One can construct knowledge in multiple ways, but the information is not always trustworthy. Tierneys Diet and Facts demonstrates that knowledge is built through an informational cascade (1). An individual can make decisions about certain questions based on other peoples assumptions, regardless of those assumptions reliability (Tierney 1). For instance, the public believes in a direct connection between fat foods and heart disease, although the scientific world has not agreed on the subject (Tierney 1-2). While some researchers have proclaimed that Americans should concentrate on low-fat diets, others prove the opposite (Tierney 1-2). Such scientific ambiguity leads people to lose confidence in previously established institutions, as the overwhelming cascade presents contrary reports.
Furthermore, each person can construct knowledge based on ones perspective. In The Constitution of Knowledge, Rauch discusses Donald Trumps attitude towards disinformation and proposes that the President believed he could create his reality (1). Rauch suggests that the highest power reaches can affect how the public perceives information, sabotaging knowledge structure (1). These days, peoples beliefs are endangered by disinformation in the face of troll attacks that distribute false news (Rauch 3). Although many institutions respond well to the attacks, others do not, such as media, social platforms, and academia (Rauch 5). When some individuals decide to modify the truth, they impact how the public constructs knowledge. While regaining the publics confidence in certain organizations may require different approaches, Rauch suggests that the community does not have to agree on facts but must follow some rules (2). People should consider scientists findings and the authorities reports, but the public should also trust its values and experiences.
Many people tend to construct knowledge that is opposed to information provided by experts. Reynolds in The Suicide of Experts states that Americans reject specialists advice, as the latter have not kept their promises on evolving the society (1). The public is reluctant to rely on experts who have led the nation to the Vietnam War, attacks of terrorism, and the subprime crisis (Reynolds 1). Reynolds recommends that experts need to be informed, modest, and persuasive to make claims that affect peoples lives (2). Knowledge is constructed by the society facing informational cascades and being disinformed. As a result, people lose confidence in particular institutions and make decisions based on prior affairs. The authorities and the scientific world should prioritize providing the public with reliable information rather than constantly arguing among themselves.
Works Cited
Rauch, Jonathan. The Constitution of Knowledge. 2018.
Reynolds, Glenn Harlan. The Suicide of Experts. 2017.
Tierney, John. Diet and Fat: A Severe Case of Mistaken Consensus. 2007.
This research project is devoted to the analysis of schedule delays and the techniques that can be used to evaluate the probable delays on the basis of the existing information regarding the parties involved in the dealings and several external factors that are typically generated by the environment. The author conducted an extensive literature review on the subject of delay analysis techniques and reviewed the most popular of them. Then, they switched to the description of the use of delay analysis techniques in industry and research. It was found that the functionality of delay analysis programs is almost limitless and relies solely on the complexity of the project at hand. This led the researcher to the conclusion that appropriate delay analysis techniques can be chosen only when all the necessary information is acquired.
Types of Project Lifecycles
The first type of project lifecycles is called predictive, but it is also known as fully plan-driven. When dealing with this kind of lifecycle, the manager has to provide an all-inclusive review of three major limitations of any project time, cost, and scope. This allows the team to divide the project into stages and develop it either sequentially or using overlapping. This type of project lifecycles includes a high-level planning for the long-term project objectives and the detailed planning for the assignments that have to be done in the near future. In real life, predictive lifecycles are typical of construction projects because all the details have to be figured out before the completion of each of the stages of the project.
The next type of project lifecycles is called iterative and incremental. It also features a stage split-up, but the manager is not required to determine the scope in a detailed manner ahead of time. This has to be done for the first phase only, as all the succeeding phases will be addressed later. This kind of project lifecycles is often met in large projects that require the team to work on several short-term goals divided into stages at once while trying to achieve the long-term objective (such approach is typical of market moguls). The last type of project lifecycles is called adaptive (also known as agile). This approach is characteristic of IT projects because the majority of them are exposed to rapid changes that have to be addressed immediately. More to say, the iterations are much faster than in any of the previously mentioned types of lifecycles. At the end of each iteration, the customer is required to review the product and provide feedback in order to build another set of priorities for the team working on the project.
Schedule Delay Analysis Research
Introduction
Within a construction environment, it is rather common that both the contractor and employer are worried about the time for performance. Therefore, in order to make correct decisions and save time and money, these contracting parties have to evaluate project delays so as not to fail or deal with compensation claims (AbouRizk 1142). With time, more and mode delay analysis techniques were developed in order to help these specialists in terms of decision-making. It did not help them to get rid of numerous disputes regarding delay claims. The problem with the disputes is the presence of major limitations associated with the practical use of schedules and capabilities of the individuals responsible for developing these agendas.
The specialists that work in the area have to understand the background of these issues in order to be able to cope with such deficiencies successfully. They also have to realize the significance of different techniques used throughout the process of schedule delay analysis. During the existing project, the author is going to dwell on the knowledge that is necessary to conduct proper schedule delay analysis and evaluate the key issues associated with this area of practice (AbouRizk 1146). To conclude, the researcher will address the improvements that can be implemented and confirm that the uniqueness of schedule delay practices may critically contribute to the processes of obtaining positive analysis results and finding new ways of applying them. Even though the majority of these aspects are recurrently overlooked throughout the process of analysis, schedule delays can be relying on programming software, concurrent delays, and resource stocking. In other words, the researcher is going to identify the necessary improvements and provide several recommendations on the basis of their findings.
Research Objective
Within the framework of the current research project, the investigator is going to review the concept of schedule delay analysis and review relevant literature on the subject. A number of research questions will be answered and supported with evidence from scientific journals. The researcher is keen on identifying the key viewpoints on schedule delay analysis in industry and research and assess its efficiency on the basis of acquired materials.
Literature Review
According to the reviewed literature, one of the key objectives of schedule delay analysis is the identification of projected delays. This allows the experts to work backward and assess the attribution of these delays to all the parties involved in the process. By the end of that process, the experts can reach a verdict regarding the compensations in terms of cost and time (Gonzalez et al. 117). There are four main questions that have to be answered by the experts before they can go to the next stage of the analysis:
What was expected to occur?
What did, in fact, occur?
Were there any critical discrepancies?
How did these discrepancies impact the project schedule?
There are quite a few delay analysis techniques that are based on different contractor requirements. There are two groups that can be defined as the core of schedule delay analysis non-CPM (Critical Path Method) and CPM-centered techniques. Within the framework of the current literature review, the author was able to identify that these techniques were usually associated with several plans impacted as-planned, as-planned but for, as-planned vs. as-built, window analysis, collapsed as-built, and time impact analysis. Knowing that there are so many different outcomes, it may be safe to say that the variety of techniques has an inextricable impact on the modes of application of the techniques mentioned above. The main problem with all of the techniques consists in the fact that the majority of real-life projects do no go as planned and tend to turn out to be way more complex than expected regardless of the projected benefits and damage. Based on this information, it can be reasonable to assume that such real-life cases may help us to collect the information that will help us to analyze the information and build projections of the future schedule delay analyses intended to calculate the compensations in terms of cost and time. The difference in the modes of application also creates a gap between the analysis details because of the varying levels of the assessment process (Gonzalez et al. 119).
The methods such as as-planned vs. as-built are majorly considered to be unsophisticated when it comes to the analysis of a program without pivotal modifications. On the other hand, there are time impact analysis and collapsed as-built methods that are perceived as the additive, seriously modified programs that can be identified as the sophisticated counterparts of the techniques mentioned above. Even though the sophisticated group requires more resources, time, and expertise, it provides the parties with much more accurate results. The latter occurs owing to the rigorous analysis that is the foundation of sophisticated techniques. The most preferred techniques that are recurrently used by owners and contractors include as-planned but for, impacted as-planned, and collapsed as-built. According to the evidence from the literature, they choose these techniques because they help them to establish the projected delays almost on the spot and associate them with either activities or hesitancies of a certain party involved in the project (Gonzalez et al. 119). These hesitancies can be merely inserted or removed in order to make the techniques work. Based on the information identified during the literature review, the researcher can conclude that the use of delay analysis techniques depends on the situation. The majority of delay claims situations are critically different, and there is no possibility to apply a single general method to deal with a variety of schedule issues. There should be several criteria that will direct the future use of any given technique. Regardless, the process of choosing an appropriate technique is determined as one of the major issues inherent in the environments where delay analyses are performed recurrently.
Schedule Delay Analysis in Industry
In industry, schedule delay analysis is most effective when used in the form of a simulation. It can be advantageous in the case where uncertainty interferes with the intention to resolve the problem because it provides a number of different opportunities to deal with construction claims that are based on probabilistic phenomena. Therefore, there are numerous activities that can be modeled in a probabilistic manner (Braimah 508). These activities include the breakdown of equipment, material delivery, resource branching, and the availability of crews. Even though there are numerous other delay analysis techniques, simulation offers the experts an incredible level of uncertainty that can be modeled by means of specific software. The process of analyzing schedule delays within the industrial context cannot be performed without simulation because the latter removes almost all of the uncertainty from construction operations and other problems at hand. The author of the current report recommends using simulation modeling with cyclic networks and basic linear projects that include tedious responsibilities. The effectiveness of such approach is validated by the literature on the subject (Braimah 510). As an example, the researcher can use the earthmoving operation.
As a rule, the schedule is influenced by many factors. Each of them can have a positive or negative impact and cause the delay. Upadhyay et al. (1312) analyze the case of schedule delay in construction projects in Gwalior. The researchers define the top most hazardous factors causing schedule delay in the Gwalior region and neighboring areas by using the relative importance index (R.I.I.) method (Upadhyay et al. 1312). The definitions of dangers can increase chances to minimize schedule delay in construction projects and, as a result, the negative influence of such delays can be reduced. Figure 1 depicts correlation between the most dangerous schedule delay factors and their R.I.I.
Fig. 1. Graph between the top 10 most significant factors and their R.I.I. value (Upadhyay et al. 1314).
Thus, ineffective planning and scheduling, which is contractor related, is the most dangerous factor that can cause schedule delay. Other contractor related factors include the lack of skill of a contractor and constant change of subcontractors (Upadhyay et al. 1314). The second hazardous factor for schedule delay in the Gwalior region includes errors and lateness in producing design papers. Another design related factor is the lack of skills of the design team, but it is less significant. Also, such owner related factors as lateness of project outflows or poor understanding of construction peculiarities can be important, (Upadhyay et al. 1315). Other meaningful dangerous factors include late delivery of materials for construction, shortage of working force, and delays in services provision (Upadhyay et al. 1315). These factors can be similar for different projects in the construction industry. However, their relative importance index would vary depending on the location and other specific circumstances and thus should be calculated individually.
Another important point associated with the concept of schedule delay analysis in the industry is flexibility. Modern simulation tools are rather powerful and offer a number of advantages that can extend the practice. Currently, almost any practitioner is able to build trendsetting structures aimed at the facilitation of the decision-making process while accurately displaying the real operations. The researcher draws parallels between the industrial use of delay analysis techniques and the use of simulation in construction. For instance, a lift (perceived as a construction site asset) can be assembled by means of several gantries that should be taken into consideration together with a variety of external conditions that can impact the overall process (such as the availability of resources) (Braimah 514). Another issue that can be addressed by means of delay analysis techniques is the willingness of all the parties involved in the process to come to an integrated solution. Here, all the processes, resources, and views have to be integrated into the technique in order to create a great medium for decision-making.
The author of the current report was able to identify that delay analysis might be the most leveled means of addressing resource interactions, logical constraints, and relationships between the elements. The author of the report proposes to explore the method of simulation further so as to improve the state of affairs of industrial delay analysis techniques. There are modeling capabilities that yet have to be achieved in order to help the industry specialists to adopt simulation tools successfully. The future of this approach is promising, and there is no point to overlook the possibilities that are presented by delay analysis techniques in association with simulation (Braimah 520). The key challenge that may interfere with the improvements is the inability to incorporate an integrated simulation asset into the existing industrial environments. The former will have to support real-time input and collaborative functioning in order to describe intricate industrial models. This led the researcher to the conclusion that the concept of industrial delay analysis has to pay more attention to parallel computing opportunities and the notion of model decomposition. These two conceptions may become the triggers that will facilitate the processes of modeling delay analysis and decision-making.
Despite careful planning, schedule delays are frequent in industries such as construction. They postpone the completion date and demand constant adjustments of the schedule. Braimah (512) provides project delay analysis applying the technique As-Planned vs. As-Built. It presupposes changes to the project every time the delay happens. For example, the impact of the first delay can be observed in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Impact of the first delay (Braimah 512).
Thus, it is evident from the figure that delay of three days in making a concrete foundation results in three days of delay for project completion. In this technique, the days of delay are added in a sequence to the scheduled project. For example, Figure 3 pictures the consequences of the seventh delay.
Fig. 3. Impact of the seventh delay (Braimah 515).
t can be noticed that the initial scheduled completion in 40 days changed. Apart from the delay with concrete foundation, three days were added because of lateness in the stage of brickwork to the roof level and one day was wasted for concrete to floor slab. Delays in drive-inns were also present but they did not influence the completion date.
On the whole, schedule delays in industry can have unwanted consequences, particularly financial. Thus, despite the reasons for delays such as unfavorable weather, unpredictable problems with the site, troubles with material delivery, etc., the completion date will be moved. The extension of the construction period is likely to increase the expenses for the construction. The more delays are there, the more expensive a project can be. Thus, it is important to evaluate the possible delay risk factors to provide completion within a planned period.
Schedule Delay Analysis in Research
Within the context of delay analysis research, delay claims can be identified as one of the major sources of the skirmish, not to say that it is rather challenging to resolve them. There were numerous attempts made aimed at the development of strict delay analysis techniques that would facilitate the processes of claim resolution and practice documents development. Taking this into consideration, the researchers dealing with schedule delay analysis techniques came to the conclusion that the process of application of these techniques could be improved only by means of increased capabilities and abridged limitations that interfered with the real-life practice (Braimah 523). For the most part, schedule delay analysis in research has to be perceived as one of the key issues that are not addressed by the existing delay analysis techniques yet. Nonetheless, the author of the report was able to identify that the existing variety of delay analysis techniques could be utilized to allocate delay responsibilities.
In order to be able to do that, researchers would have to go through numerous instances of claims and reinforce the concept of the most appropriate technique for each given project and coexisting circumstances. This finding hints at the idea that in research, all the parties have to rely on a number of distinctive requirements that are characteristic of a certain technique. On the other hand, there are several issues that cannot be perceived separately from the process of delay analysis such as resource loading, concurrent delay, and leveling supplies. If these factors are incorporated into the research process, it will be expected to provide accurate, trustworthy results (Braimah 524). Nonetheless, the problem here consists in the fact that these analysis results are mostly overlooked by the existing data analysis techniques. There are special, custom-designed software packages that function on the basis of certain capabilities and functionalities but they are not as transparent as they are expected to be. Taking this into consideration, the author of the report can conclude that a good-natured settlement of the delay claim dispute is unachievable in the case where at least one of the parties that are involved in the project does not perform its duties responsibly (Braimah 527).
This leads the researcher to the conclusion that there have to be common grounds for the parties to reach an agreement on and justify the use of delay analysis techniques. Nonetheless, it has to be mentioned that the requirement of utilizing programs to analyze delays always has to be taken into consideration because of its direct connection with the plan of work. The latter will not be reflected correctly if the program does not dictate the spot-on usage of the available resources. This approach may lead to unreliable results that cannot help researchers to resolve claims (Braimah 529). At the same time, there is very little information on how the delay analysis techniques can integrate such approach to schedule delays. It has to be researched further because there is no reasonable way to resolve concomitant delays. The latter is one of the most complex issues known to researchers because it is not included in any of the existing delay analysis techniques. It is recommended to employ either the windows or time periods method so as to cope with the adverse impact of this challenge. This critical approach is expected to help researchers to track changes and implement the concept of diverse time intervals into practice.
Conclusion
It is safe to say that the current review on the subject of schedule delay analysis provided the readers with extensive evidence regarding the techniques of identifying and mitigating delays. These activities can be based either on the occurrence of events or their statuses. It is advised to use the delay pacing strategy in order to minimize the chances of being impacted by either controlling or dominant delay that can influence both contractors and owners. Nonetheless, there are different issues that can interfere with the process of getting rid of delays and creating a different pace. This means that schedule delay analysis techniques can be used as a means of determining the cause of delays. The current research project provided the readers with the information regarding the existing delay analysis techniques and dwelled on the implications of the latter to the process of their application. This is an important aspect to consider because delay analysis techniques can be used to improve the state of affairs at the site and limit the number of both fair and unfair delay claims. The author of the current study believes that more real-life project data has to be acquired and evaluated in order for the experts in the area to be able to validate such findings and apply them to realistic scenarios.
Works Cited
AbouRizk, Simaan. Role of Simulation in Construction Engineering and Management. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 136.10 (2010): 1140-1153.
Braimah, Nuhu. Construction Delay Analysis Techniques A Review of Application Issues and Improvement Needs. Buildings 3.3 (2013): 506-531.
Gonzalez, Pablo, et al. Analysis of Causes of Delay and Time Performance in Construction Projects. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 140.1 (2013): 116-121.
Upadhyay, Anil, et al. A Case Study on Schedule Delay Analysis in Construction Projects in Gwalior. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 3, no. 5, 2016, pp. 1312-1315.
The sense of belonging is a critical part of an individuals identity. Therefore, while longing for individualism, people still need to be a part of a broader community. The participation opportunity in question allows them to share knowledge and information, while also comparing their social status to that on of others and, therefore, improving their self-esteem (Hill, 2008). Due to the need for an approval within the context of a social hierarchy, as well as compliance with group norms and traditions in order to ensure participation in key rituals, people follow the concept of tribes in their social life.
The requirement to meet the standards set within a specific tribe is also linked to several important concepts associated with peoples ability to mimic the established norm. In case of failing to meet certain standards of the tribe naturally, its members or people from the outside try to integrate into the community in question. As a result, they may attempt at developing the skill of passing (Fought, 2006). The specified notion suggests the ability to mimic specific characteristics of the tribe in question and comply with its standards and values so that an individual could be seen as a part of the group even without being as such (Fought, 2006).
In this regard, the notion of selling out should also be addressed as one of the crucial principles associated with tribalism and the willingness to integrate into a certain community successfully. Implying that a group of people previously ostracized within a broader community gives up some elements of their unique identity in order to become better integrated into the community in question is typically referred to as selling out (Fought, 2006). As a rule, the notion of selling out is seen as negative since it incorporates the idea of rejecting a part of ones individual identity in order to conform to the social norms. For example, Hill (2008) explains that the need to conform and meet the set standards, when set by the dominant culture, often implies racism and suggests that one must hide ones cultural and ethnic identity and its key markers in order to advance within society (Hill, 2008).
The attempts at hiding ones ethnic heritage by trying to pass as a white person and, therefore, escape racism could be seen as one of the examples of selling out in the context of tribalism, according to Hill (2008). The specified change takes a tremendous cultural toll on people that prefer to succumb to the demands of a racist society rather than suffer everyday racism and segregation. However, the efforts to mimic the norm appear to be detrimental in their nature. Instead, embracing the concept of multiculturalism and promoting the expansion of the norm must be seen as a healthy alternative.
Sine tribes create a sense of belonging by reinforcing the significance of the marker of social hierarchy and the importance of compliance with set traditions. Thus, building the sense of ethnicity based on specific cultural knowledge and prerequisites, they are central to ones sense of belonging. Consequently, the excessive focus on tribalism is likely to lead to instances of discrimination against those that fail to meet the established standards, especially if these standards in some way involve particular physical characteristics, such as the tone of skin or the presence of specific traits defined as masculine or feminine. By questioning the specified standards, one will be able to encourage the development of inclusivity within the global community.
References
Fought, C. (2006). Language and ethnicity. Cambridge University Press.
Hill, J. H. (2008). The everyday language of white racism. Wiley.
Being able to categorize the general population into specific groups based on certain characteristics is vital for the understanding of how people see themselves and others, as well as define the salient effects that the said properties have on how peoples perceptions of others and interaction with each other are shaped. For this reason, the notions of race and gender need to be considered as two of the key protected characteristics that determine the perception of otherness within a community and the shaping of criteria that define allegiance to a particular group (Lorber 16). Whereas in Brazil, race is inherently tied to social factors, such as wealth and social status, and gender expression is promoted solely from the rigidly conservative perspective of gender roles, in the U.S., race is believed to be a combination of biological and cultural factors, while rigid adherence to gender roles is seen as an outdated concept.
Due to the multiple differences in culture and diversity rates, the Brazilian perception of race is quite dissimilar to that one promoted in the U.S., with a much heavier emphasis on class structures. The observed trend could be attributed to the fact that the vast majority of Brazilian people do not belong to the European American culture and, instead, are related closely to the African American one (Fish). Therefore, the perception of race as strongly connected to the concept of class and social struggle I prevalent in the Brazilian setting. In turn, in the U.S., profiling based on the color of the skin is prevalent, as Mullings (35) explains. Therefore, while the situation with racism is quite strenuous in both countries, the focus on the tangible physical traits is needed to retain the focus on the vulnerable groups that face prejudices regularly based on the color of their skin.
Similarly, understanding the nature of gender biases, specifically inherent sexism remaining one of the major concerns within the Brazilian society, needs to be promoted. While in the U.S., the notion of gender expression has been largely supported over the past decade, the Brazilian community has been significantly less lenient toward the idea of challenging femininity- and masculinity-related stereotypes (Kulick 574). Therefore, promoting a social perspective on the issues at hand while recognizing the biological premise on which the discrimination is built is vital both for the U.S. and Brazil.
The perception of race and the stance of gender expression in Brazil is significantly different from that in the U.S., mostly due to the connection between race and social factors in the former and the disapproval of rigid gender roles in the latter. While there is currently no single solution to the issue at hand that would satisfy the needs of all those involved, including every marginalized group, it is important to keep the focus on the needs of those the least privileged (Layton and Smith 53). Therefore, to encourage improvements in the American and Brazilian social context, the subversion of the traditional gender roles and the promotion of a more flexible perception of men presenting as feminine and women presenting as masculine must be promoted, In turn, to address the face issue, a deep understanding of how the differences in physical appearance have defined the attitudes toward people of African descent must be reevaluated so that the current notion of social justice could incorporate the needs of the African American community as well, making it more visible.
Kulick, Don. The Gender of Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes. American Amthropologist, vol. 99, no. 3, 1997, pp. 574-585.
Layton, Matthew L., and Amy Erica Smith. Is it race, class, or gender? The sources of perceived discrimination in Brazil. Latin American Politics and Society, vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 52-73.
Lorber, Judith. Night to His Day: Social Constructions of Gender. In Paradoxes of Gender. Yale University Press, 1994.
Mullings, Leith. The Sojourner Syndrome: Race, Class, and Gender in Health and Illness. Voices, 2002.
Gender is usually divided into two sexes, namely male and female, in modern society. Traditionally, gender is determined by various physiological features, such as genitalia. Being a member of a definite gender implements specific societal roles. These roles may vary in different cultures, but they are precisely determined in most cases. However, the sexual dichotomy is not justified and should be challenged because there are more than two genders from the biological viewpoint, meaning that social construction cannot be that simplistic.
First, the social construction of gender is founded on the biological features of a person. When a child is born, they are assigned to a specific sex category based on the look of their genitalia (Lorber, 1994). Then, the sex category defines the gender status of a person through various gender markers, such as naming and dressing (Lorber, 1994). Humans create specific processes which illustrate sexual dichotomy because people of one gender are treated differently from those of the other. Newborn babies are dressed in a way that shows their sex category because parents want to emphasize that visually (Lorber, 1994). Gender defines the kinds of jobs people can take and sets different functions for mothers and fathers (Lorber, 1994). For instance, it is accepted in most parts of the developed world that working in mines is not a job for females. That is why during their personal development process, people obtain different skills, consciousness, feelings, relationships (Lorber, 1994). Everything mentioned above demonstrates that the social construction of gender is sustained in modern society while being a member of the specific gender defines many aspects of peoples lives.
However, the social construction of gender is not appropriate because the methods of determining a sex category are imperfect. As mentioned earlier, gender is defined at birth depending on the look of a babys genitalia, but there are significant exceptions. For instance, in the podcast hosted by Zomorodi (2020), one of the speakers was Emily Quinn, an intersex. This term means that particular physiological features do not allow to define a person as a male or a female (Zomorodi, 2020). Quinn states that judging by her look, she is a woman, yet she was born with XY chromosomes, and she has a vagina and balls, which makes her an intersex (Zomorodi, 2020). Quinn uses her physiological features to illustrate that gender cannot be divided into two parts because the biology of sex is much more complex than that (Zomorodi, 2020). Therefore, society should challenge the sexual dichotomy because it is established inappropriately. The facts mentioned above demonstrate that, from the biological viewpoint, there are more than two genders, meaning that societal predeterminations are either incomplete or incorrect.
On the whole, the social construction of gender is based on sexual dichotomy, which is imperfect and should be challenged because the biology of sex is highly complicated. In most cultures, gender is a role that people have to play, meaning that being a member of a specific gender often defines what people wear, where they work, and what they do. However, gender is assigned as the biological determination of a sex category that is based on genitalia. That determination is imperfect because many people are born with physiological features that do not allow to attribute them to males or females. People treat each other differently based on gender, have different functions and expectations. Nonetheless, it appears wrong because the biological determination process that leads to the sexual dichotomy is too narrow.
References
Lorber, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender. Yale University Press.
Zomorodi, M (Host). (2020-present). The biology of sex [Audio Podcast]. TED.
There have been many discussions about gender differences. Some people argue that boundaries between man and woman are created by nature. But post modern feminists argue that there are no natural building blocks between genders. It is the society that structures human being in a particular way to keep differences. Here the main arguments of post modern feminists on the topic are discussed.
Postmodern feminism and its theory of gender as social construction
It is not right to think biological difference between male and female is same as gender difference between man and woman. In western culture, there are only two genders. Generally people are called man or woman according to their behavior, dress pattern etc. But in many other societies there are people who belong between male and female. For example, in Indian society there is a third gender type known as hijras. They are biologically males but would dress and behave like women and are called as male women in western society. So, gender difference varies according to society. The building blocks of gender are socially constructed statuses. (Lorber 3).
Gender classification starts right after the birth of human babies. Babies are named according to the appearance of genitalia. They are dressed like how peers in the same gender are done. After getting the idea about the gender, others begin to behave to the child in a different way from they do with peers in other gender. People keep this difference with the child in the way and the things they talk. This difference also has great role in shaping their sexual feelings. Parents would be careful to direct boys and girls in separate ways to meet their expectations which are derived from the conventional concept of society. Society assigns separate responsibilities for father and mother. Attitude of people towards the difference between male and female can vary according to society and culture. But, no society keeps same approach towards male and female.
Problems and solutions
For society, gender is one of the many ways of keeping differences among human beings. Bu, this difference is not same as the biological differences between male and female. As part of keeping gender difference, society has reserved certain jobs for men and women. Men are assigned jobs which require lots of hard works and women are more responsible for taking care of small babies. This way is being practiced for long years. Naturally, women learned only those kinds of jobs which need less physical hard work.
Now there are females who can do the works which require physical hard work. And there are many males who take care of their small kids. Male and female do these works breaking the limitations assigned by society. The method of differentiating men and women is society and is possible to cross the boundaries set by society by learning and practices.
Conclusion
Post modern feminists argue that the differences the nature has kept on male and female are quite different from the social construction of difference between men and women. They mention lots of evidences to argue this point. Even though there are variations according to society and culture, males got lots of priorities in such a social structuring. Women are the victims of this kind of social structuring. There are many evidences to prove that women can do almost all works that men do. But, in major parts of the world, society is not ready to recognize this fact.
Works Cited
Lorber, Judith. Night to his day : The Social Construction of Gender. Yale University Press, 1994. Web.
Gender is an underlying characteristic of all societies, and the social construction of gender roles, behaviors, and expectations is an important aspect of modern society. Seeking to understand how gender is constructed and how gender expectations influence our lives, this essay will provide an in-depth analysis of how gender is constructed.
Furthermore, we will discuss sex and gender and the role gender plays in modern American society with a focus on the social implications of sexism. Finally, we will conclude with a summation of the research explored here and discuss the ramifications of gender role construction today.
How Is Gender Socially Constructed?
Unlike sex, gender is artificially imposed, and although based upon biological differences between men and women, gender is socially constructed. As a social construct, gender roles, behaviors, attitudes, and expectations are created by society and enforced by social norms.
The funny thing about gender is that we are led to believe that it is innate and something that we are born with. As Aaron Devor so eloquently points out in his ground-breaking and incredibly illuminating essay, Gender Role, Behavior, and Attitudes, gender is created, acquired, and constructed by the greater society at large. Sex has a biological basis and is predetermined at birth.
Gender, on the other hand, is a social construction, and gender roles and expectations are unique to each and every society. As social actors, individuals play an important role in the construction and creation of gender roles, attitudes, and expectations and are not simply passive recipients of societal expectations about how men and women are to behave (Devor 458-463).
In his lucid analysis of the construction of gender, Aaron Devor explores the socially constructed nature of gender in modern society and persuasively argues for a reevaluation of traditional gender role expectations in modern society.
Seeking to dispel the myths surrounding sex and gender, this author persuasively argues that a gender hierarchy is embedded within our society and unmasks the argument for the naturalness of gender roles, behaviors, and expectations.
Asserting that gender roles are created and not innate, he argues that the naturalness argument for gender has no biological basis and is a social construction. Our society is organized under a patriarchal gender schema in which men and women, as dichotomous members of the gender hierarchy, are situated on opposite ends of the schema.
While we are taught from a very young age to believe that gender differences are normal and natural, Devor actually asserts that a power imbalance underlies the gender hierarchy so prevalent in our society and informs our beliefs about gender (Devor 458-463).
Patriarchy is defined as a type of social structure in which men are perceived as being superior to women, and it is impossible to understand the construction of gender roles and expectations in modern Western society without first understanding the omnipresent patriarchal nature of our society.
Patriarchy is subconscious and not universal. In fact, matriarchy, a society that is structured with women at the helm, has been found in places as diverse as Latin America, India, and parts of Africa (Amadiume 1997). Despite the global diversity, modern Western culture is characterized by its patriarchal nature, and this has important implications in a variety of social realms.
Social stratification can be explained by the gender hierarchy. Female job ghettos, including teachers, nurses, and librarians, tend to be overpopulated with women and characterized by low wages and prestige. Interestingly, Devor points out that these jobs tend to be based upon the same characteristics which are viewed as innate to women.
Feminine qualities like caring and nurturing are found in job descriptions for employment in the pink collar ghetto of daycare workers, elementary school teachers, and nurses. Gender role expectations are also explained through social cues such as body posture and demeanor, speech patterns, and dress style.
The nature of these cues lends credence to the argument that gender is socially constructed, and the way we talk, the way we carry ourselves, and the types of clothes we wear are all determined by social forces. You would be hard-pressed to find someone who says today that women wear dresses because they have a biological need to do so; this would be an example of sex stereotypes and sexism (Devor 460-463).
Accordingly, sexism is a scourge in American society that affects the overall quality of life for women today. Sexism is the belief that one sex is superior to the other and generally implies ideas about superiority and inferiority between sex and gender.
While some societies are characterized as matriarchal, much of Western society is patriarchal, and the United States is no exception. The patriarchal nature of American society is explained by various social and historical factors beyond the scope of this assignment.
Nonetheless, while women in America have made incredible gains in the social, economic, cultural, and political spheres over the past century, sexism remains a prevalent aspect of our society. Sexism is the result of the social construction of gender in society, and while it can be overt, latent, or suppressed, it exists and has a variety of wide social repercussions.
Accordingly, women in America earn less than their male counterparts, and the employment mobility of women is often hindered by preconceived ideas about sexuality and the economic roles that women can play in the modern world. Anthropologists and cultural theorists have written for years about a pink ghetto in which women are regulated to a sector of the labor market which is poorly remunerated and oftentimes unrewarding.
Ideas about womens work force women into so-called female ghettos in which women predominate, and their upward social mobility is hindered by preconceived notions of what women can (and should) do. Accordingly, there is also an invisible glass ceiling which limits the future job prospects of women in American society and their future earning power.
Looking at the medical sector again, a profession formerly limited to men, the New England Journal of Medicine reports that as in young male physicians earned 41% more per year than young female physicians (Baker, 960). Is this the result of sexism, either latent or overt? Although it is difficult to say, it is important to remember that these disparities do, in fact, exist and have real-world implications.
Gender Is a Social Construct: Essay Conclusion
Aaron Devors arguments in Gender Role, Behavior, and Attitudes persuasively argue that gender is socially constructed and culturally specific. Accordingly, gender role expectations are largely a product of social forces and are the result of systemic power imbalances in our society. These expectations and attitudes serve to reinforce discrimination based on gender and are socially constructed.
The social construction of gender influences behaviors, roles, attitudes, and expectations, and because of the hierarchical nature of gender in our society, masculinity becomes superior, and femininity is deemed to be inferior. Because of a socially enforced gender code, our engrained ideas about gender are incredibly difficult to change.
We are all products of our own individual societies, and we subconsciously impart the ideas and beliefs which make up our cultures. Ideas about gender roles are subsequently often unquestioned since they are perceived to be so integral to our understanding of how the world works. Understanding that gender is a construction is perhaps the first step in breaking free from the bonds of gender.
References
Amadiume, I. (1997). Re-inventing Africa: Matriarchy, Religion, and Culture. London: Zed Books.
Baker, L C. (1996). Differences in Earnings between Male and Female Physicians. New England Journal of Medicine. 334.15: 960-964.
Devor, A. (1993). Gender Role, Behavior and Attitudes . Annual Review of Sex Research, 7, 44-89.
Devor, A. (1997). Toward a Taxonomy of Gendered Sexuality. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 6(1), 23-55.
hooks, bell. 1981. Aint I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism. Boston: South End Press.
City officials should be convinced of the necessity of building bicycle lanes and other facilities like bicycle parking and rental. An immediate solution is required, because, even though the bicycle is an eco-friendly and convenient transport, there are few bicycle routes in the area, and cyclists often endanger their lives on the roads.
Purpose
My primary purpose is to convince the city authorities of the need to begin the construction of bicycle lanes. Therefore, I aim to enlist the support of those in charge and insist on allocating budget money to build bicycle lanes in the nearest green areas. I also intend to draw the public and authorities attention to a poorly regulated situation on the roads, which endangers the life and health of cyclists. In this regard, I am going to attract the support of the public in need to expand the roadway where possible with the aim of building bicycle lanes. Besides, I want to create a public committee that will help the city authorities with the development of bicycle routes.
Target Audience
The fundamental responsibility for implementing the changes will lay on the mayor, the city council, relevant city committees, and the public committee. If the plan for the construction of new bicycle routes is implemented, many members of the local community will benefit from it. Firstly, the situation on the road will be improved, which is a benefit for most drivers. Secondly, more citizens will use bicycles instead of cars for their daily trips, which will reduce traffic and improve peoples health. Finally, adolescents schoolchildren and students, will get the opportunity to move around the area safely and gain greater independence.
Setting
I am going to write a speech about my community, where many young families live, as well as single working people, families with older children, and people of retirement age. All these community members are engaged in various jobs, and many will not be able to use bicycles for everyday commuting. Therefore, the public committee intends to develop routes for trips to local shops and green areas. Special attention will be paid to routes connecting residential areas with local schools and other educational institutions. For the construction of these routes, standards with increased safety requirements will be applied. Thus, all members of the local community will be satisfied. Besides, everyone will have the chance to make suggestions through the public committee.
Pathos
To make my arguments more compelling to the audience, I will use the tools of the rhetorical triangle ethos, pathos, and logos. I will need to determine the values, priorities, and moods of my target audience to use the pathos tool (Crick, 2017). Among the core values and priorities of the community, family values, work ethics, and social values can be singled out, as well as personal and friendly relations. At the same time, the main priority of the community, in this case, is road safety, ease of movement around the city, and the recreational function of bicycle paths in green areas. The emotions of the local community are related to the listed values and priorities.
At the same time, the city council and the mayor have slightly different values and priorities. In particular, their political image the way they look in the eyes of the community is of great importance to them. At the same time, the city authorities priority is the success of the completed changes, since they are the ones in charge of the consequences. The emotions of this target audience are related to the listed values and priorities. If the creation of new bicycle routes becomes a problem, it will be a severe blow to the reputation of the city authorities. Therefore, I should think through the scheme of executing my plan well and bring it to the target audience so that the result does not disappoint anyone.
Ethos
In my speech, I will also use ethos since I am going to convince the audience that I am competent in the given issue. Mastering the topic suggests that I am ready for questions and disagreements with my speech (Crick, 2017). The main dispute will most likely arise between the unwillingness of the city authorities to make a mistake and the urgent need to solve the problem. City officials are likely to speculate that expanding the roadway for cycling routes will only exacerbate the problem. At the same time, community representatives can voice valid concerns regarding cyclist safety. All these opinions will be based on the misconception that cyclists are not equal participants in road traffic. Therefore, traffic rules and building architectural standards will become common ground, based on which everyone will be able to reach a consensus.
Logos
To justify the proposed solution to the problem, I will use logos as well. I can take examples of solutions to a similar problem in other cities. Traffic accident statistics for the areas where changes were introduced with a low percentage of traffic incidents involving cyclists will be a good argument in favor of the proposed solution. I will also base my message on the logic of laws that define cyclists as equal participants in road traffic. In doing so, I will need to avoid logical fallacies such as incorrect presentation of statistics not to mislead my audience.
Conclusion
Thus, the thesis was evaluated using the rhetorical situation and rhetorical tools. To summarize, the purpose of my appeal to the city authorities and the local community is to build bicycle lanes and to create new bicycle routes. I am going to appeal to the district where people of all ages and social situations live. In my speech, I will use pathos, ethos, and logos rhetoric tools.
Reference
Crick, N. (2017). Rhetorical public speaking: Civic engagement in the digital age. London, UK: Routledge.
Gender refers to the social construction of the differences between men and women. A good example of the social construction of gender is the belief that all men are brave and strong, while all women are coward and weak. Sex is described as the biological differences between men and women. An example of a biological difference is the anatomy of the human body. While men have beards, muscular bodies, and deep voices, women do not have beards, have soft voices, and are less muscular than men (Connel 2009: 72).
Different people have different attitudes towards men and women. The attitudes are either implicit or explicit. Both implicit and explicit attitudes are sometimes correct but are not always true (Cherry 2015: par.3). For example, while it is correct that men are courageous and able to excel in tough subjects like mathematics, not all of them are able to do so. In some cases, women may outshine men in mathematics. In order to confirm a certain gender stereotype; therefore, it is necessary to do research about the stereotype to avoid misleading conclusions (Mora and Ruiz 2000: 34).
Example
Gender stereotypes are related to ambivalent sexism, which is the coexistence of positive and negative attitudes towards a particular sex. Ambivalent sexism is understood by taking a closer look at some concepts used to describe women (Rank 2005: 56). These ambivalent attitudes towards women are used by men to dominate the top positions of power in organizations leaving women to occupy junior positions (Week 4 class notes).
The social construction of gender is evident in many aspects of social life. In the field of management, for example, gender differences are more obvious than hidden. In many contemporary organizations, a female Chief Executive Officer (CEO) may be described as cute, adorable, and attractive. On the other hand, a male CEO may be described as a very good leader.
While a phrase like that female CEO is very cute, calm, and attractive implies a positive attitude towards her, it can also imply that she can be too emotional to be trusted with leadership. Ambivalent sexism is therefore used to propagate the inequalities between men and women, especially in the pursuit of power and authority. The pursuit of power and authority by men leads to the enactment of policies that do not reflect the views and wishes of women in the society (Week 2 class notes).
Functionalist theory
Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that views society as a system composed of various parts that are interrelated and function together in harmony for the stability and benefit of the whole system. One of its proponents is the renowned sociologist Emile Durkheim. The theory uses the analogy of the human body, which is composed of various organs like the heart, the lungs, eyes, and nose, among others. Each of these organs plays a specific role. If one organ does not function well, the whole body is affected (Rothenberg 2009: 37).
The theory makes several assumptions in explaining the functioning of systems. One of the assumptions is that all systems operate in a way that is aimed at maintaining equilibrium. The other assumption of the theory is that systems are composed of various interdependent units, each with a specific role to play for the benefit of the whole. It also assumes that systems operate under the principle of consensus among all the units of the systems.
From a structural-functionalist perspective, gender plays the role of differentiating roles in society along gender lines, where there are roles for men and for women. In the field of management, for example, there is vertical and horizontal job segregation.
With vertical segregation, men are clustered at the top positions in the hierarchy of an organization while women are clustered at the bottom of the hierarchy. Vertical segregation takes place in all sectors of society, including academic, leadership, and other social institutions. This vertical segregation tends to be anchored on the cultural beliefs and stereotypes that women cannot be trusted with leadership, and men are always supposed to lead women.
Horizontal segregation refers to the preference of some jobs by men and women. It is influenced by traditional stereotypes that associate certain roles in society with a particular sex. For example, in many organizations, women are employed mostly as secretaries, cooks, cleaners, or receptionists, while men work as engineers, accountants, technicians, and doctors.
In the education sector, women tend to choose art subjects and languages while men go for the sciences and mathematics. It is important to note that the preference of some subjects spills over to the workplace because many jobs require people to have formal education and training. If few women are trained as accountants or engineers, then it becomes hard to find them working as accountants or engineers.
In the example of CEOs of organizations, Durkheim would interpret it using the concept of social control. He would argue that having men and women taking similar roles may create conflict, which may, in turn, disrupt social order and control in organizations. Consequently, he would reinforce the argument that women may be too emotional to be trusted with positions of leadership.
By so doing, he would be implying that social order and control are only possible in situations where women play less prominent roles than men. He would also consider the conflict as positive because through it, women would realize that their ascendency to positions of power does not go down well with men at the workplace and as a result, the women would cede ground to allow men to lead organizations for prosperity purposes (Week 3 class notes).
Conflict theory
According to Karl Marx, social order and control are as a result of coercion. The theory is the opposite of structural functionalism because it emphasizes on conflict of various parts of a system instead of consensus, as is the case with structural functionalism. According to him, therefore, conflict in society was about ownership of economic resources.
Karl Marx agreed that society is naturally unstable, and the main force of social change is conflict. He agreed that in all societies, there are winners and losers and that those with power dominate and control the powerless. In this sense, therefore, conflict is always happening in society which comprises of many groups and individuals with competing interests. The competing interests make some people benefit more than others, and as a result, the potential of conflict within the society is sustained.
From a conflict theory perspective, gender is associated with the emergence of the concepts of gender equity and equality. These concepts have been associated with civil society organizations, which have been fighting for women to get fair treatment in social, political, and economic spheres. The lobbying by civil society organizations has been successful to some extent. For instance, since 1974, some improvement has been realized in increasing the number of women in management positions. In the United Kingdom, for example, the percentage of women who held management positions in 1974 was only 2%.
In 2008, the percentage rose to 34.5%. In other parts of the world, women are almost at par with men in various aspects such as leadership, education, and technical know-how. These achievements, however, do not imply that oppression of women does not exist, but they mean that many people slowly realize that women are just like men and what men can do, women can do it provided that the playing field is leveled (Andersen and Taylor 2002: 19).
If Marx would be presented with the example of CEOs in organizations and asked to give his views, he would argue in the opposite direction to that of Durkheim. The reason is that the two differed in interpreting the concepts of social order and control. To Marx, the argument that women may be too emotional to be trusted with positions of leadership would mean that men and women are two forces that are always antagonistic to each other.
He would further describe the argument about women being too emotional as empty rhetoric and thus encourage women to push on with their pursuit of power and leadership in organizations. According to him, doing so would push men to a point when they would appreciate that women are capable of leading organizations. If, on the other hand, the women would be scared away from positions of leadership by men, Marx would argue that social order would not be possible because men would intensify their discrimination against women in the circles of power and leadership.
Works Cited
Andersen, Margaret, and Howard, Taylor. Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2002. Print.
While modern family life is considered to be diverse, most families face common issues like work and family responsibilities, lack of government support, intimate relationships, and sex education of teenagers. The intimate life of people is more likely to depend on the social tendencies of modern society than on the individual characteristics of particular men or women (Zinn and Wells 218). The purpose of this paper is to examine various aspects of family life and the real problems of families.
The work-family relationship may sometimes result in the work-family conflict. It can be expressed in a positive or negative spillover when feelings and behaviors transfer between work and family. Due to gender inequality, women are supposed to do more balancing, earn less and have more family responsibility in the work-family role system (Zinn and Wells 190-191). Diverse work-family contexts depend on work and family characteristics. Work characteristics include a level of economic rewards and job conditions, which include work hours, travel demands, and flexible scheduling.
The level of economic rewards may depend on whether it is a white-collar or a blue-collar type of work, and personal satisfaction from work may also influence the work-family balance. Family characteristics include a wide range of family forms, which are two-parent families, two-earner families, single-parent families, etc. Unpaid household labor is used to be done by women since the industrialization divided work and family, regardless of their employment (Zinn and Wells 203). Other forms of family work include interaction work, emotion work, consumption work, kin work.
Both dual-earner and breadwinner/homemaker families develop specific family coping strategies. Parent strategies may depend on the ages of children and include split-shift parenting and sequencing, lowering standards for housework, the help of other family members, and paid services. The government supports families mainly through the tax credits, subsidizing child-care costs of low-income parents, and the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which ensures a working parent with unpaid 12-week leave (Zinn and Wells 209). Corporations may also support families, giving workers flexibility in worktime and workplace, and sponsoring child-care.
Intimacy is shaped by society like all the other social relations. Objective factors like gender, class, race, immigration status are determining intimate life, dating practices, and mate selection despite the myth that only the subjective factors are prevailing (Zinn and Wells 218). Some individuals and groups resist the dominant attitude towards intimacy and redefine it as a varied and meaningful part of the human life. At the same time, the intimate partner is expected to play the roles of lover, friend, companion, playmate, and parent.
Thus, a social constructionist approach to sexuality requires understating that human sexuality varies across time, space, and life of every individual, is socially controlled and closely bound up with the basic inequalities that form the structure of society. That is why this approach questions the naturalness of the social order and underlying motivations and mechanisms that shape human relations. The terms sexual identity (self-classification) and sexual orientation (sexual attraction and desire) refer to how people classify themselves (Zinn and Wells 228-230). Sexual revolution redefined sexual activity as a right of individuals.
Gender is the most significant dimension of sexuality. Man feel more casual about sex, while women view sex as more of a bonding experience. Speaking of the emotional side, the individual who has the least interest in continuing the relationship has the power to control it (Zinn and Wells. 242-243). Social class also influences intimacy: according to a study, the higher socioeconomic status correlates with a lower rate of sexual permissiveness. Separating sexuality from reproduction has given many women a wide range of options and enabled them to seek intimate relationships based on equality.
Family policy refers to objectives conserving family well-being and the specific measures taken by the governmental bodies to achieve them. The U.S. has no official family policy but rather a potpourri of laws, court decisions, regulations, and policies of state and local governments. The government actions concerning family policy address four family functions: family creation, economic support, child-rearing, and caregiving (Zinn and Wells 448). However, such aspects like family planning, gay marriage, helping the impoverished, meeting the needs of disadvantaged children, and relieving burdens for working parents may require more attention from the state.
Social Conservatives and Progressives have a different approach to the family. Progressives believe that to focus on an idealized family based on a nostalgic view of the past, as the conservatives do, leads policy-makers away from focusing on the actual problems experienced by most families (Zinn and Wells 451). These are stable employment, structural changes in the economy, a crisis of caregiving. For cultural conservatives, making same-sex marriage legal abandons a significant source of the traditional family.
Protection of reproductive rights by the government may include lowering prices for the contraceptives and providing sex education in schools. Although abortions are legal today, federal and state decisions that deny public funding for abortions, make the abortion option less feasible for those women least able to afford children (Zinn and Wells 458). The welfare reform of 1996 has not eliminated poverty, making many single mothers move from welfare-poor to working-poor. Then, after the Great Recession of 2007, welfare programs were curtailed by most states again, putting disadvantaged children at risk.
Thus, we examined the real problems that people face in family life from a new angle. The structure of family and intimate relationships changed dramatically over the past decades, while the government and corporations do not always keep up with these changes. The significant shifts occurred in family-work balancing, gender equality, intimate relations, and attitudes towards marriages, as well as in the state family policies.
Work Cited
Zinn, Eitzen S., and Barbara Wells. Diversity in Families. 10th ed., Pearson Education, 2015.
