, by C. Harrison and P. Wood, 897-900. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
Foucault, Michel. “What is an Author?” In Art in Theory: 1900-2000, by C. Harrison and P. Wood, 949-953. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
Klein, Yves. “The Evolution of Art Towards the Immaterial.” In Art in Theory: 1900-2000, by C. Harrison and P. Wood, 818-820. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
—. “Yves Klein’s Anthropometries: Selection from Yves Klein: The Blue Revolution.” Hirschornmuseum. François Lévy-Kuentz. 2007. Web.
Footnotes
Klein, Yves. “The Evolution of Art Towards the Immaterial”, in Harrison, C., and Wood, P.. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 818.
(Klein, Yves Klein’s Anthropometries: Selection from Yves Klein: The Blue Revolution 2007).
Foucault, Michel. “What is an Author?”, in Harrison, C. and Wood, P. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 950.
(Foucault 2002, 949).
Celant, Germano. “Art Povera”, in Harrison, C. and Wood, P. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 899.
Beuys, Joseph. “I am Searching for Field Character”, in Harrison, C. and Wood, P. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 929.
Naum Gabo in his essay on neoplasticism and constructivism published in the book Theories of modern art tries to analyze the changes that have taken in the art world in modern years. He sees a clash between the new and the traditional forms of art with supporters of the conventional art trying hard to oppose today’s radical art (Gabo 325). To a great extent, Gabo criticizes futurists and cubists as having not made any headway in their efforts to make art more affordable to the masses.
According to him, cubists initially wanted to simplify the representative but they instead managed to provide its analysis and failed to move there (Gabo 326). Looking at the visual aesthetics of cubists, Gabo suggests that the founders of this revolution were basically working from experimentation and they did not succeed in making any meaningful change in the art world since they ended up retaining the decorative and graphic style of the old artistic styles (326).
The author’s major criticism of the futurists is the fact that they came out ‘guns blazing’ promising revolutionary changes in the way art was created only for them to stagnate at phase one.
He describes the work of futuristic as very appealing at first glance but typically ordinary beneath the surface (Gabo 1). Gabo also has an issue with the way most futurists use the concept of speed to describe their work. He sees them as individuals whose understanding of the idea of speed has been skewed to the extent that they cannot appreciate its real representative; light (327).
The painting titled “I and Village” by Marc Chagall is a clear representation of the cubist artwork which Gabo has extensively criticized in his analysis. The argument that cubist work looks nice on the surface but is essentially the same traditional painting we have been seeing has been well represented in this piece (Chagall 1). Ignoring all the surface elements, the background reveals a conventional painting hence justifying Gabo’s proposition.
In the chapter on the foundation and manifesto of futurism from the book Theories of Modern Art, F.T Martinetti supports the idea of letting bygones be bygones and giving the new generation a chance (287). He equates admiring of an old piece of art to “pouring sentiments into a funeral urn” (Martinetti, 287).
Martinetti claims that people don’t see hope for the future due to the nature of people always wanting to glorify days past. He takes the essay as an opportunity to encourage people to accept modernity and face it as it is (Martinetti 286).
According to him, the new sceneries that are cropping up as a result of industrialization have created new landscapes which modern artists have to work with to create master pieces much like Cezanne handled the skies and the mountains. Unlike other critics and writer who have made careers criticizing modern art on the premise of it undergoing revolutionary changes on a daily basis, Martinetti feels that these changes should be encouraged (286-287). In fact, he suggests from his writing that art and technology should develop in the same pace.
The painting titled “Trinities Trine” by Jess is a good representation of futuristic work. Looking at it, a viewer can clearly isolate the modern elements which Martinetti is talking about in his essay. Jess while doing the painting most likely drew inspiration from what was infront of her. This might explain the futuristic science apparatus that define the entire painting.
Piet Mondrian’s essay on neo-plasticism, he proposes that art should not be a reproduction of real objects. Mondrian finds curves to be very emotional and do not necessarily represent the plastic expression of the whole being (288). In the essay, Mondrian accepts that changes are always happening around us and it will be almost illogical for us to try and ignore them.
He suggests that the best way to appreciate change especially in the art world is to abstain from trying to block its path. According to Mondrian, linear, horizontal and vertical arrangements are harmonious in nature while abstract is seen as intelligent, pure and natural (289).
He goes ahead to explain in the essay that the more planar a painting is in the sense that it avoids the usage of three dimensional representations, the more plastic it is (Mondrian, 289). The painting “The Hunter” by Joan Miro is a good reflection of Mondrian’s ideas. It avoids the usage of three dimensional characterization and all the objects represented are entirely planar (Miro 1).
Much as the colors used in this painting deviate slightly from the primary colors which define Mondrian’s ideologies, it can also be argued that his principle on acceptance of change as it happens have led to the emergence of even more properly defined ‘plastic’ ways of art representation.
The proposal by Mondrian that all art is essentially the same in terms of content clearly manifests in this painting (Mondrian 290). This piece of art has its own means of expression in the sense that different viewers will pick up different messages when looking at it clearly goes in line with Mondrian’s line of thought (Mondrian 290).
Works Cited
Chagall, Marc. I and the Village. Museum of Modern Art, New York. Painting.
Filippo, Martinetti. “The Foundation and Manifesto of Futurism.” Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics. Ed. Herschel Gabo. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1970. 284-289. Print.
Gabo, Naum. “Neoplasticism and Constructivism.” Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics. Ed. Herschel Gabo. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1970. 325-330. Print.
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Mondrian, Piet. “Neoplasticism: The General Principle of Plastic Equivalence. “ Art in Theory: An Anthology of Changing Ideas. Ed. Harrison, Charles & Paul Wood. Great Britain: T.J. Press Ltd, 1992. 287-290. Print.
Jeff Koons is a self-proclaimed distinct artist born in 1955, who is a resident of New York: USA, where majority of his artworks exhibit. The common artwork of the artist include the inflatable balloons toys and the pink panther, beside the life-size ceramic model of the late pop star Michael Jackson holding his favourite pet, chimpanzee babbles as shown below.
According to Raine, Koons became famous for his unique artwork, which exhibited massively as a culture of iconography (1). The art was celebrated as a banality, which captured the taste of the middle-class earners. Political attack or most certainly resistance of the art forms by the public often isolates Jeff Koons’ work from other forms. Like other artists such as Pablo Picasso, who was concern with modernism, Koons’ artwork especially the celebration of banality faces criticism due to people’s different personal values.
Thesis Statement
Pollock’s argument that “feminist and Marxist approaches to art history should not work separately, but should combine to a more unified theory of social art history (18),” show that social complexities such as race, class differences ought to strengthen a piece of artwork.
Impression Presented by Banality
Jeff Koons tries to nurture views to people who can stand by their own taste and preferences through personal judgment as opposed to following influences. His response to banality is therefore as a move towards fighting guilt and shame. Jeff often urges that his venture to banality was to empower those in the middle class known as bourgeois to be imaginative, especially those who are conservative and materialistic, whose aim is to exploit the working class.
According to his argument, people deny their true being because of social differences and the urge to belong to a better social class (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1). Koons’ work is that of a post-modernism artist that highlights the social needs such as health needs for people in the twenty first century.
Post-modernism is a reaction towards consumerism, where the art accepts and cerebrate the emerging banalities (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1). A good example is the art of food that anticipates the banality of obesity or other food related affluences.
The health and social affluences such as health complications are highly concentrated with the middle class or the lower social-economic categories that are rigid to take awareness strategies critically. The artist therefore has an alternative strategy of ironically presenting the banalities of affluence instead of endorsing promotional activities that people are not ready to embrace.
Iconography vs Interpretation
Jeff Koons is also trying to emphasize that the adventure of modern art is long overdue. Contemporary art does not therefore transcend and diverge from the past or towards the future. According to Pollock, modern art is today based on reality such that its operations are real-time not distinguishable through the technical, or digital categories among others (47).
One such magnificent art is the Michael Jackson and Bubbles sculpture that comprises visually complicated art, but one that presents viewers with ambiguous perceptions and interpretations. Critical analysis of the sculpture shows that the view is allowed to make personal association. The portrait is styled in various ways with additional aspects that diverts from the pop star’s lifestyle appearance. The artist primarily creates a layer of meaning using porcelain.
This light coloured medium presents the portraits skin colour as that of the white race. The viewers are aware that the pop star was a black man and absence of black or dark colour might be taken as a hateful sign among observers. What about the pet chimpanzee, babbles that can also be easily picked as an insulting typecast to the black community due to historical derogatory considerations. The interpretation can easily go beyond the pet portrait.
The colour is a sharp contrast to the natural hue, since the portrait is gold and porcelain white except for the eyes and mouth. Gold colour can have different interpretations such as; the artwork is a luxury wealth masterpiece or it interprets sovereignty. Michael Jackson figure represents an iconic celebrity and therefore the sculpture may imply that celebrities have royal cultures. Jeff Koons’ work is therefore characterized more by interpretation than iconography.
Michael Jackson and Bubbles Sculpture
Jeff Koons, Michael Jackson, and Bubbles
Kitsch vs Art
On the line or royalty and aristocracy, Astrap Fearnley Museum of art indicates that ceramic can present art as well as universally democratized and make all art to follow common style (1).
The ceramics were initially considered to be high-class art styles, but later transformed to middle-class aesthetics and eventually they are common in contemporary high-class art works such as the Michael Jackson sculpture. There is indication that banality expressionism is today levelling the differences between art and kitsch. In relation to Wolff’ argument, the class has huge impact on forms of arts especially the production (52).
Finished artwork requires ample amount of resources particularly monetary funding to display in museums or sell in a galleries/exhibitions. Capital and social power are requirements for fostering the art in museums, journal article and as a topic of discussion in curriculums. The high-class ideology is thus a major stepping-stone, but contrary, kitsch is more popular among masses because of the involved uniqueness.
Kitsch is an ideology of artwork that was an outcome since the end of the modernism-art era. The separation between kitsch and art has caused a prosperous foundation that inspires conceptual artists like Jeff Koons. Arguably, Koons’ sculpture of Michael Jackson represented the mixture and not the distinction since the statuette is in a predominant location of a museum, with well-labelled tags representing aspects of high arts.
On the other hand, the non-ancient particularly gold-painted ceramics are rare in main museums. The “Astrup Fearnley Museum of Modern Art” in Oslo Norway houses the Michael Jackson sculpture and they emphasis on the way Jeff Koons emphasized the taste of the middle class through use of various elements (1).
Marxist Perspective or Art
Marxist’s style of analysing art has a basis on its history of production, social class, documentation and consumption. According to Wolff, if one would consider the social reasons for inventing an artwork, “art historians should extend this idea one step further and recognize that art itself participates in one or more ideologies (54).”
In line with her interpretation, “the term ideology refers to as a system of beliefs characteristic of a particular class or group (54).” Artists have different ideologies depicted on their artworks. The final production is thus an ideological creation or activity. Industrialized art works are easy to duplicate and cheaper for the purchasing power of the common person in the working class. The baroque style of production may contrary represent the luxury imitation of upper class by the middle class.
Jeff Koons’ Iconic Pink Panther
In May 2010, the Pink Panther sculpture hanging on a bare back of a pretty light-coloured feminine figure by Jeff Koons fetched approximately $30 million at Sotheby contemporary art auction (Pollock, 39). The sculpture made from porcelain was also one of the banality collections.
Like the other outstanding copies at the “Museum of modern art in New York”, “Museum of contemporary Art in Chicago” and Private collections. Pink panther was outstanding in the artist career. The represented reality fails to capture the attention of the heart as well as human feelings or presentation overcomes the situation. There is little research that forms a clear critic over Koons’ style of handling sexuality.
The Pink Panther sculpture indicates his obsession with sexuality and gender-based desires. The themes that touch on such banality aspects like sex, celebrity, awkward commerce, race and media are better aspects of addressing materialism, consumerism, contemporary lifestyles, and class or power differences (Pollock, 47). Arguably, his consideration of life was that a simple subject makes the work to be a philosophical dissertation for the social issues concerning artwork.
Jeff Koons, Pink PantherJeff Koons, Pink PantherJeff Koons, Pink Panther
Conclusion
In Marxist point of view, “it is hardly surprising that some members of the art institution are less than thrilled about kitsch’s appearance in the high art world.” When Jeff Koons was asked about his artworks, the emphasis was on the need to represent the natural feeling in the work. Most artist would not with to be labelled Kitsch since it is associable to middle and low class. Koons’ arts are nevertheless found in major museums.
His works are a clear profession of Kitsch but acceptable as art because he is able to find marketing strategies such as use of seductive finishing that indicates luxury, flawlessness and quality (Raine, 1). These are high-class ideologies that cause recognition of the artworks. The artist is thus a friend to Kitsch and the taste of the middle-class, but has high-class marketing techniques. He alleviate the middleclass themes to upper-class levels and in accordance to Marxist theory, this cross-class revolution may either imply revolution of exploitation.
Works Cited
Astrap Fearnley Museum of Art. “Jeff Koons” Astrup Fearnley Museum of Modern Art. 2011. Web.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Jeff Koons on the Roof” Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2011. Web.
Pollock, Griselda. “Vision, Voice, and Power: Feminist Art Histories and Marxism.” Vision and Difference, London: Routledge, 1988. 18-49. Print.
Raine, Craig, “The inventive art world of Jeff Koons.” London Evening Standard, 2010. Web.
Wolff, Janet. The Social Production of Art. Second Ed. New York: New York University Press, 1993. pg. 54. Print.
