Category: Construction

Introduction

Selecting the material, which can be used in order to provide workers with a container to keep their tools in, is a very tricky task. On the one hand, the box in question must be light and easy to transport; on the other hand, it needs to be durable, resistant to a variety of aggressive environments, and, most importantly, cheap enough for the company to produce. However, when the decision must be made in favor of either carbon fiber, or aluminum, or steel, the former seems to be the most promising option despite its comparatively high price. Since carbon fiber is much more durable than the rest of the materials suggested as the basis for making boxes, it should be selected as the key raw substance for creating boxes for the company staff, as the investments made in the production process will inevitably be compensated with the durability of the material, as well as comfort in its use.

Discussion

Seeing that each of the three materials in question is highly resistant to corrosion (Tavakkolizadeh & Saadatmanesh, 2009), their fortitude must be evaluated first. Indeed, according to the information provided by Tavakkolizadeh and Saadatmanesh, steel and aluminum are prone to corrosion mostly in the environment, which presupposes a disposure to certain aggressive factors (Tavakkolizadeh & Saadatmanesh, 2009, p. 201). Assessing the strength and fortitude of the target materials should be carried out in the fashion that presupposes comparing their strength to weight ratio. Also identified as the specific strength (Gite & Margaj, 2013), the characteristic in question will shed some light on both the strength and the durability of the materials, as well as the ease in their use.

Table 1. Comparative Analysis of the Fortitude of the Key Materials (Gite & Margaj, 2013, para. 2).

A closer look at the material in question will show that carbon fiber is several times more efficient than steel and aluminum alloy (9.67 and 11.07 correspondingly). The specified quality of the material shows that the box made of carbon fiber will be several times more durable and, at the same time, several times lighter than the boxes made of steel and aluminum.

Price is another essential characteristic of the materials under analysis. Unfortunately, this is one of the few issues that do not speak in favor of carbon fiber, as the latter is comparatively expensive. Defined by its efficacy, innovativeness and complicated production process, the material in question can be deemed as very expensive, its average being $10 per pound (Carbon fiber used in fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), 2015, par. 19–20). The prices for stainless steel and aluminum, in their turn, are considerably lower, which makes them a more reasonable choice for being used as the raw material for creating toolboxes.

Nevertheless, the properties of carbon fiber make the boxes made thereof outstandingly durable; as a result, utilizing carbon fiber as the key material for constructing the boxes will turn out to be economically more reasonable in the long run. Seeing that the shelf life of the product will be much longer than that one of the boxes made of steel and aluminum, the incorporation of carbon fiber into the production process seems a very legitimate step for the company to make.

Finally, the property, such as the infusibility of the carbon fiber, deserves to be mentioned along with the rest of its advantages. While aluminum and especially steel may withstand comparatively high temperatures, they still do not belong to the range of refractory materials. Though technically, carbon fiber cannot be referred to the latter as well, it can withstand considerably higher temperatures than steel and aluminum do. The specified quality of carbon fiber is especially significant in the light of the fact that the workers may need to operate in the environment of rather a high temperature and, therefore, need the containers, which will keep their tools safe and will not disintegrate into a mess by the end of the day.

Conclusion

An analysis of the existing alternatives has shown that carbon fiber seems to be the most appropriate material to use for making tool boxed. Though admittedly costly, it still beats the rest of the options, providing the safest and the most efficient mode of transporting the workers’ tools. Although the price for the material in question may raise some eyebrows, the shelf life of the product, including the properties such as durability, makes carbon fiber the most promising choice for the above-mentioned purpose. Although being rather expensive, the material in question will serve for years as opposed to the boxes made of aluminum and stainless steel. Although some of the properties of carbon fiber can be seen as somewhat questionable, it still remains one of the most successful innovations. Thus, selecting the material in question will be the most reasonable choice to be made.

Reference List

Carbon fiber used in fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). (2015). Build on Prince. Web.

Gite, B. E. & Margaj, S. R. (2013). Carbon fibre as a recent material use in construction. Civil Engineering Portal. Web.

Tavakkolizadeh, M. & Saadatmanesh, H. (2009). Galvanic corrosion of carbon and steel in aggressive environments. Journal of Composites for Construction, 5(3), 200–210. Web.

Many people feel that the propositions of mainstream Egyptologists concerning the manner of construction of the pyramids of Giza are in error, or albeit deceptive (Malkowski, & Schwaller, 2007). The rationale for such arguments is the existence of the idea that it would not have been easy for the Egyptians of ancient times to have constructed the pyramids. Additionally, the idea of the mystery of the construction process revolves around the fact that the technologies of the ancient Egyptians do not equal the architectural designs of the pyramids (Malkowski & Schwaller, 2007, p. 56). Using the mentioned ideologies rather than the historical and the archeological evidence, there are a number of theories put forward to explain the construction of Egypt’s landmark, the Pyramids of Giza. Therefore, this work describes two theories that explain the mystery of the construction of the pyramids.

The first theory is the work of Margie Morris and Dr. Joseph Davidovits, who propose that the pyramids were built of exceptionally high-quality concrete and limestone, which they suppose was synthetic stone. They argued that the blocks used in the process were made of more than 90% limestone rubble and nearly 10% cement (Orcutt, 2000, p. 45). Therefore, the two academicians suggested that the characteristics of such blocks were beyond those of natural limestone of the time.

There was also no requirement for stone hauling or cutting for the construction process (Orcutt, 2000, p. 45). The two writes further explain that the building blocks of the pyramids were not quarried and did not require cutting or movements. How they moved up the whole height of the pyramids is explicable from the reasoning that workers lifted buckets of slurry to the places of making the limestone blocks atop the pyramids. From such a perspective, there is the conclusion that the theory explains the fact that the construction blocks did not require moving nor cutting.

Another theory is the development of the ideas of Martin Isler in his book, On Pyramid Building, and Peter Hodges in his writings in the book, How the Pyramids Were Built. Their ideas provide a school of thought that ancient Egyptians constructed the Pyramids of Giza by the use of levers in lifting the building blocks to the required elevations. They based their ideas on the fact that some of the rocks found on the pyramids had bosses at their bottoms that would facilitate the use of levers but were later removed (Rigano, 2014, p. 67). They also suggest the idea that the architects of the time combined ramps with levers to ensure that the blocks reached the required heights.

The theory advanced by both Margie Morris and Dr. Joseph Davidovits is more plausible than the other theory because of two reasons. It is noteworthy that the reasoning provided for the choice of theoretical bases on their strengths and weaknesses. First, there is evidence that the blocks used in the construction were uncut. From such a perspective, there is a rational thought that the blocks were made to fit into one another in a jig saw.

Had such blocks been moved from anywhere else, they would prove difficult to fit without re-sizing. Another reason is the idea that the levels of technology that existed at that time could not have allowed the constructors to move such huge blocks to the levels required with the ease supposed. Therefore, the possibility of the use of technologies such as levers does not suit the argument to such a level.

References

Malkowski, E. F., & Schwaller, L. R. A. (2007). The Spiritual Technology of Ancient Egypt: Sacred Science and the Mystery of Consciousness. Rochester: Vermont. Web.

Orcutt, L. (2000). Some Alternate Theories of Pyramid Construction. Web.

Rigano, Charles. (2014). Pyramids of the Giza Plateau: Pyramid Complexes of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Bloomington: Authorhouse. Web.

The construction industry has significantly evolved and nowadays actively exploits the newest technologies for improving performance and reducing time, costs, the involvement of the workforce in the process and minimising defects. Prefabrication and simulation have become perfect tools for reaching these strategic objectives and bringing up positive shifts in the whole industry.

Nowadays, in the age of widespread modular construction, the issue of becoming more time- and cost-effective has become extremely acute for constructors. One of the tools that can assist in improving the overall performance of the construction industry is the visualisation of projects. Its necessity can be easily explained by the fact that most managers rely on intuition and imagination when making decisions regarding planning and scheduling.

In means that in the case if it is possible to visualise the project, it is generally easier to organise the flow of the working process. Except for this primary benefit, this tool also has other advantages such as helping the site manager in bettering the perception of the project because one of the visualisation options is displaying virtual environment of the project; minimizing the risks of failing to meet deadlines.

After all, it optimises the schedule at every stage of construction; enhancing communication among managers and making it more efficient as they see the actual picture, not the one drawn by their imagination; and allowing to find construction alternatives that can be applied during every particular stage if they prove to be more effective. In addition to it, a visualisation is a perfect tool for avoiding defects or, at least, minimizing their quantity because it makes it possible to see the simulation of the construction in a real-time mode that helps assess the existence of defects and eradicate them (Murray, Fernando & Aouad 2004).

The specificity of the visualisation tool is that it consists of four primary components that altogether increase the productivity of the construction process. It includes the virtual environment – a tool allowing the user to analyse the elements of the constructions (modules) within the environment they will be installed in, thus creating a simulation of the projects. Additionally, it has the function of automatic constraint recognition that assists in assembling and disassembling the parts of the edifice to see whether they collide once put together.

The next constituent is the construction database that stores all information about the project including all changes in building, the order of construction, deliveries, and stock of sites. Finally, there is a system responsible for the functioning of the visualisation tool, a task manager, which provides the user with the information necessary to make the operation smooth and flawless such as the description of the data that should be entered or the steps needed for creating a simulation model.

Visualisation is indissolubly related to the process of simulation. It is one of its variations. Simulation is actively used for creating a virtual environment, developing and altering the schedule of construction, and framing the building design. As of creating a virtual environment, simulation helps in generating a 3D picture of the edifice under construction. The building design is necessary for viewing the modular parts of the construction and putting them together to view the result of the project. What should be noted that using graphic tools for simulation makes it possible to rotate the objects or assemble them in the program so that it is possible to eliminate defects because the project can be analysed before being brought to life? As of schedule, it can be modified and altered by using the simulation tool because every time the new object is added to the system, the schedule automatically changes, so that it helps improve the time performance of the constructors (Murray, Fernando & Aouad 2004).

What is also significant about simulation is that is has a wide range of advantages for architecture engineering and construction (AEC), especially if compared with conventional methods of planning and scheduling. This tool is dynamic that means that it is easy to change it every time a new resource or modular part is added to the database. Because of its dynamism, computer-aided simulation easily incorporates many random factors such as weather conditions or the status or the working team or operation of the equipment used in the construction process.

Finally, it is useful in modelling resources, e.g. demonstrating the relationship between the stage of the construction and the resources used or the simultaneous use of one resource in different processes, etc. Altogether, they make simulation a comprehensive and one of the most efficient tools for integrating design and construction (Shi 1999). Moreover, it focuses on the prioritisation of tasks, so that it is a perfect way for optimizing the flow of the working process (Hasan, Al-Hussein & Gillis 2010).

Furthermore, there is a way to exploit simulation for assessing productivity and increasing it. This process can be somewhat complicated because it is impossible to predict some random factors including weather conditions such as extreme temperatures, wind or rain or the operational status of the equipment used and breakdowns or emergencies that can have the negative influence on the level of productivity, but, in general, simulation helps in analysing it. Several factors are taken into consideration while estimating potential productivity and developing the overall schedule for the project. In most cases, they include time needed for production, transportation, and putting the needed modular part in place as well as the distance between the factory and assembly yard and the location of resources, factories, and the future building (Hasan et al. 2013). These factors if evaluated appropriately while designing the simulation model can help spectacularly improve productivity.

Except for the benefits mentioned above, there is one more significant argument in favour of using it. It is not a secret that construction is a magnificent contributor to the issue of natural environment pollution. As most industries become more environmentally friendly and there are growing concerns regarding climate change, the construction industry cannot but follow the overall tendency of trying to reduce the negative impact on the environment. Simulation can become another effective tool for reducing the influence of the construction process on the environment, especially decreasing the emission of CO₂ in the atmosphere.

The tool can be used for assessing the number of cranes that will be used for assembling the edifice and their type – single- or double-jibbed. The reason why simulation is an effective tool for reaching this goal is that it considers numerous dimensions of the projects such as source and destination locations, weight and size of modular parts, the speed of lifting modules, etc. Moreover, it examines the productivity of the cranes including the amount of energy consumed. That said, it was found that double-jibbed cranes are more productive and environmentally friendly than single-jibbed. They consume less fuel that is why they produce less CO₂ emissions (Hasan et al. 2013).

At the same time, double-jibbed cranes are more productive because they are less time-consuming when it comes to hooking modules and lifting them. In addition to it, they are more cost-effective because even though their rental cost is higher, the number of cranes needed for the project and the number of workers involved are lower. So, the result of the simulation model with time, costs, fuel consumption, and cranes productivity as the inputs, is that it is better to involve double-jibbed cranes rather than single-jibbed because they make the construction process cheaper and quicker (Hasan, Al-Hussein & Gillis 2010).

Even though simulation has proved to be an effective tool for improving construction performance and has numerous advantages, some steps should be taken while developing the simulation model so that it produces the correct results. First, it is necessary to apply proper input data to the model. It means that it should be introduced and analysed in an appropriate statistical form. Moreover, it is vital to remember that no important factors can be ignored. For example, in the case of using simulation for modular construction projects, it is important to assess the average time for design, prefabrication and assembling, distances between the factory and the assembly yard, potential delays in delivery, etc. Second, it is crucial to analyse the outputs of the simulation model. In the case of construction, it means that what is assessed is whether the outputs of the model comply with the plan for construction. This step can involve the estimation of any vital factor such as time, costs, workforce involved, etc.

The final condition is the validation of the simulation model. There are various ways to do it, but one used for construction is comparing the results with historical or published data such as the results of the simulation model developed earlier by the particular constructor or those of similar projects. What should be noted is that a similar project does not necessarily mean erecting separate edifice, it can as well be related to building one floor or installing one door. The reason for choosing this specific way for validating the model is that construction is a cyclic process, so it does not evolve significantly and always involves similar inputs and has similar outcomes.

That said, if the results of the model correspond to the result of the models that proved to be successful, then it can be used in the construction process (AbouRizk & Halpin 1990). What also should be highlighted is that because it is recommended to validate the results of the model using the previous projects that were cyclic, such simulation is referred to as simulation of repetitive construction processes.

Nowadays, the construction industry witnesses the new tendency towards the automation of the processes such as design, prefabrication, construction, simulation, and planning. What is most significant about automation is that it implies the use of computers at every stage of construction. For example, when speaking about design, automation means exploiting a wide range of graphic technologies including 3D and 4D that make the whole construction process easier and less time-consuming.

They are used for creating the design of the future construction from separate modular parts added to the database of the computer program and estimating it within the environment it will be put in. Automation of prefabrication implies the use of robotics and assembly lines in manufacturing modular parts. Furthermore, robots and machines are used in assembling and construction. In general, the primary aim of automation is reducing the involvement of workers in the construction process that will entail the decrease in costs and time and the increase of safety in the working place.

However, introducing robotics to prefabrication and construction faces numerous barriers both economic and technological. Except for the fact that the transition to automation and robotisation is costly and requires implementing many changes in the construction process, it also needs the development of new systems that would comply with the use of robots such as mobile platform and necessary software for control and management (Neelamkavil 1999).

As of the automation of simulation, it comes down to creating the virtual environment and building design. What can be added to the facts mentioned earlier in the paper is that automation makes real-time construction process simulation possible. It means that every step of the construction process will be automatically displayed in a computer program that will be useful for planning and control. The same can be said about the automation of the scheduling process. In addition to it, automation helps save time because there is no need to develop a new simulation model or change the schedule manually every time a new factor emerges. After all, it changes automatically. The only thing that should be done is adding a new factor to the database, and the computer does all the necessary calculation showing the necessary alterations to the schedule. Moreover, the data is collected in the real-time mode, so, every time a new step is taken or a new modular part is put in its place, the schedule changes.

What in general can be said about automation is that once the technological and economic barriers are overcome and the process becomes flawless, it will turn into the source of limitless advantages because it will help optimise and control the construction process. Moreover, all documentation on the project will be well organised, accurate, and timely. The status of every stage of the construction project will be up-to-date and easily accessible. What is most vital is the fact that automation will inevitably lead to the minimum defects and the maximum performance not to mention the reduction of costs and emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere making the construction industry time-, cost-, and energy-effective.

In conclusion, it may be highlighted once again that today the primary strategic objective of the construction industry is becoming more productive and environmentally friendly and, at the same time, less time- and cost-consuming. To achieve this goal, the constructors exploit a wide range of methods including developing simulation models and automation of the whole process of construction. Initially, these tools require time, money, and a lot of skills and knowledge and face many barriers, but once they are fully implemented in the process, they guarantee that it is flawless and become a source of numerous benefits.

References

AbouRizk, S M & Halpin, D W 1990, ‘Probabilistic simulation studies for repetitive construction processes’, Journal of Construction and Engineering Management, vol. 116, no. 4, pp. 575-594. Web.

Hasan, S, Al-Hussein, M & Gillis, P 2010. ‘Advanced simulation of tower crane operation utilizing system dynamics modelling and lean principles’, Proceedings of the 2010 Winter Simulation Conference , WSC, Baltimore, MD, pp. 3262-3271. Web.

Hasan, S, Bouferguene, A, Al-Hussein, M, Gillis, P & Telyas, A 2013, ‘Productivity and CO₂ emission analysis for tower crane utilization on high-rise building projects’, Automation in Construction, vol. 31, pp. 255-264. Web.

Murray, N, Fernando, T & Aouad, G 2004, ‘A virtual environment for the design and simulated construction of prefabricated buildings’, Virtual Reality, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 244-256. Web.

Neelamkavil, J 2009, ‘Automation in the Prefab and Modular Construction Industry’, Proceedings of the 26th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction, ISARC, Washington, DC, pp. 299-306. Web.

Shi, J J 1999, Computer Simulation in AEC and its Future Development, Berkeley-Stanford CE&M Workshop, Stanford, CA. Web.

Introduction

The Grenfell Tower fire on June 14, 2017, exposed a number of issues in emergency response, governance, and safety regulations in the construction industry. The fire occurred in 2017, a time when the emergency response was expected to be exemplary due to the terrorist threats issued in London. The Grenfell Tower led to a total of 72 deaths (Spinardi and Law, 2019, p.2), even though there were speculations that this figure was altered due to the media clampdown on the anomalies surrounding the casualty reports.

Nadij (2019, p.1) reported that more than 70 people were injured while 223 others managed to escape the building. The fire exposed lack of preparations on part of lawmakers in managing the flames and mitigating the risks, as well as the negligence in implementing construction laws. This term paper explored available literature related to failures in building construction, design, and maintenance that, if done appropriately, the Grenfell Tower fire could have been avoided.

Organisations Responsible for 2015-16 Refurbishment

Many organisations prefer refurbishing old buildings to demolitions for a variety of reasons, including costs and improving the building aesthetics. As part of an old building in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (RBKC), the Grenfell Tower needed regular maintenance, one of which was to add external cladding. The Grenfell Tower formed one part of the Lancaster West Estate envisioned in the 1960s and completed in the 1970s (MacLeod, 2018, p.467).

In 1996, the state authorities sub-contracted the management of social housing, including the Grenfell Towers, to the Kensington and Chelsea Tenant Management Organisation (KCTMO) (Nadij, 2019, p.2). Additionally, Nadij (2019, p.2) indicated that KCTMO was responsible for regular maintenance of the building, including health and safety regulations, which could have been invaluable in saving lives on the night of the incident. Therefore, failure to undertake their duties contributed to the fire disasters.

The RBKC and the KCTMO advertised tenders for qualified contractors to refurbish the tower. According to MacLeod (2018, p.468), Leadbitter initially got the bid to refurbish and renovate the Grenfell Tower, which was estimated at £11.28 million. However, the quotation provided by Leadbitter exceeded the proposed budget of £10 million, a condition that forced KCTMO to re-advertise the renovation tender. As a result, Rydon won the contract quoted at £8.7 million, which was £1.3 million less than the proposed budget (Hills, 2017, para.5). According to Hills (2017, para.5), the scope of work for the two contractors, Leadbitter and Rydon, appeared similar because they were to replace the windows, add external thermal cladding, and install a new heating system.

However, Rydon was able to provide these services for £2.5 million less than the figure quoted by Leadbitter. Additionally, ITV (2017, para.6) reported that Rydon subcontracted the external cladding part to Harley Facades Ltd. The differences between the value quoted by Rydon and Leadbitter raised the questions as to how the former was able to achieve the same project scope for nearly £2.6 million less.

External cladding is one of the interesting parts of the Grenfell Tower renovation project. MacLeod (2018, p.469) stated that RBKC was able to save nearly £300,000 when it opted for a cheaper aluminium cladding provided by Rydon. The justification for cladding, as indicated by Bowie (2017, p.3), was to improve the appearance of the concrete-block walls and increase energy efficiency. However, there are concerns that the addition of cladding compromised the long term quality and safety of the materials used during construction, primarily because the contractors used cheap combustible aluminium cladding materials.

Evident Failures

Design, Procurement, and/or Execution of the Refurbishment Works

It is possible that the materials used during the refurbishment program necessitated the fire outbreak. According to Cowlard et al. (2013, p.175), the design of the Grenfell Tower and the materials used acted as a catalyst that led to the rapid spread of fire from the fourth floor to the top within two hours. Further research analysis from Cowlard et al. (2013, p.170) revealed that earthquakes and fires are the common causes of tall building failures.

However, the study noted that tall buildings in countries that adhere to the fundamental design rules rarely result in any significant damage. Another article by Bannister (2015, section 2) revealed that poor designs in skyscrapers facilitate the rapid spread of fire. For instance, the 2010 Shanghai fires that led to 58 deaths occurred because a mistake was highly fuelled by poor building designs and slow response rate. The building that caught fire had polyurethane foam insulation, which is highly combustible (Bannister, 2015, section 2). Therefore, the flames rapidly spread using the external facade to the rest of the building, signifying design failure during construction that could have been championed for fire safety.

The Grenfell Tower fires spread similarly to that of Shanghai fires. According to Mohamed et al. (2019, p.2), the fire that started on the fourth floor when a faulty refrigerator ignited was able to spread to the external skin of the building through open windows. The Grenfell Tower Inquiry (2018, p.8-5) reported that the windows installed during the refurbishment program were smaller, which created a gap around the original window’s frame design.

As a result, the contractors used a weatherproof seal called ethylene propylene diene monomer to fill the gaping space. Additionally, Maguire and Woodcock (2018, p.4) revealed that the windows were made with highly combustible polyester powder named (PMMA-polymethyl methacrylate), which acted as the aluminium coating. Therefore, the combination of flammable materials and gaps existing between the windows increased the rate at which fires spread around the building.

Most buildings should be designed to stop the spread of fire from the starting point, which helps the firefighters contain the building and help the occupants. This design is the reason why people are usually advised to “stay-put” in their rooms during fires, as was the case in the Grenfell Tower incident. Maguire and Woodcock’s (2018, p.4) study noted that the original cladding of the tower used precast ceramic panels to window high and single-glazed aluminium glazed windows.

Therefore, the materials used during the construction of the building in the 1970s were fire resistors but with poor thermal insulation. As a result, the upgrading of the tower focused on using a cladding with better thermal insulation, and they used the Reynobond Celotex RS5000 (Maguire and Woodcock, 2018, p.4). The separation created a gap between cladding and insulation.

On the other hand, the contractors used aluminium composite material (ACM) that is made of two panels of aluminium on either side bonded by an insulating material like polyethylene. According to Maguire and Woodcock (2018, p.5), the outer parts of the ACM during fires are colder than the walls. Consequently, the molten plastic enables the production of AL₄C₃ that creates a space that brings more air and propels the fire upwards. Also, Hoskins (2018, p.1) argued that replacing the asbestos cement with the new flammable cladding was the cause of the fire. The design used during the renovation that left gaps and the use of plastic foam cladding panels created a favourable condition for the external fires to occur and spread quickly.

However, few studies indicate that cladding has insignificant effects on the building’s fire resistance. Munjiza, Batinić, and Mihanović (2017, p.2) argued that the type of cladding used in the Grenfell Tower is widely used in the construction industry, signifying that contractors view it as safe. Nonetheless, Munjiza et al. (2017, p.2) noted that the cladding’s organic components produced flammable gas because of the heat, which penetrated through the 5cm cavity canvassing the whole building. As a result, this combustible gas combined with air created the flammable mixture, which, once ignited, led to the fires around the building in a matter of seconds (Munjiza et al., 2017, p.2).

These findings indicated that the cladding did not contravene design standards, but it significantly increased the spread of fires because it acted as an ignition mechanism (Guillaume et al., 2019, p.25). Therefore, the KCTMO failed in conducting experiments that would have revealed the presence of fire trigger mechanisms in the cladding and corrected it during the renovations.

Smoke is the leading cause of causalities compared to heat during a fire. Smoke is toxic, and it traps people in buildings during fire due to poor visibility. There were reports of heavy smoke in the stairwells and the lobby, which McKenna et al. (2019, p.115) gauged to be 15 times more toxic than mineral wool. Typically, the staircases and halls should also be designed to be smoke-free, which would make the evacuation process effective (Fu, 2017, para.4).

According to Cowlard et al. (2013, p.173), the process of ensuring smoke-free stairwells is achieved by using pressurization systems. Scientists began the experiments to develop the stair pressurization systems in the 1960s. The working principle of pressurization is that there is pressure range consisting of upper and lower bound, which is achieved by building designs to ensure smoke-free areas. When fires occur, the air is heated, causing pressure differences created by thermal expansion and stack action (Tamura, 1983, p.347).

The stack action causes the pressure difference in the fire compartment in comparison to other adjacent spaces because the air in the fire compartment increases in pressure and volume proportional to the absolute temperature. Therefore, the upper bound in the pressurization system is designed to ensure that occupants easily open the doors leading to stairwells, which reduces rescue time. Conversely, the lower bound pressure is designed to maintain airflow in the stairs and the surroundings (Tamura, 1983, p.348). Based on the reports from the survivors, it appears that the pressurization systems were missing in the Grenfell Towers because they reported heavy smoke in the stairwells.

The Grenfell Tower fire exposed possible neglect and breach of building regulations. A study by Booth et al. (2018) indicated that the staircases had exposed gas pipes and duct services. Further analysis by Grenfell Tower Inquiry (2018, p.8-9) revealed that the doors leading to the stairs were FD30, which indicated a violation of building regulations that required doors to be FD60. The FD30 minutes are designed to offer at least 30 minutes of protection against fires, whereas FD60 protects for 60 minutes. It also raised the alarm as to why the doors had not been repaired since the 1970s.

Other tests conducted by Pitcher (2018) concluded that the FD30 doors failed to pass the recommended 30 minutes threshold. As a result, the entries heavily contributed to the increased smoke in the escape routes, which could have protected the residents. Fire doors are vital in reducing or preventing smoke and flames from spreading in common areas and staircases.

Tenant Management Organisation

The building management failed in conducting regular maintenance on the building, which could have rectified these mistakes, and this failure led to the deaths of many people. The KCTMO managed the Grenfell Tower building, but the organisation did very little to honour the complaints made by the tenants (Ramage, 2019, p.10). First, the construction guidelines in the U.K. mandates owners to include fire safety design requirements such as evacuation routes, compartmentation, and structural fire design (Ramage, 2019, p.8). Evacuation routes should be designed in a way that allows the residents to escape as quickly as possible, all while being sheltered from smoke and flames.

Lack of fire safety escape routes in the Grenfell Tower was a constant worry for most residents. According to Ramage (2019, p.17), the Grenfell residents committee wrote to the management over this issue and also wrote a blog in November 2016, expressing their dissatisfaction with the fire safety measures. Additionally, Power (2017, p.2) noted that the Arms Length Management Organisation (ALMO) was listed as the tenant management organisation, but the council wholly owned it. Lack of a tenant-led TMO meant that their issues were not addressed because the organisation was not there to listen to their concerns. These issues raised by the tenants reflect poorly on management’s lack of accountability.

The Grenfell Tower management, owners, and contractors who worked in the building failed in achieving a sustainable future during the renovations. A sustainable future, as defined by Akadiri, Chinyio, and Olomolaiye (2012, p.131), encompass different features such as improved use of materials, energy-saving, long term safety of occupants, and costs. However, the management of Grenfell Tower focused on cost efficiency and ignored other sustainable design principles for buildings.

The building design disregarded the human adaptation principle that is essential in ensuring the comfort and safety of the tenants. Detailed accounts from the survivors of the accident and expertise evidence noted that the contractors, as well as the owners, paid for cheap services, which were not conducive for the occupants.

Regulatory Regime Including but Not Limited to Building Control

The local authorities also failed in their duty to ensure safe living conditions for Grenfell residents. Ramage (2019, p.9) noted that only one central fire stairwell was available for 600 people to use or escape the fire in the building. Additionally, the building lacked water sprinklers and an adequate supply of water, essential for preventing the spreading of fires. The annual fire risk assessments conducted by the local authorities could have instructed the management to add new evacuation routes for the occupants of the building.

Additionally, the fire brigade was not provided with tall ladders or water hose pipes that could go beyond the twelfth floor, which further deterred rescue services (Ramage, 2019, p.11). Failure by the management played a significant role in delaying the rescue and evacuation protocol.

The government, local authorities, London Fire Brigade, as well as the building management also failed in learning from past fire disasters. For instance, in 2012, the United States banned the use of various cladding materials in buildings reaching higher than 40 feet (Keane, 2017, para.2). Reynobond cladding used in Grenfell Tower was part of the substances banned by the United States because of the polyurethane core (Knapton and Dixon, 2017, para.15).

Additionally, the stakeholders failed to learn from Lakanal House fire in 2009, which indicated that the post-flashover compartment fires and fires that emerge from compartment openings cause external fire spread and secondary ignition in other compartments (Abecassis Empis, 2010, p.14). The façade cladding ignition leads to a rapid multi-storey fire spread, as it was witnessed in Grenfell Tower.

The residents of the tower were advised by the fire brigade and officials to stay put in their flats (Preston, 2018, p.32). The fire brigade did not inform the residents “to get out and stay out” rather than “stay put,” which led to increased casualties. In a similar way, the officials during the Lakanal fire misadvised the residents leading to a higher number of deaths, had they been given the right advice (Johnson, 2019, para.2). This mix of negligence and misinformation during the incident contributed to a high death toll on the night of the accident.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Safe buildings in terms of evacuation are designed to allow all occupants to reach outside of the buildings within the shortest time possible. However, most of the modern high-rise buildings are designed with a limited number of vertical escape routes, which makes evacuation difficult, as experienced in Grenfell Tower. One of the fails identified in this paper is the lack of a safe zone or the wide enough escape routes. There was only one central stairwell to cater for all the occupants, and it was filled with smoke during the fire.

The design in the Grenfell Tower did not include compartmentalization or smoke pressurization systems. The poor design facilitated the rapid spread of fire from the apartment on the fourth floor, spreading vertically and horizontally to other parts of the building. Lack of smoke pressurization reduced the visibility on the stairs and the lobby because smoke penetrated these spaces. Additionally, the newly fitted windows during the refurbishment created gaps and were built using flammable materials.

The design failures mixed with negligence created the Grenfell Tower fire disaster. The developers were encouraged to do the absolute minimum to meet the construction regulation standards during the refurbishment of Grenfell Tower by the local authorities and management because of monetary pressure. The authorities had failed to design stricter regulations despite learning from past fire incidents accelerated by cladding materials.

The U.S. had banned the use of the cladding contractors used on the tower during renovations. The management also failed to heed to the tenants’ calls to install fire sprinklers and other safety mechanisms. The negligence heavily contributed to the disaster and the high number of deaths.

There are several recommendations to make based on the literature analyzed in this paper. The first recommendation is that building management officials and local fire safety inspectors should take their duties seriously. The high number of casualties could have been avoided had the safety inspectors compelled the building management to comply with current building regulations. Also, the management should be held liable for the fire because they failed to implement safety standards despite warnings from tenants. The contractors should learn the principles of sustainable constructions that call for human safety, environment protection, and cost utilization. House design standards should not compromise human safety over costs.

The government should also ban certain combustible construction materials and conduct regular tests on old or new buildings to determine if they complied with construction standards. The roles of the stakeholders should be clearly defined to avoid miscommunication experienced when handling evacuation procedures. Every officer who fails to conduct their assigned duties, such as ensuring fire safety tools are functional, should be held partly responsible in case of fire accidents.

Reference List

Abecassis Empis, C. (2010) Analysis of the compartment fire parameters influencing the heat flux incident on the structural façade. PhD thesis. The University of Edinburgh. Web.

Akadiri, P., Chinyio, E. and Olomolaiye, P. (2012) ‘Design of a sustainable building: A conceptual framework for implementing sustainability in the building sector’, Buildings, 2(2), pp.126-152. Web.

Bannister, A. (2015) ‘Dubai Inferno: 5 of History’s Worst Skyscraper Fires‘, IFSEC Global. Web.

Bowie, D. (2017) ‘Grenfell Fire: an indictment of government’, Chartist, 287, p.19. Web.

Cowlard, A. et al. (2013) ‘Fire safety design for tall buildings’, Procedia Engineering, 62, pp.169-181. Web.

Fu, F. (2017) ‘Grenfell Tower disaster: how did the fire spread so quickly?‘ The Conversation: Environment + Energy. Web.

Grenfell Tower Inquiry (2018) Grenfell Tower – fire safety investigation. Phase 1 Report – Section 8: The External Walls – Materials & Construction. London. Web.

Guillaume, E. et al. (2019) ‘Reconstruction of Grenfell Tower fire. Part 2: A numerical investigation of the fire propagation and behaviour from the initial apartment to the façade’, Fire and Materials. Web.

Hills, J. (2017) ‘Grenfell Tower: Original proposed contractor was dropped to reduce cost of refurbishment project‘, ITV News. Web.

Hoskins, J. (2018) ‘Chrysotile asbestos cement and the Grenfell Tower fire’, Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 361, p.171. Web.

ITV (2017) ‘Companies involved in tower refurbishment respond to fire,’ ITV News. Web.

Johnson, K. (2019) ‘The Lakanal fire – 10 years on: Southwark was fined £270,000 for Lakanal and paid costs of £300,000, but has spent in excess of £62 Million on fire safety works‘, Southwark News. Web.

Keane, K. (2017) ‘Criminal Investigation Following Reports of Banned Cladding on Grenfell Tower’, Architect Magazine. Web.

Knapton, S. and Dixon, H. (2017) ‘Eight failures that left people of Grenfell Tower at mercy of the inferno‘, Telegraph. Web.

MacLeod, G. (2018) ‘The Grenfell Tower atrocity: Exposing urban worlds of inequality, injustice, and an impaired democracy’, City, 22(4), pp.460-489.

Maguire, J. and Woodcock, L. (2018) ‘Thermochemistry of Grenfell Tower fire disaster: catastrophic effects of water as an “extinguisher” in aluminium conflagrations’, pp. 1-15. Web.

McKenna, S. et al. (2019) ‘Fire behaviour of modern façade materials–Understanding the Grenfell Tower fire,’ Journal of hazardous materials, 368, pp.115-123. Web.

Mohamed, I. et al. (2019) ‘An investigation into the construction industry’s view on fire prevention in high-rise buildings post Grenfell’, International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation. Web.

Munjiza, A., Batinić, M. and Mihanović, A. (2017) ‘Lessons from Grenfell Tower accident‘, Gradevinar. Web.

Nadij, D. (2019) ‘Deregulation, the Absence of the Law, and the Grenfell Tower Fire’, QMHRR 5(2). Web.

Power, A. (2017) ‘How Tenant Management Organisations have wrongly been associated with Grenfel’, British Politics and Policy at LSE. Web.

Preston, J. (2018) Grenfell Tower: Preparedness, Race, and Disaster Capitalism. Springer.

Ramage, S. (2019) ‘Grenfell Tower Block burnt in the early hours: most were asleep,’. Web.

Spinardi, G. and Law, A. (2019) ‘Beyond the stable door: Hackitt and the future of fire safety regulation in the U.K.’ Fire Safety Journal, 109, p.102856. Web.

Tamura, G. (1983) ‘Review of the DBR/NRC studies on the control of smoke from a fire in high building’, ASHRAE Trans. (United States), 89(1B), pp. 341-361. Web.

About cranes

A crane is one of the many machines used in the construction, manufacturing, and transport industry to move heavy materials or equipment vertically or horizontally from one point to another. A crane machine is made from smaller machines as well as wires, ropes, winders, and sheaves that are assembled so as to create a motorized advantage. The motorized advantage enables the movement of a variety of heavy loads that goes beyond the normal physical capability of humans.

The crane uses simple machines such as the lever and pulley to create its motorized advantage (2). Cranes are a common sighting in the transport industry, particularly in ship harbors, because they are used to load and unload consignment from ships that are otherwise impossible to move. Cranes are also a common sighting in the construction industry as they assist construction workers to move heavy building materials like concrete slabs and steel bars from the ground to the places they need to be installed. In the manufacturing industry, for example, the motor assembly industry, cranes are used to lift heavy equipment and through automation processes, assemble them with minimal assistance from humans (2).

There are two major factors that are considered when designing a crane: the first consideration is the weight the crane is expected to lift, and the second consideration is the crane stability. For example, a crane used in the manufacturing industry cannot be expected to lift consignment from a ship due to the weight differences. In regards to stability, a crane should be built to effectively handle heavy loads without the remote possibility of it toppling over; thus, being a hazard to everyone in the area.

In the old ages, cranes could only lift and lower heavy materials, but with the passing of time and major technological advancements, the modern cranes have the ability to move vertically as well as horizontally (2).

Reasons why cranes are used in construction

The aspects of modern construction projects are and are continuing to become more highly automated. As industrialization in the construction industry continues to grow, more companies prefer to use building structures and elements that are assembled elsewhere as opposed to doing the actual assembly on site. Concrete, for example, is only produced on-site when the construction project requires very high volumes of concrete; thus, it would not be prudent to transport the concrete (4).

If the project is smaller, it would be cheaper and more practical to transport ready-mixed concrete to the site. It means that someone is likely to see transportation equipment on-site as opposed to production equipment. In modern building construction sites, there is usually clear domination of lifting equipment, and these types of equipments are considered as critical elements in attaining productivity. Concrete pumps, earthmovers, cranes, lifts, and hoists, and material handlers are some of the most notable equipment types in a construction site (4). Though earth moving types of equipments are seen during the startup of the project, cranes are the only conspicuous equipment during the actual construction process. This is due to the important role they play in the vertical and horizontal transportation processes.

During building construction in urban spaces, there usually is not much space to place production equipment. Cranes in this situation provide the ability and flexibility of accessing smaller sites and only occupy a limited stationary area. Cranes depending on their size, also reduce the time it takes to transport materials from one point to another. It is because a crane can lift materials and deposit them on the other side without wasting time trying to navigate around barriers (4).

Cranes are used in construction because they are relatively easy to install, they can be installed in high places, and they also have the ability to lift quickly heavy material and equipment to great heights i.e. skyscrapers.

Types of Cranes

There are several crane types, each depending on the work they are meant to do. Below is a list of the several crane types and when they are used.

Crawler Crane

A crawler crane is a full revolving crane that is mounted on an undercarriage. It has a set of continuous parallel tracks also known as crawlers that provide the crane with mobility and stability. Crawler cranes configurations can be changed depending on the manufacturer specification (3). These configurations include its application type, the tower unit and the duty cycle. Crawler cranes have good lifting abilities and handle work such as lifting concrete buckets to great heights. The cranes advantage is it can move on site thus, it requires little setup. The crawlers on the crane also reinforce its stability. The crane can also travel as its lifting a load. The disadvantages include its heavy weight thus, it is expensive to transport. Also disassembling the crane for transport requires a lot of time, energy and expertise (3).

Hydraulic Truck Crane

A hydraulic truck crane is a type of vehicle mounted crane. The crane has three control and power arrangements. Both the truck and hydraulic can be controlled and powered by a single engine. The truck and hydraulic can have different power and control units. Bothe the truck and engine can the same power source but different control panels. This type of crane is always ready for a move (3). The main benefit of this crane is that it is mobile and is appropriate for use for short periods of time. The main disadvantage is that since the crane is mobile, it means it may have stability issues.

Lattice-Boom Crane

A lattice boom crane is similar to a hydraulic crane. It is a fully revolving crane that is mounted on a truck. It has a suspended cable thus, acts as a compression component as opposed to a bending component. The main benefit is that it is lightweight thus, has an additional capacity for lifting. It is also mobile thus, can be used for short time periods. The main disadvantage is that the crane is that it takes a longer time to assemble and disassemble for transport (3). It is also expensive to assemble and disassemble since it needs the aid of another crane.

Rough-Terrain Crane

A rough terrain crane is mounted on an undercarriage, and that has four unusually large rubber tires which allow the operator room for maneuvering in the job site. It is designed to pick and carry a load on rough terrain. The operator cabs can be attached to the upper works thus, allowing the operator cab to swing in the same direction as the load. Both the crane and truck draw power from the same engine which is mounted in the truck. The main benefit of this crane is that it operates at a lower cost. The main disadvantage is that it is slow due to its large size (3).

All-Terrain Crane

An all terrain crane has an undercarriage that allows it to effectively travel on all terrains and at a higher speed. The crane has four wheel-drive, steer and its ground clearance is higher. The crane has two cabs each with a different function. It is best for use when projects are at different locations. Its main advantage is that it can work on all terrains. Its main drawback is that it is more expensive than a rough terrain crane since it is a combination of two distinct features (3).

Floating Crane

A floating crane is mounted on a barge or pontoon. It bears similarities to cranes mounted on undercarriages such as the Lattice-Boom, Hydraulic Truck and the crawler crane. It is mostly used in the construction of bridges and ports. It is used to transport bridge sections from one point to another as well as recover sunken ships. Its main disadvantage is that since it operates on water, it can only be used in offshore projects. The main advantage is its high lifting capacity which is 10,000 Tons (3).

Railroad Crane

A railroad crane can travel along tracks as they carry their load. This is because they are mounted on an undercarriage car that has rail wheels. It is mostly used for train recovery, loading goods and maintenance work. The advantage is that the train’s wheels can be removed, and the crane mounted on a static crane as opposed to all the other cranes. Its disadvantages are that there is a free standing height requirement and that the crane cannot be used if there is maintenance work on a particular track (3).

Tower Crane

A tower crane is well known as a balance crane and is used in the construction of very tall buildings. It is fixed to the ground thus, giving it great stability and because of the stability; it gives a great combination of lifting power and height. The tower crane can also be attached on the side of structures during construction. In major construction sites, a tower crane is one of the most predominant equipment (4). A tower crane is used to lift a variety of objects such as large tools, concrete buckets, steel bars, generators and other construction building materials. A tower crane is best used where mobility is not required; a great height wants to be achieved and when there is little space to work in. Tower cranes can be categorized into two groups: top slewing and bottom slewing (1).

The major difference between the two is how they are assembled and disassembled. It is easier and faster to erect and take apart a bottom slewing crane because there are a lower number of masts between the base and the slew. Bottom slewing cranes are also used for short-term service. Top slewing cranes take a longer time to erect and dismantle because of their height. Each mast must be taken down and hydraulics used to lower the slew before the next mast is taken down. Top slewing cranes are preferred for long-term service. The main disadvantage of tower cranes are the costly prices associated with the assembly.

A company must pay a charge for the crane to be delivered and set up by the crane company crew. After that, the company is charged a monthly fee for each month they use the crane as well as a maintenance fee. The main disadvantage is that an operator has to climb the mast to get to the operator cab which is a risky venture and a challenge, especially when dealing with the top- slewing cranes (3).

Why it is used in construction

Tower cranes are used in construction because they are quick and easy to assemble and disassemble, and they do not require many parts. They are also used because their height can be increased depending on the project requirement. A tower crane is known for lifting large loads and well as its precision aspect. They are also known to take up little space and provide a good working radius. Tower cranes also provide high speed and high concrete volume placements (4).

Size

Once the crane arrives at the site, a mobile crane is used to assemble the mast. The slewing gear and machinery arm are first assembled followed by the operators cab. To achieve the desired height, the mast can be added one mast at a time and firmly bolted to the lower mast. As the mast rises a hydraulic lift is used to lift the slew and another craned is used to lift the mast in place. Each mast is 20 feet long (3).

Tower crane parts

To achieve its stability and height, a tower crane requires essential parts. To support the tower crane, concrete is poured to create a pad onto which the crane base is bolted. The steel base is in turn attached using bolts to a tower which can be of varying heights as per the crane use. A slewing unit which is a combination of a motor and ring-gear is attached to the tower which gives the crane the ability to fully revolve. The counterweights and machinery arm are attached to the slewing unit. Finally the operators cab is also attached to the slewing unit. The operators cab is where the operators sits while controlling the tower crane. The cranes electronic motors are contained within the machinery arm (3).

How it is prevented from tipping

A tower crane is prevented from tipping over by ensuring it has a strong concrete pad supporting it. Stability is of utmost importance thus, construction companies ensure the concrete base is ready weeks before the crane arrival (4). Anchor bolts are deeply rooted in the concrete pad to support the crane base. The mast is has the strength to remain upright because of a three cross-member structure installed to the base.

Criteria for choosing a crane for construction work

• Construction type – A crane should be chosen according to the construction type. For example, tower cranes are more appropriate in the construction of tall buildings while a floating crane is more suitable for offshore projects.
• Time – A crane which will carry a heavier load at a faster time rate.
• Stability – Since the crane will be moving large loads constantly, a stable crane should be chosen.
• Multiple uses – Cranes that can be sued for multiple purposes should be selected so as to reduce the cost of hiring more cranes.
• Cost – Cost of cranes should be considered. For example, if a company has multiple projects in different terrains they should employ the use of an all terrain crane instead of a rough terrain crane (4).

References

1. Aviad Shapira, Gunnar Lucko, and Clifford J. Schexnayder. “Cranes for Building Construction Projects,” Journal of Construction Engineering And Management, pp. 690-698. 2007.
2. Matthies, Andrea. 1992. “Medivial treadwheels,” Artists’ Views of Building Construction. Technology and Culture. 33 (3): 510 – 547.
3. “Types of Cranes,” 2003. Norman Spencer Insurance Agency. Web.
4. “Uses and Benefits of Tower Crane,”Feb. 20, 2013. Xinxiang Kerui Heavy Machinery Science and Technology. Web.

An article titled The Challenge of Constructing a Bridge over the Chacao Channel talks about a project of the government to build a rather large bridge. The article specifies the problems that may arise when building such a bridge because the area is very susceptible to all kinds of influences from weather and naturally occurring phenomena such as earthquakes.

The article starts out with identifying the location of the future bridge. The Chacao channel is of particular importance because it separates the mainland from the Chiloe Island. It is mentioned that the population of the island is considerably low, only 130,000, but it is noted that the population is growing due to the developments in the area. The ferry service that is used to transport people and cars is becoming inefficient because of the increased traffic. The government of Chile has proposed the project as far back as 1999, and now it is being seriously detailed. The article does a good job naming some of the problems that might arise when building and maintaining the bridge. These include heavy winds, possible earthquakes, significantly large tides, the conditions of the grounds which might cause difficulties and strong water currents. All of this requires specific compromises and engineering which will combine several types of bridges into one.

Then, the article goes into more details about the different natural influences on the bridge. The earthquake possibility is one of the primary challenges because it has major effect on the stability of the ground and the size of waves generated by the earth’s movement. A historical even of 1960 is brought up as an example when an earthquake of 8.5 magnitude caused waves as large as 30 meters high and resulted in a lot of damage. Even though there is a great possibility for this occurrence to take place again, it is noted that the location of the bridge will be a safe distance away, 100 to 200 kilometers from the source. Further, it gives direct specifics about the type of the earthquake, as it is a subduction type, so the duration will be longer than usual. Unfortunately, the article does not go into detail about explaining the particular nature of a subduction earthquake, mechanisms that come into play and what exactly happens during such instability. The wind problem is also mentioned, but it is clearly not given a serious consideration because it is not of severe strength and does not last for long periods of time.

The article then focuses on the specific type of a bridge that might be built. It offers some graphics of the suspension bridge, as well as a modified version of a multi-span cable bridge. Most likely, there will be a boxed frame which would allow for greater stability. Overall, the article does a good job explaining the problems and the mechanical works of the bridges. The technical part of the article might seem a little hard to understand for a person who has not had education in such fields. The specific numbers and ratios are not really explained and at times, it is unclear what the specific relation between the numbers and the design of the bridge is.

Even though it might seem technical, it is well written and gets the attention of the reader. The project is obviously very extensive, so further details would be helpful.

Introduction

Construction projects, like any other projects, involve risks during and after their implementation. Project managers understand that during and after the implementation of their projects, there is the likelihood that unfortunate incidences or events will occur.

Organizations refer to these unfortunate events as risks. When project managers do not handle the risks in a way that protects the business from making loses, it makes the whole project to be unproductive. Project managers have to identify risks that they expect, analyze them, and propose measures to reduce their effects.

In some cases, when the project managers properly apply certain measures to manage the risks that they expect, it is likely that the risks and their effects will not occur. The way the project managers in construction projects handle the identified risks is proportional to the success of the project.

Statistics by Voetsch, Cioffi, and Anbari (2004) have established a significant relationship in the way project managers handle the available risks and the success of the project.

This paper identifies some of the possible risks in construction projects such as the Empire State Building, analyzes them, and identifies the possible measures to manage them.

Sources of risks at the Construction of the Empire State Building

Identifying risks or source(s) of the risks is the first major step that project managers take in the entire process of risk management. Project managers can identify a risk by brainstorming, reviewing literature, and personal experiences.

Depending on the nature of the project, the managers will come up with the possible sources of the risk (Cooper, Grey Raymond, & Walker, 2004). In the construction of the Empire State Building project, various sources of risks can be identified.

In a construction project, most of the risks are unavoidable because construction projects in some situations take a longer time to complete (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009).

In proportion to the complexity of the construction projects, project managers can categorize sources of risks in various groups. The first category of sources of risk is the technical risks.

The second category is the project management risks, third is the organizational risks, while the last category is the external risks (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009). Below is a detail explanation of these categories and their likely risks.

Technical risks

Generally, “technicality, performance, or quality” (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009, p. 44) of a project can be a source of risks in a construction project. Technical risks are risks relating to the available technology, the goals set, and the company’s decision to rely on unreliable technology (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009).

The goals set by the managers may prove to be unrealistic, especially during the implementation process. For instance, a manager may need to complete the whole project after two years and yet the technology that he employs is not reliable.

Construction projects require the best and up-to-date technologies for attainment of better results. Technology is unreliable if it is not proven to be of quality, or if it is very complex.

In addition, the technology may be unreliable if it compromises the company’s standards during and after the implementation of the project (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009).

When the project managers do not identify the sources of the technical risks, they expose the whole project to various challenges.

First, the deadline for the project completion may not be met. This is because the technology that the company is relying on may become expensive, strain the company’s resources, and force it to explore ways of managing the challenge before proceeding.

Secondly, technical risks compromise the standards of the project if the technology changes before full implementation of the project. Changes in technology may alert managers that the project is of low standards and force project managers to review their plan.

Risks from project Management

The aim of a project is to help an organization to achieve its objectives (Hillson, 2009). Proper management of a project helps the organization to ensure that it does not deviate from its main objective.

The increasing competition in the corporate world requires project managers to plan effectively for any project and asses its effectiveness before including it into its strategic plan. Poor project planning or management exposes the organization to different risks.

Poor management of the organization is likely to affect any project within that organization. In addition, in the project management process, project managers can make some mistakes that increase risks to the project.

Risks from poor management can result from poor allocation of project resources (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009). When a project manager does not effectively account for resources in the process of project implementation, the whole project is put at risk of failing.

In addition, lack of integrity and transparency can lead to misuse of project resources and hence threaten the success of the project.

Lastly, some project managers may not share the resources to various sections of the project well. This may make the entire process of implementing the project to slow down because project sections are always interdependent.

Underutilization of all the disciplines of a project and low quality project plans are other sources of risk to a construction project (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009). A project manager has to ensure that disciplines in a project relate easily to enhance work teams and reduce workload.

When the disciplines do not work together as a system, there are chances that the organization will face different risks. For example, there is the risk of an increase in errors by different disciplines participating in the implementation of a project.

Low quality plans also affect the success of a project. A good project manager should draft a project management plan that clearly outlines the requirements of the project. The plan should identify the possible risks of the project from the implementation stage to the completion stage.

In addition, the plan should prescribe various measures to reduce possible risks (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009).

Risks from the organization

In construction projects, the organization is another source of risks. Every organization has got factors that can expose it to risks in the process of implementing a project.

Some of the common organization factors that can cause risks include low funds, conflicting projects, costs, time, inconsistent objectives, and, “lack of project prioritization (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009, p. 44). These factors represent the existing conflicts in an organization.

If a contractor experiences these factors in an organization that they are working for, he may be forced to reschedule his plans. Rescheduling of plans interferes with deadline of project completion and increases the cost of the project.

Conflicting projects, inconsistent objectives, inadequate funds, and poor prioritization of the project are other factors that can interfere with successful project implementation. Conflicting projects result when an organization attempts to run more than one project concurrently.

In such cases, the organization may fail because the resources available may not sustain more than one project at a time. This may also make the organization to put some projects on low priority status. This scenario may deny project stakeholder support which may in turn starve it of funds form successful implementation.

Lastly, inconsistent objectives in an organization are a source of risks to the project. Project managers have to ensure that they achieve their objectives and review them regularly to ensure they remain consistent.

Inconsistent objectives may hamper timely execution of the project. This in turn causes the risk of increase in the cost of implementing the project and sometimes reduces its quality.

Risks from external sources

External forces also pose risks to projects in an organization. External forces are outside the organization and the organization has less control over them. External factors are likely to cause higher risks to an organization’s projects, unlike other sources of risks.

Some of the common risky external factors include force majeure, changes in the legal or regulatory frameworks, changes in the labor requirements, risks in a country, and the project owner’s priorities (Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2009).

Legal and regulatory frameworks are very risky external factors. A government may pass laws to regulate construction projects in a country. The laws may include the standards that the contractors should adhere to.

Such legal frameworks force an organization to spend more to meet the requirements. In addition, the organization may face court cases if it does not meet the legal.

Table 2.1: A summary of techniques to identify risks in the construction of an empire state Building

Systems to address risks at the Construction of the Empire State Building

In construction projects, there are many risks that an organization should expect. Most of these risks happen as a result of external forces (Bubshait & Al-Atiq, 1999). Therefore, it is better to apply systems that will ensure proper management of risks to help minimize their effects.

Quality assurance system

In the process of minimizing risks in a construction project, quality assurance systems help to produce quality products and services because they prevent inefficiencies that could result in the production of low quality goods (Bubshait & Al-Atiq, 1999).

In this system, every individual in the construction project should demonstrate “a systematic quality work” (Bubshait & Al-Atiq, 1999, p. 41). Quality work will enhance uniformity in the work done by various subcontractors on the project.

Quality standards reduce the recurrence of a risk that may raise the cost of a project. This helps a contractor to give the client confidence in the whole project. An example of a quality assurance standard that one can apply in a construction project is the ISO 900 standard.

The standard obligates the constructor to show commitment to quality and work toward realizing customer’s requirements (Bubshait & Al-Atiq, 1999).

This system reduces risks that a corporate can encounter in construction because it emphasizes objective inspection, proper contract review, admitting of any failure, and proper handling of construction materials.

In this case, the system reduces risks that originate from external sources, project management, and inside the organization (National Research Council, 2005).

Planning

Better planning is essential in the successes of a project. Project managers have to set effective goals, ways to achieve them, and the means that will be used to measure the achievements. In construction projects planning is important to reduce risks and assure clients of quality products (Cooper et al., 2004).

Through planning, a project manager will develop and incorporate risk management measures into the project plan. Effective planning will ensure that the manager proposes effective measures to deal with any risks that the firm expects.

Planning ahead will help a contractor design effective goals, have enough time to assess the project team members, and interact with the vendors in advance to check on the cost of materials. Early checking of costs with the vendors reduces the risk of increasing the cost of the project at a future date.

Early planning will also prevent the organization from developing conflicting projects and have enough time and space for the prioritization of a project. Therefore, advance planning reduces organizational risks, risks from project management, and performance of the project.

Catastrophic Failure Fault Tree on Low resources

In the construction of the Empire State Building, low or scarcity of resources is a catastrophic failure to this project. Construction of the Empire State Building requires that there should be consistent and timely supply of resources.

Low supply of resources directly affects the continuation of the project. Below is a catastrophic failure tree for the proposed construction project.

Discussion of the fault tree

Availability of resources is a determinant factor in the successes of a construction project. Enough resources will help the project managers complete their project on time and be able to meet the client’s requirements and expectations.

Conversely, low resources affect the success of a project. Project managers cannot achieve their goals at the time that they specify in their plans.

Low resources limit a construction project. There are various factors that cause the risk of low resources in a construction project. Below is a discussion of these factors as they appear in the failure fault tree above.

Scarcity of resources

Resource scarcity poses a huge problem to the successes of a project. Project managers need to plan for this risk because failure to compensate for scarce resources leads to the failure of different disciplines in the project to offer their duties on time (National Research Council, 2005).

Scarcity of resources risk in the construction of the Empire State Building can be a result of the global economic crisis or changing product prices (National Research Council, 2005).

Economic crises affect the disciplines operations. Firstly, the workers do not enjoy their work because they believe that the pay is not enough to help them survive in the current economy.

Secondly, the company may decide to invest in projects that will yield quick profit to cater for the economic crisis.

Lastly, the corporate may face an increase in liabilities as a result of the government implementing measures to stabilize the economy.

The project managers can handle this risk in various ways. The managers should constantly review the general costs of operations of the corporate to reduce the chances of economic crises (National Research Council, 2005).

The changing economic prices can also be attributed to scarcity of resource for completion of a project. Prices may increase as a result of changes in demand and supply, and changes in legal frameworks.

When prices of the products increase depending on the causative factors, there is the likelihood of the project to lack resources. Project managers can employ outsourcing strategy, purchasing in bulk, and making use of discount opportunities (National Research Council, 2005).

Increasing corporate responsibility

A corporate may adopt several projects at the same time. Such strategies impose numerous responsibilities on the corporate, which also proportionally becomes strenuous on the corporate resources.

Many responsibilities deny a corporate a chance to prioritize effectively the project leading poor planning (National Research Council, 2005).

Lack of prioritization denies a project support from stakeholders. Stakeholders need to understand the project before giving their support in terms of resources.

A project that lacks prioritization makes the stakeholders to be less confident in it, a situation that can cause them to request for postponement of such projects.

Project managers can avoid this risk by ensuring that they educate the stakeholders on the benefits of the project before and during implementation. The project should go hand- in -hand with the corporate strategies (National Research Council, 2005).

Poor planning also causes a scarcity of resources. During a project implementation process, project managers need to ensure that they work together with other project members for effective planning. Planners should set realistic goals and develop effective assessment techniques.

In addition, planning needs to be done in advance for better allocation of resources (National Research Council, 2005).

Other risks in the construction of the Empire State Building

Despite the catastrophic failure, low resources, weather, delay of material supply, and force majeure are some of the smaller risks project managers can encounter in the construction of the Empire State Building. The project manager needs to employee favorable measures to handle weather risk.

For example, use of technologies suitable to handle certain weather changes. Managers can avoid delay of material supply by making advance purchases. It is not easy to prepare for force majeure risks but the project manager should allocate extra resources for risks in this category.

Below is a table summarizing risks project managers can encounter in the project of construction of an empire state building:

Table 5.1: A summary of empire building construction project risks

Conclusion

Like any other construction project, the construction of the Empire State Building has a high probability of encountering different kinds of risks.

These risks originate from within the organization, outside the organization, from the project managers, and the performance of the project. Lack of resources emerges to be a catastrophic fault failure.

Therefore, by applying the suggested measures it will help in reducing the risks that come with the construction of an empire state building.

References

Bubshait, A. A., & Al-Atiq, T. H., (1999). ISO 900 standards in Construction. Journal of Management in Enginerring, 15(6), 41-48.

Burtonshaw-Gunn, S. A. (2009). Risk and Financial Management in Construction. Aldershot: Gower Publishing, Ltd.

Cooper, D.F., Grey, S., Raymond, G., & Walker, P. (2004). Project Risk Management Guidelines: Managing Risk in Large Projects and Complex Procurements. New York: John Wiley.

Hillson, D. (2009). Managing Risk in Projects. Aldershot: Gower Publishing, Ltd.

National Research Council (U. S). (2005). The Owner’s Role in Project Risk Management. Washington, DC: Academies Press.

Voetsch, R. J., Cioffi, D. F., & Anbari, F. T. (2004). Project risk management practices and their association with reported project successes, Proceedings from IRNOP. Web.

Introduction

The vital significance of procurement in the success of any project necessitate for deliberate measures and consideration in the selection of the most appropriate procurement method (Jim Smith, et al., 2004; Osipova & Eriksson, 2011). From the beginning of any construction project, clients, developers, consultants, builders, end user, and other pertinent stakeholders require optimal performance having budget constraints and other crucial factors in mind.

It is apparent that more than one procurement methods are available and are adopted according to the requirements and the nature of a particular project. The methods/systems can be broadly categorized into traditional method, design and build system, and the management contract method (Mikko & Arto, 2014; Babatunde, et al., 2010; Ojo, 2009).

The available procurement systems have unique characteristics and features and, consequently, they are adaptable to specific projects. In addition, each of the methods has advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, stakeholders in the construction projects ought to be deliberately cautious in the selection processes.

Factors That Determine the Choice of a Procurement Method

Before discussing the various procurement methods, it is sensible to mention some of the issues that influence the decision-making processes during procurement method selection. Stakeholders consider key factors such as pricing, flexibility, time, the nature of the project, risk, responsibility, and client resources among other factors (Davis, et al., 2008; Ojo, 2009; Jim Smith, et al., 2004).

Procurement Methods

Traditional/General Method

In the traditional contracting method, the role of the contractor is restricted to building since the employer provides an already completed design. As such, adopting the traditional method gives the client considerable control on design.

Pricing, in this method, is a product of factors such as bills of quantities given by the client, re-measurement contracts, target cost contracts, and cost plus/prime cost contracts (Davis, et al., 2008). In addition, the pricing approaches in the traditional method have relatively higher levels of certainty since the designing processes are done prior to the actual construction (Ojo, 2009).

Advantages of the traditional method of procurement

1. The client/employer is offered professional independence in administration and monitoring.
2. The traditional method allows for relatively higher levels of accountability due to competitive selection techniques.
3. The is equity during the tendering processes since all contractors are given equitable bidding opportunities.
4. The responsibility and control over the designing processes are put on the client and, therefore, high levels of functionality and overall quality of design are influenced.
5. Relatively higher levels of price certainty.
6. Flexible (easily managed/arranged) variations.
7. Many construction procurement stakeholders are familiar with the traditional system and, therefore, it is a tested and tried approach that can work in various types of procurements.

Disadvantages of the traditional method of procurement

1. Splitting of roles (designing and contracting) oftentimes results in disputes, especially when defect arise.
2. Occasionally, designing processes are delayed and are not fully developed prior the construction creating issues and pricing uncertainties, and disputes.
3. The sequential nature of the traditional method may make the procedures longer relative to other systems.
4. The contractor’s input is not taken during the design stage.

Recommendations for the consideration of the traditional system

Traditional system is recommended when

1. There is enough time to run the program.
2. Consultant design is needed.
3. The splitting of roles (designing and contraction) is warranted.
4. Pricing certainty and budgeting are needed at the initial stages.
5. High quality is needed.
6. Balancing of risk among key stakeholders is warranted.

Design and Build (D&B) Procurement System

In the D&B method, contractors are responsible for both design and building. It is worth noting that the D&B method can be categorized into more than one form. First, integrated design and build system allow the contractor to make both the design and carry out the construction but on the clients’ prerequisites and guidance. Second, the novated design and build system is almost similar to the traditional procurement method in the sense that the employer makes the initial design (Ojo, 2009; Davis, et al., 2008).

However, the in the novated D&B, the contractor develops the design further and takes the responsibility. As such, the design and building responsibility lies on the contractor in the novated D&B method. Third, the Turnkey system where the design and build responsibility is on the contractor (Davis, et al., 2008) (Ojo, 2009).

In addition, the employer should be able to operate the constructed plant at the end of the contract with little or no help from the contractor. The Turnkey D&B methods are mostly adopted by process and power projects (and other contracts that require intense/heavy engineering element). Further, performance-based projects oftentimes prefer the Turnkey D&B systems since the risks are placed on the contractors (Davis, et al., 2008).

Advantages of the design and build procurement method

1. The contractor is responsible for both the design and construction and the overall project fast tracking. As such, the contractor is not required to hire the contractor and designer separately.
2. With the D&B system, the project (construction) can commence even before the design is complete and, therefore, speed is enhanced, especially in projects that require resource allocation within given timelines.
3. The D&B method enjoys the popularity and familiarity from many construction stakeholders, including the contractors, consultants, and clients.
4. Price certainty can be achieved prior to the starting of the construction.
5. Innovation and price reductions are possible.
6. The constructor’s input in the design processes augments constructability and quality.

Disadvantages of the design and build procurement method

1. Clients are likely to experience challenges during the preparation of construction brief for the constructor.
2. Although changes can be adopted, they may be extremely expensive to the client.
3. The bidding processes relatively complicated since each designer gives a unique design with different pricing.
4. The client has the obligation to commit to an incomplete concept design.
5. Design liability is constrained by the availability of contracts.

Recommendations for using the design and construct D&B procurement system

The D&B procurement system should be adopted in cases where

1. Projects are functional/practical as opposed to prestigious construction.
2. Simple buildings that work with minimal or no renovations are needed.
3. There are possibilities of changing the brief for scope design.
4. Project acceleration can be attained through overlapping design and building processes.
5. Splitting of design and building responsibility is not required.

Management-oriented Procurement System

Jim Smith, et al. (2004) and Davis, et al. (2008) categorizes management-oriented procurement method into three distinctive classifications, including management contracting, construction management, and design and manage. Some of the elements that differentiate the three categories include indirect/direct client-contractor linkages, design and construction responsibility, works management, and program development (Davis, et al., 2008).

Management contracting

In management contracting system of procurement, the client selects a team of experts/professionals who work together with the appointed management contractor (Davis, et al., 2008). Before the construction commences, a client can only provide advice to the selected team.

Managing contracting allows an early start on-site and achieves early completion and relatively higher levels of flexibility in design and construction. It is imperative to note that the success of the managing contracting method significantly depends on trust and cohesiveness among stakeholders, including client, design consultants, and contractor (Davis, et al., 2008).

It is recommended that the contractor be appointed during or before the outline design stage. As such, the contractor’s input, in form of advice, is considered in design processes, tender processes, material delivery, and construction works (Davis, et al., 2008).

The management contractor job is dependent on a contract cost plan that is generated by a quantity surveyor, drawings, and the nature of the project.

The lack of certainty and the inability to ascertain the cost put a considerable risk on the client.

Oftentimes, lump sum contracts, characterized by bills of quantities are adopted during the competitive tendering processes (Davis, et al., 2008).

Construction management

Commonly referred to as CM, the construction management system commences with a thorough and cautious selection of a management contractor. A management fee is paid to the successful management contractor.

A unique and a differentiating feature of CM is that there is a direct link between the client and works contractor. Nevertheless, the works contracts are managed/administered by management contractor (Davis, et al., 2008). CM method allows the client to have substantial control and considerable risk. As such, the key role of the management contractor is being a simple agent with no power to determine the completion of the project or the cost to be incurred.

Some of the pros of the CM system:

• Minimal confrontation between stakeholders, including design teams, supervisors, and constructors.
• Experts are involved in a timely manner.
• Design and construction can be done concurrently saving time.
• Increased competitive bidding processes.
• Augmented accountability.

Design and manage

The D&M system gives the contractor the responsibility for construction and design, which is done by a separate team. The contractor, therefore, is paid for general administration and management of a project. The contractor works with subcontractors in designing and construction (Davis, et al., 2008).

Alternatively, a consultant (a client’s agent) can be employed to make the design and provide management to the project. The consultant can also link the client to work contractors (Davis, et al., 2008).

Advantages of adopting the management procurement system

1. A majority of the stakeholders (including designers and constructors) are available in one firm and, therefore, coordination and collaboration are enhanced to the advantage of the client, designers, and constructors.
2. Overlapping of the design and construction roles saves time.
3. The contractor has the responsibility for both design and construction and their integration.
4. Current prices can be used during the bidding processes.
5. Augmented constructability and quality since the constructor has immense contribution in the design processes.
6. Every stakeholder has clear roles, risks, and responsibility.
7. The method facilitates design project flexibility.

Disadvantages of adopting the management procurement

1. It is difficult to ascertain price certainty before the final works packages.
2. The client needs to be comprehensively informed and proactive for the project to be successful.
3. Stringent time and information control is a major prerequisite.
4. The client does not exercise direct control of the project since the contractor influences key activities.
5. It is a prerequisite that the client provides high-quality brief since the design completion relies on resource commitment.

Recommendations for the adoption of the management procurement method

1. The method is most appropriate for huge, complex, and quick projects.
2. The management procurement method should be used in projects that require high degree of stakeholders’ confidence and trust.
3. Early appointment of management contractors is highly recommended since their expertise and knowledge are key in designing and the entire pre-construction period.
4. The management procurement system can be used when construction works need to run parallel with detailed design procedures.
5. The method is appropriate for projects where the client requires high degree of flexibility on design.
6. Where competitive tendering processes are required.

Conclusion

It is apparent that selecting the most appropriate procurement system/method poses a great challenge to construction industry stakeholders. There are numerous methods of procurement (which have distinct characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages).

This paper has discussed three procurement systems, including traditional method, design and build, and management-oriented method. Recommendations for each of the three methods are provided to the stakeholders.

Overall Recommendations

Construction stakeholders, including the client, contractors, consultants, and the end user must consider key factors such as the project specification, pricing, flexibility, time, risk, responsibility, and client resources during the selection of a procurement method.

References

Babatunde, S., Opawole, A. & Ujaddughe, I., 2010, ‘An appraisal of project procurement methods in the Nigerian construction industry’, Civil Engineering Dimension, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1-7.

Davis, P., Love, P. & Baccarini, D., 2008, Building Procurement Methods, Brisbane; Australia: Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation.

Jim Smith, B. Z., Love, P. E. & Edwards, D. J., 2004, ‘Procurement of construction facilities in Guangdong Province, China: factors influencing the choice of procurement method’, Facilities, vol. 22, no. 5/6, pp. 141-148.

Mikko, K. & Arto, S., 2014, ‘Ensuring functionality of a nearly zero-energy building with procurement methods’, Facilities, vol. 32, no. 7/8, pp. 312-323.

Ojo, S., 2009, ‘Benchmarking the performance of construction procurement methods against selection criteria in Nigeria’, Civil Engineering Dimension, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 106-112.

Osipova, E. & Eriksson, P., 2011, ‘How Procurement Methods Influence Risk Management in Construction Project’, Construction Management and Economics, vol. 29, no. 11, pp. 1149-1158.

Abstract

Wembley Stadium is 90, 000-sitting-capacity sports ground located in Wembley Park, London. Initial plans for constructing the project started over two decades ago, specifically in 1996, with the demolition of the old pitch (twin towers), which was scheduled to begin early 2000. However, the project management team failed to agree on the kick-off date for the project. The actual demolition took place between 2002 and 2003, thus paving the way for the project execution phase by an Australian-based general contractor, namely, Multiplex.

Following the contractor’s delays, the stadium’s construction took longer than expected. It was concluded in 2007. Indeed, even based on a new schedule, the stadium was completed a year late and more than five years concerning the original plan. Noting that the project was not completed as scheduled and that extra costs ad to be incurred, despite being initially designed as a fixed-cost contract, the Wembley Stadium project was a failure.

Introduction

In the early months of 2007, Wembley Stadium was ready after years of construction marked by various difficulties. Different contractors, including those in London, placed their bids. However, because of the rising political debates, controversies surrounding the construction of the sports ground, and the tight project budget, some UK-based contractors chose to turn down their bids. Ultimately, the contract was awarded to Multiplex, an Australian-based construction company.

Multiplex was also the lowest bidder of the project. Nevertheless, the company’s project management team encountered various challenges, including making heavy losses. Project construction costs escalated tremendously after the bid acceptance. Some subcontractors such as Cleveland Bridge walked away from the ongoing work. Multiplex also took to court its major structural engineering consultant, Mott Macdonald, claiming the payment of 253 million sterling pounds in damages. Considering that the stadium took five more years to complete than originally expected after costing more than double the amount of initially estimated financial investments, it suffices to regard the project as a failure.

Analysis

Extra Time and Money Spent

The Wembley Stadium project involved building a sports ground enclosing 4,000,000 m³ of space within its walls and the roof. This massive structure required 3,000 tonnes of steel and 90,000m³ of concrete (Kable 2018). The roof structure encloses an area of 11 acres while the top rises 52 meters when measured from the pitch. In other words, Wembley Stadium is the second-largest sports arena in the world after Nou Camp Stadium that is located in Barcelona having a sitting capacity of 98, 000 people. Table 1 below shows a breakdown of the number of various service units in the stadium.

Table 1. Service Units at Wembley Stadium.

The success of such a massive assignment occurs upon the implementation of various tasks, which lead to the delivery of a sustainable project within its scope, the set time, and monetary resource constraints (Kivila, Martinsuo & Vuorinen 2017). Since the goal of executing any project entails mitigating all avenues of failure, London Wembley Stadium’s project manager (Symonds) needed to establish criteria for measuring the failure or the success of the project.

The lack of such an assessment plan may be regarded as part of the challenges incurred. Such criteria may define success as the completion of the project in a manner that delivers its deliverables within the planned scope, irrespective of the time taken or resources consumed. However, from a project management perspective, completing Wembley Stadium outside the allocated time and monetary resources amounted to failure of the project (Taylor 2015).

Breakdown witnessed in the execution of the Sydney Opera House, planned to take four years of construction, starting from 1959 and for $7million, supports this criterion of assessing project failure or success. The project was concluded in 1973 at a cost of over $100 million (De Carvalho & Junior 2015) to the extent of making project managers consider it a failure. In the case of the London Wembley Stadium venture, while it was scheduled for conclusion in 2006, the project was completed in 2007, with costs increasing by 36% from the time of accepting the bid to the period of signing it.

Indeed, since contractual terms indicated that it was a fixed-cost project, which shielded the client from cost overruns, the general contractor, Multiplex, incurred losses, but was obliged by the contractual terms to deliver the project at the agreed cost.

Poor Project Scope Development

The team selected to carry out the assigned also failed regarding the fulfillment of the project scope since no activities were accomplished as stipulated. However, determining the extent of failure requires an examination of what the scope entailed. Scope management encompasses components such as scope initiation, scope planning, scope verification, scope definition, and scope change and control (Aubry & Lavoie-Tremblay 2018).

In the case of the Wembley Stadium project, the announcement of the intention to construct the pitch after demolishing the old sports ground that stood in its place marked the scope initiation phase. Regarding scope planning, the project management team was required to construct a sports arena with a capacity of 90,000 people (Kable 2018). Scope planning ensures that all the activities undertaken are geared towards the achievement of this stipulated capacity. Therefore, scope planning facilitates the process of allocating time and monetary resources to the project.

According to Larson and Gray (2014), the term scope definition is used to refer to the subdivision of all major deliverables of the project into small convenient tasks. Wembley Stadium project deliverables included a circumference of 1 km and the incorporation of a steel arch that could provide value through its aesthetic appeal and support for the southern and northern roof to eliminate the need for internal columns (Williams & Parr 2006).

Additionally, the stadium was to have an underground power supply spanning a distance of 54 km. Scope verification is yet another important aspect of scope management, which involves “formalizing the acceptance of the project scope” (De Carvalho & Junior 2015, p. 327). In the context of the London Wembley Stadium project, scope verification was realized via carrying out assessments followed by appropriate consultations on the likely impacts of the desalination plant. The process of scope change and control entails appraising the scale of the task under execution (Bhatt 2017). The assessment study for the Wembley Stadium project helped to determine whether the project was feasible. Hence, this process did not impede setting the project in the next phase of its execution.

Nevertheless, UK-based contractors argued that the scope was poorly defined in addition to the project having tight contractual terms (Kable 2018). Hence, little room was left for scope change, a situation that suggested the likelihood of the failure of the project beginning from the initial phase. Indeed, scope changes were experienced. Moreover, the arch’s construction, which constituted a fundamental aspect of the initial design, caused major delays. Hence, the project could not be completed as scheduled. This situation undermined an important aspect of project scope change management that requires any change to be consistent with the available time and monetary resources for any success to be recorded.

Poor Change Management

In construction projects, various decisions are made as the work progresses (Newton 2009). Such decisions mainly stem from incomplete information acquired through assumptions or the experience of professionals involved in the construction process. When practical and factual information is acquired, change becomes inevitable (Kang 2015). Thus, the success or failure of projects depends on how project managers handle change throughout different project phases. Change may involve proactive and reactive approaches. In construction projects, change is adopted when a need for a new way of executing a task arises (Shipton, Hughes & Tutt 2014).

Nevertheless, it may also be adopted when a crisis occurs to the extent of rendering the current approach, technique, or technology unsuitable for the task being undertaken. The term transactional or premeditated change describes this form of modification (Lyke-Ho-Gland 2017). Change management in projects ensures that workers are prepared to face this alteration to minimize incidents of a project failure following any form of resistance from stakeholders (Andersen 2008). In the process of executing a project, managers can adopt change. Thus, as Henry (2011) asserts, project managers also play the function of identifying periods when a crisis is overdue, including setting the vision and goals of project change to mitigate failure.

In the case of the Wembley Stadium project, although the arch was finally erected in place, it led to a considerable failure in the project following the delay witnessed. The structural contractor, Cleveland, warned the general contractor (Multiplex) about increasing the cost of the project (Kable 2018).

Nevertheless, the general contractor insisted that Cleveland had to fulfill its contractual agreement. The tension was built between the parties to the extent of forcing Cleveland to walk off the site with the arch not lifted in place. Hence, the inability to change the nature of the project (fixed cost) amid the rising expenses for Cleveland to maneuver its costs or engage in a profitable business explains the failure to erect the arch in time as originally planned. Indeed, following such a delay, another company, Hollandia, ultimately took over the job and lifted the arch in place.

Apart from the inability to change the nature of the project, the Wembley Stadium project experienced yet another change management problem. The design of the arch was not tested elsewhere. It was an innovative arch. Unfortunately, even where problems emerged, implementing a new idea without any other alternative mechanism of supporting the roof suggested that the project would not meet its deliverables without the arch.

According to Swmoore (2011, para. 9), “the fundamental issue was attempting a stadium design using a load-bearing arch that was novel and untested in previous stadium designs.” Arguably, innovative projects are always characterized by failures related to change management as witnessed in the Denver Airport Baggage System (Hughes 2016). Therefore, according to Crawford, Pollack, and England (2006), learning from the case of the Wembley Stadium project, projects that have formal timelines and fixed budgets to the extent that adjustments cannot be met to cater for unforeseen or emerging challenges do not call for prototyping untested or unproven techniques and processes.

Any critical change in projects leads to various delays that overrun a project schedule. It leads to the re-estimation of various project tasks while at the same time creating the need for an extra demand for labor, equipment, and sometimes, working overtime. When project managers do not address such changes proactively through a formal process, it becomes a central concern and causes for disputes in the execution of a project (Larson & Gray 2018).

This situation severely affects the whole project to the extent of causing failure. Indeed, the need for changing the budget allocation to Cleveland led to the contractor walking off the site while having not fulfilled its contractual obligation with the general contractor, Multiplex. This move triggered conflict between the two parties. They sued each other for damages. Multiplex won the case, although damages granted by the court were much lower compared to what it had sued.

Recommendations and Conclusion

Contractors based in the UK kept on placing and withdrawing their bids concerning the Wembley Stadium project citing political tension around the project, strict budget allocation, and the lack of a clearly defined scope. Multiplex, the lowest bidder, secured the contract. However, the challenges cited by UK-based contractors came into play in the process of implementing the project. Multiplex had not correctly estimated the cost of the project.

This challenge emerged from the fact the project was largely innovative. Hence, some techniques and aspects such as the innovative arch had not been tested elsewhere to yield a more reliable forecast of the cost involved. Hence, contractors should not take up an innovative project on a fixed-cost basis. Rather, such a project should provide the room for cost re-estimation while still in progress to pave the way for adjustments of costs associated with scope changes and various expenses incurred following other alterations, for instance, the need for new materials and structural loading techniques

The case of the Wembley Stadium project demonstrates that change is inevitable in all construction endeavors. Such change emanates from various sources or causes. It can occur at any phase where it may have severe negative overall implications for completion deadlines and costs. The Wembley Stadium project was completed five years later contrary to the original plan. While Multiplex quoted a price of 458 million sterling pounds, the eventual cost stood close to £900 million.

Multiplex and fans visiting the stunning state-of-art-the-stadium can smile with satisfaction looking at the ultimate product. However, considering that time and financial resources are the main constraints of a project, the Wembley Stadium assignment was delayed to the extent of costing more than double the original cost. Hence, from a project management perspective, it failed.

Reference List

Andersen, E 2008, Rethinking project management: an organisational perspective. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

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Kivila, J, Martinsuo, M & Vuorinen, L 2017, ‘Sustainable project management through project control in infrastructure projects’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 1167-1184.

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Newton, R 2009, The practice and theory of project management: creating value through change, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, NY.

Shipton, C, Hughes, W & Tutt, D 2014, ‘Change management in practice: an ethnographic study of changes to contract requirements on a hospital project’, Construction Management and Economics, vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 787-803.

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Executive Summary

As part of its diversification ETH is proposing to tap into the Ethiopian medical care market by establishing an imaging center in Minch town. It is planning to lobby the ministry of health to assist in setting up the facility after completing all the legal requirements. The company realized the existence of a big market opportunity in Ethiopia that it intends to tap into and make profit while providing the services to the poor. Currently, there are a few imaging centers in the country and most of them are concentrated in large cities and towns but limited in the rural areas of the country. It will strike to keep its services focus local and tailoring its products to meet the communities’ demands and in a way that respects the cultures and traditions of the people. To actualize this venture, it will hire well trained medics and offer them more capacity building courses on using and managing medical imaging machines in a way that protects patients’ safety.

The company plans to use raw and auxiliary material such bricks/blocks, cement, sand, timber, aggregates, timber, iron sheets, tiles, and paints to complete the construction of the facility. Further it will install imaging equipment including X-Ray, Ultrasound, Mammography, CT scan, MRI Suites, Urethrographic, and pharmacy. It will install a cutting-edge picture storage and communication system (PACS) that will enable the viewing of digital images almost instantly upon completion of every assessment. Additionally, the PACS will reduce the turnaround time of report results. There will be specialized pharmacists who understand the incorporation of pharmaceuticals as adjunct agents in the extract of diagnostic imaging information. ETH consider this service critical because in several instances the procedures will mostly depend on the administration of agents. In addition, the center will have urgent care facilities such X-ray machines, specialized equipment for ultrasounds, mammograms, and digital X-rays.

The ARBA Minch town has an approximate population of about 200,000 people and it is the gateway to the rural riches of the southern part of the country. However, it is phasing the challenge of utilizing and managing vacant land, pointing to a problem of scarcity. ETH management team will engage the Minch local town government to get allocation of one hectare of land for the construction of the facility, and installation of other utilities. The city is connected to the national grid, however, electricity is highly affected by a continuous power interruption and outage from the main grid. Hence in its plan, the company will use automated generators to provide the facility with stable power supply in case there is electricity outrages from the national grid. In the assessment of the company, the best location would be around the Sikella settlement area of the town because of its vicinity to majority of the city’s population who reside there.

ETH Company will be managed by a board of directors who will be critical in shaping the policy and making decision on the best way to run the medical imaging center. Below, there will be a team of middle level managers and technologist. The company shall employ the center manager, accounting and finance manager, sales and marketing manager, and director of medical services to run the day to day activities. Additionally, it will bring on board experts such as radiologist, medical doctors, pharmacists, orthopedic technician, X-ray tech, Mamo tech, Ultrasound tech and audio visual and electricians. Further down, will be receptionists, bookkeeper, Janitor, grounds keeper and maintenance, and security guards contracted from a security firm.

The total investment cost of the project including working capital is estimated to be $668,000, of which 60% will be generated from the shareholders and the remaining 40% raised from bank loan. ETH management team expects revenue flow to start in the fourth year of the project implementation after the successful completion of phase 1. It is expected to scale up in the fifth year when the phase 2 of the project implementation is completed and by the end of the sixth year the first full revenue generated will be realized. Accordingly, the company projects that its initial profits will be realized by the fourth year in operation. However, full profit margin estimates will be estimated in the sixth year after completion of phase 2.

Introduction

A project is proposed to construct a Medical Imaging Center that consist of X-Ray, Ultrasound, Mammography, CT scan and MRI Suites at ARBA Minch town government in Ethiopia. This Imaging center are medical facility that will consist of Doctors and Radiologist office, Patient intake area, Imaging suits for different modalities, Patient rest area, Pharmacy, Cafeteria, conference halls and urgent care facility. Imaging in the medical context refers to different technologies using ionizing (plain x-rays and computed tomography CT) and non-ionizing radiation (ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging MRI) to diagnose, monitor, or treat medical conditions. Imaging is an integral part of healthcare; however, there is a huge shortage of imaging equipment and facilities in Ethiopia specifically in Arba Minch and the surrounding area. This shortage of equipment is accompanied by a huge workforce shortage affecting radiologists, radiographers and medical physicists.

The facility is expected to sit on a one hectare of land with the building covering approximately 2,500 meter square. Imaging in the medical context means using various technologies such as ionising (plain x-rays, computed tomography, nuclear medicine) and non-ionising radiation (ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging) to diagnose and monitor different conditions (Frija et al., 2021). It is key part of healthcare, however, there exist a big shortage of imaging equipment in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs) (Hricak et la., 2021). For example, there is less than 1 CT scanner for every one million people in LMICs against close to 40 per million in high-income countries (HICs). Further, the shortage is made worse by lack of qualified workforce who can operate these technologies in LMICs where there are only about 1.9 radiologists, radiographers, and medical physicists per one million people.

Access to imaging is critical for the detection and treatment of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and other communicable illnesses like tuberculosis. Further, imaging is essential to ensure timely appropriate treatment of diseases and it would be unethical not to transfer the benefits that state-of-the-art imaging provides in developed countries to low-income countries like Ethiopia. Therefore, lack of these facilities in hospitals, clinics, and healthcare centers compromises the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs) in LMICs including Ethiopia (Frija et al., 2021). SDG stress the need to focus on primary prevention of diseases and risk reduction as crucial mechanisms for diseases control.

A gap exists in Ethiopia being one of the LMICs in the sense that it does not have a state-of-the-art imaging facilities across the country particularly in the rural parts of the country. Additionally, the country has weak plans to invest in purchasing the equipment required with no priority given because it is believed to be a capital- and labour-intensive initiative (Frija et al., 2021). ETH Investment Company plans to bridge this gap by proposing to build an imaging center covering about 2,500 meter square. Thus, the company is requesting ARBA Minch town government in Ethiopia to allocate it one hectare of land within the town for construction of the facility.

Objectives of the Project

Medical imaging in this facility assist in tracking the progress of an ongoing illness for various patients. MRI’s and CT scans will allow the physician to monitor the effectiveness of treatment and adjust protocols as necessary for every patient. The detailed information generated by medical imaging shall ensure that the patients get better, and more comprehensive care. Further, it will increase access to early and quality diagnosis of all non-communicable disease, thus boosting chances of survival among many patients. In addition, it will increase the range of radiology services such that individuals will get opportunities according to their needs and demands.

Company’s Overview and ownership

ETH investment group trading under Ethereum is the second-largest cryptocurrency by volume after Bitcoin. It was started by programmer Vitalik Buterin in 2015 as a Blockchain network with an associated cryptocurrency called (ETH). Therefore, it is a software platform developers use to create new applications that can make buying, selling, and using cryptocurrency a smoother process. The company envision an investment that gives freedom to the investor to choose when to make the profit and what ventures to get involved with (Haar, 2022). Further, it looks to create an easy platform that takes care of all crypto currency for all cadres of investors. It equally purposes to provide a diverse array of income streams through the use of the Ethereum Blockchain. As part of its diversification and future plans, ETH is proposing to tap into the Ethiopian medical care market by establishing an imaging center in Minch town.

Government Relations

Health sector is one investment potential area in Ethiopia today and investors can take full advantage of this opportunity through direct investment or joint ventures with locals. Ethiopia regulates business ventures through a commercial code of 1960 that provides a legal framework for undertaking business in the country. Additionally, the investment proclamation (769/2012) gives ETH Company the right to own immovable property necessary for its investment. After completing the paperwork and all the other legal requirements, ETH investment will lobby for support from the Ministry of Health in its selected priority area in the sector. The imaging is a high-end tertiary health service and is exempted from income tax exemption in Ethiopia, thus, ETH will have the opportunity to transfer these benefits to the clients.

Market Study and Strategy

There is a big demand for imaging services in Ethiopia and this presents the opportunity for the company to make profits. The availability and quality of imaging service in the developing countries are mostly poor. Ethiopia is one of the countries where general health service has been compromised by inadequate facilities, poorly maintained infrastructure, and scarcity of medics. There is an increased number of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in the country that was estimated to account for about estimated to account for 39% of all deaths (Market Insights, 2019). In addition, many of the NCDs occur among the country’s productive age groups of between 20 and 35 years. Hence, the quality of service is compromised by the lack of imaging centers across the country required to conduct advanced diagnosis and monitoring of diseases (Market Insights, 2019). This limitation in local provision has seen emergence of medical tourism in Ethiopia as some small segment of the population seek foreign care. Further, the available centers are concentrated in large cities and towns but limited in the rural areas of the country.

The healthcare system is changing rapidly, and imaging is no different. ETH investment must thus, stay ahead of other facilities, by being in front of other referring providers, patients, and employees in ways that its competitors cannot do. It will have to develop a listening culture to its customers so as to offer services that are customized to their needs (Claikens, 2021). The company will strike to keep its services focus local and tailoring its products to meet the communities’ demands and in a way that respects the cultures and traditions of the people. Additionally, the personnel who will work at the facility will always stay relevant by demonstrating personality traits such as love, kindness, reliability, trustworthiness, transparency, accountability, and taking responsibility for their actions.

Patients and Doctors need and present demand

Medical imaging is key in many medical settings and at all major healthcare facilities. The use of diagnostic imaging services is essential in confirming, assessing, monitoring and recording the course of many illnesses and response to interventions. Ethiopia like several other low and lower-middle income countries cannot afford imaging equipment (World Health Organization, n.d.). This oftentimes is coupled with the shortage of properly trained and qualified medics to use the machines that aid in providing the services. There exists a demand for imaging services particularly in rural Ethiopia, therefore, ETH had decided to tap into this opportunity by offering solutions through its proposed facility at a local town in ARBA Minch. It will equally hire well trained medics and offer them more capacity building courses on using and managing medical imaging machines in a way that protects patients’ safety.

Raw and Auxiliary Materials

Primary raw materials for this project will be bricks/blocks, cement, sand, timber, and aggregates. On the other hand, auxiliary material tiles, iron sheets, paints, and nails will be Raw material needed to construct any permanent house are of two categories namely natural types and synthetic ones. It is expected that about 60% of the total cost of building goes to the materials and inputs used (BuildersMart, 2020). Further, the estimation of the cost of materials is dependent on the build-up area.

Firstly, cement will be required in large quantity for preparing concrete RCC structures, in brick masonry works, and for plastering the walls. Approximately 0.4 cement is used per sqft, thus 1000 bag of 50 kg cement will be needed for 2,500 sqft house (BuildersMart, 2020). Secondly sand will be used for preparing RCC, mortar, plaster, filling, and flooring. 1.8 cubic ft. of sand is used for 1 sqft, therefore, 4500 cubic ft. will be needed for 2,500 sqft building (BuildersMart, 2020). Thirdly, about 3357 cubic ft. of aggregates for mixing sand, cement, and water will be used. About 5250 kilograms of steel bars to be used for reinforcement of cement concretes. Bricks or blocks of the same size and color should be used in the construction, and about 8500 of them will be used.

The building’s finishing will require paints and finishers that are waterproof, durable, and highly resistant to climatic conditions. The building will need to use paints for both interior and exterior sections. Build-up area walls will consume 350 and 100 liters of paints for internal and external parts of the building respectively. There will be tiles for floor sections of the building that will approximately be around 500 in total for 2ft x 2 ft tiles (BuildersMart, 2020). Other materials will be in the form of iron sheets, plumbing and electricity items, wooden products for doors, windows, tables, chairs and others. However, these are just estimates, the materials may vary depending on quality, location and brands.

Services in the Imaging Centre

The imaging center will be equipped with the latest digital enabled systems that have the capacity to provide advanced services. The services will include X-Ray, Ultrasound, Mammography, CT scan, MRI Suites, Urethrographic, and pharmacy (Imaging & Radiology, 2021). This will be actualized by a highly skilled and experienced team of doctors, radiologist, and radiology technologists working around the clock to meet demands of the clients. It will install a cutting-edge picture storage and communication system (PACS) that will enable the viewing of digital images almost instantly upon completion of every assessment (German Medical Center, 2022). Further, the PACS will reduce the turnaround time of report results. Lastly, all the services at the facility will be offer on daily basis for 24 hours per day.

Imaging Pharmacy Service

Imaging focuses on visuals of the interior parts of the human body through the use of an array of technologies. ETH will involve the use of specialized pharmacists who understand the incorporation of pharmaceuticals as adjunct agents in the extract of diagnostic imaging information. This will be critical because in several instances the procedures will mostly depend on the administration of agents. For example, in X-ray, pharmaceuticals are used to give various levels of contrast between the organs and the body to aid in clarity of the picture (Weatherman, n.d.). The ETH team understand the risks some of these agents carry and the potential of causing serious reactions that must be monitored. Therefore, it will employ the best Pharmacists with unique knowledge and understanding of drug therapy as providers of drug data related to diagnostic imaging.

Urgent care service

The center will have urgent care facilities such X-ray machines, specialized equipment for ultrasounds, mammograms, and digital X-rays. In addition, there will be a team of staff with excellent experience ready to serve emergency cases. The urgent care services will be managed by well trained and qualified medics in all modalities that patients will seek from the facility (Watson Image Center, 2020). All the staff working at this care unit will be individual radiologists who are registered and certified by the board in Ethiopia and are dedicated to deliver precise and accurate services.

Radiology Reading Service

ETH team will provide an on-site radiology and interpretation solutions to clients. This will be made possible through a team of certified and subspecialty trained radiologists that will give a range of services such as on-site radiology services, teleradiology setup services, radiology department support services, and radiology-related IT services support. The group will be at hand to help both at the medical imaging center in ARBA Minch and remotely (Flatworld Solutions, 2022). The company will equally provide technology consultation, imaging protocol assistance, powerful data storage, and imaging accreditation assistance.

Location and Infrastructure

This medical imaging center will be located in ARBA Minch town in Ethiopia. The town has an approximate population of about 200,000 people and it is the gateway to the rural riches of the southern part of the country (Ker & Downey, n.d.). It is made up of two small centers called Shecha which host the administrative duties and Sikela which serves as the commercial hub of the town. Currently, the urban center is experiencing rapid urbanization and it has grown from the fragmented shanty of 1950s to mid-1970s to a modest town (Jenberu & Admasu, 2020). Its built-up land mass has increased by 780 hectares, and the population increase has compromised the settlement leading to housing shortage and proliferations of informal settlements in different parts of the town.

Further, the town management has over the years been facing serious challenge of poor or mismanagement of vacant land spaces. Clearly, pointing to the scarcity of land availability for any massive physical infrastructure development. The major sources of water in the town are underground and “forty spring “which are natural. The city is connected to the national grid, however, electricity is highly affected by a continuous power interruption and outage from the main grid (Ahmed, 2016). Therefore, the reliability of power in ARBA Minch is poor which calls for other mechanisms to mitigate on interruption interruptions each day.

Land

ETH management team will engage the Minch local town government to get allocation of one hectare of land for the construction of the facility, and installation of other utilities. This will be done in accordance with Ethiopian national government laws and regulations governing the acquisition of land for private commercial development. Further, the company will seek to get full rights to use the allocated land within the town from the local, through the approval of the regional government.

Location of choice

RBA Minch has two settlements where the Secha area predominantly host the administrative offices of the town’s local government and those of the national government of Ethiopia. On the other hand, the Sikella urban center is where many residential settlements of the people working and living town are based. The best location of choice will around the Sikella settlement area of the town because of its vicinity to majority of the city’s population who reside there. This will save them the transport cost, time they use to move to the Secha section of the town and will be easily accessible even during night hours (Diagnostics Marketing, n.d.). Therefore, ETH investment is proposing that the ARBA Minch town government should grant its management one hectare of land around Sikella settlement of the city. Although, there is the need to have the center close to a referral where physicians are readily available, that cannot of override the convenience it should offer the clients and can always be mitigated.

Radiology room types

Radiographic equipment and room

The radiology rooms will be designed to meet the diagnostic demands and needs of all types of patients’ challenges. The rooms will enable comfortability of clients and shorten their waiting time by reducing examination through the use of innovative tools that enhances workflows efficiency. They will be versatile, have digital diagnosis C90 live tube head camera configurations and exam automation technologies that allows excellent patient through put (Philips, 2022). Further, the cameras will have ELEVA tube head that assist with speeding up of workflow by 28 seconds per examination, thereby giving easier collimation through an integrated touchscreen. The facility will have a state-of-the art PAC system for archiving, retrieving, presenting and sharing all digital image files.

Ultrasound Room

Room setup is essential and must be to both the physician and patient satisfaction. The assessment pedestal table and ultrasound gadget will be suited to accommodate the medic’s handedness and to enable the client and the practitioner to have ergonomic single visual field viewpoint of ultrasound images needle guiding purposes. The room will have a 36-42 inch flat screen on a tilting ceiling to give the best image viewing of the patient (radiology Key, 2018). Additionally, there will be a second screen of the same size to enable the client’s neck, the biopsy needle, and the ultrasound image to be seen by the physician through a single narrow visual field.

Mammography Room

Based on FGI Guidelines: 2.2-3.4.3.4, a Mammography room on minimum 100 square feet. It will have a visual privacy for patients and viewpoints by the public or other paints will be block when it is in use. Additionally, it shall have a hand washing station in the procedure section (Guest Contributor, 2019). Further, changing units for the patients will be immediately accessible to the waiting area and procedure sections. Mammography room will be made in such that when clients are brought in from the waiting unit, they will sit in a sub-wait area until the technician is ready to start working on them. There will be individual lockers where patient will keep their items as they wait for the radiologist to conduct the assessment. Once the operations for each day are complete, all dressing rooms will be restocked and the gown hamper made empty.

Computed Tomography

Cross-sections of the tomography will be reconstructed from measurements of attenuation coefficients of x-ray beams passing through the volume of the object. CT will be placed to enable the remodeling of the density of the body, by a two-dimensional section perpendicular to the axis of the accession system. There will be CT X-ray tube with energy levels of about 20 to 150 keV that shall emit photons per unit time (Foster, 2022). Attenuation figures of the x-ray beam will be recorded and the information used to build a 3D representation of scanned tissues. The computer used will have an inbuilt algorithm for image reconstruction, so as to give quality tomographic images of the patient from the processed CT data.

MRI Room

MIR room will be designed to have scan unit where the magnet will be placed and patients are scanned. There will equipment section that will hold electronic gadgets and connect to the magnet, the control, and changing units as well. MIR suite facility will have enough space approximately about 800-850 sqft to accommodate the suite, waiting sections, hallways, and offices (Rentz, 2021). In general, the room layout will in such a way that it will offer excellent patients comfort and staff workflow.

Building and Room Construction and civil works

ETH proposes to construct a medical imaging building that shall covers 2,500 meter square. Phase 1 that will involve the raising up a house and installation of the equipment shall take about three years to complete. In this period, X-RAY, ULTRASOUND and Mammography suit alongside with urgent care center and Pharmacy will be fitted into the new premise. Further, the structure will have patient intake area, Doctors and Radiology office, Patient waiting area, Conference center, shop and cafeteria facility for patients. There will be a cafeteria together will a shop unit that will be open to all visitors for breakfast, lunch, dinner, buying of items (St. Mary’s General Hospital, 2022). However, it will have a strict procedure in which patients will only be served food that is recommended and approved by authorized caregivers and ordered through the diet office of the facility as a way of complying with nutritional requirements for each patient.

In Phase I the company Plan to construct the building and will install the equipment that consist of X-RAY, ULTRASOUND and Mammography suit alongside with urgent care center and Pharmacy. In addition, the building consists of patient intake area, Doctors and Radiology office, Patient waiting area, Conference center, shop and cafeteria facility for patients. In phase 2, the company projects to have used 100% of all its funding cost that currently stand at 15 million at this proposal stage of the project. Further, it is focusing on generating profits from the phase 1 by the end of the 4^th year of the project, thus, it will use these proceeds at the 5^th year to install CT SCAN and MRI Scan equipment.

Table 1: Showing budget for construction and equipment for phases 1 and 2.

Water and Electricity

The major utilities needed for the facility will be water and electricity. At all the times the ETH investment will ensure there is a constant supply of drinking water because, it is important that the patients have their bladder full before ultrasound test is carried out. Drinking water will allow urinary bladder to expand, thus, giving a medic a clear view of the patient’s kidneys, and its surrounding structures (Innovative Open MRI, 2022). Additionally, women are required to have their bladder full when they go for ultrasound; this enables the visualization and examination of the baby and the pelvic organs. Apart from this clean water will be used for all other operations, services, and washrooms within the facility.

ETH team will ensure that there is access to energy because it is critical to the functionality of all the imagining facilities. Electricity supply shall at all the time quality and reliable for 24 hours a day at the medical center. Electricity is necessary for the operation of basic amenities including lighting, cooling, ventilation, communications, and clean water supply (World Health Organization, 2022). The company will not compromise on power supply or allow it to be inadequate and unreliable at the facility because that could negatively impact the quality of health-care services, thereby making the patients to feel unsafe. To mitigate on the unforeseen electricity outrages, the plans to install and automatic generator that shall stabilize the supply whenever there is fluctuation or power is lost from the national grid.

Management team and labor

ETH Company will be managed by a board of directors who will be critical in shaping the policy and making decision on the best way to run the medical imaging center. Below, there will be a team of middle level managers and technologist. The company shall employ the center manager, accounting and finance manager, sales and marketing manager, and director of medical services to run the day to day activities. Additionally, it will bring on board experts such as radiologist, medical doctors, pharmacists, orthopedic technician, X-ray tech, Mamo tech, Ultrasound tech and audio visual and electricians. Further down, will be receptionists, bookkeeper, Janitor, grounds keeper and maintenance, and security guards contracted from a security firm. To maintain these groups of workers, the company propose to remunerate them as indicated in table 2 below.

Table 2: Proposed employees’ salaries.

Patient capacity

The ETH team will use a mathematical algorithm in making decision on the number of patients to be allowed in different rooms at any given time. This will be dependent on whether the patients are classified as inpatient (hospitalized), outpatient, or emergency cases. The Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) will be used to model the dynamics of the system to provide the best feasible solution (Zattar da Silver et al., 2021). This system called advanced scheduling will determine the number of patients to be admitted and how the available capacity shall be distributed among different patients who are waiting to get the service.

Financial Analysis of the Project

The total investment cost of the project including working capital is estimated to be $668,000, of which 60%will be generated from the shareholders and the remaining 40% raised from external sources like bank loan. After the first 4 years immediately phase one of the projects is completed in the third year of its implementation, the company expects to start realizing profits that will seal the shortfall which could arise during the full implementation cycle.

SWOT Analysis

The strength of the project lies in its unique services that are tailored to the local demand and cultures of residence of Minch town. Further, the ability of the company to employ highly qualified staff and leveraging on the technology and innovation to drive its service delivery. On the other hand, weakness could come in the form of the choice of location as it could limit access to the services to many people who are in the rural parts of Ethiopia. Opportunities for this facility is seen in the tapping of online system to roll out massive remote services to reach many people in the entire country. However, the threats arise when the Ethiopian government make or review laws that might affect the operations in future.

Socio Economic Benefits

The center will create direct jobs for a good number of its staff who will in turn boost their disposable income and increase their purchasing power. Additionally, complementary services will be established around the facility and this will further, create employment for many people (Dunham & Associates, 2019). Consequently, the establishment of the imaging center will generate revenue in the form of taxes such as pay as you earn and direct income tax it will pay to the government of Ethiopia. In addition, the firms and individuals engaged with the supply of items and consultancy services will be able to generate more revenue and expand their profit margins. Lastly, it will assist with detection of various non-communicable disease, thereby helping people getting early treatments that makes them stay healthy and economically productive.

Waste disposal strategies

All the waste will be treated close to the point of its production as recommended by WHO. Therefore, the management team will demand 100% responsibility from all employees of the imaging center who will be directly in the processes for the segregation of the waste to be done at the places where they were created. Further, the hospital will shred the waste to ensure maximum penetration of the steam more effectively and it reduces the waste volume to about 20% (Celitron, n.d.). Additionally, the ETH team will use other disposal mechanisms such as incineration, chemical disinfection, wet (autoclaving) and dry thermal treatment, microwave irradiation, and inertization.

Bank Loan and Repayment

The ETH investment took a loan worth 40% of its all its initial costs of construction, installation and other expenses in the immediate term. The company will commence payment of its loan obligation six (6) months after the completion of phase 1 of the project in the third year. The structure of the payment proposed will be on monthly equal installments. However, should the cash flow at the initial stages of the implementation be weak, the company and the lending bank agreed to revert to the annuity repayment structure (Yescombe, 2022). This method maintants principal and interest payments level throughout the loan term.

Conclusion

ETH management team expects revenue flow to start in the fourth year of the project implementation after the successful completion of phase 1. It is expected to scale up in the fifth year when the phase 2 of the project implementation is completed and by the end of the sixth year the first full revenue generated will be realized. Accordingly, the company projects that its initial profits will be realized by the fourth year in operation. However, full profit margin estimates will be estimated in the sixth year after completion of phase 2. During the project’s life cycle, important ratios such as profit to total sales, net profit equity, return on total investment, and profit and loss statement will be used to predict the trends in the profitability of the investment.

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