Category: Construction

Introduction

Asphalt roads wear faster than concrete roads, but in many countries, concrete roads are being replaced by asphalt roads because they are cheaper, even though concrete roads have several advantages. In addition, there are specific difficulties in producing concrete for roads, which will be discussed later. In this study, one can learn about the advantages and disadvantages of these road paving materials.

Reasons why Asphalt Is Used for Roads Rather than Concrete

One of the main reasons for the low prevalence of cement concrete roads is the lack of cement produced based on standardized clinker, which is used for constructing such road surfaces. Most cement plants do not have an appropriate level of production automation and continuous quality control of clinker, which often has severe fluctuations in mineralogical composition, and, accordingly, cannot be clinker of a normalized piece (Horvath & Hendrickson, 1998). Thus, only the emergence of new, fully automated cement plants with a high level of quality control will make it possible to obtain cement for constructing cement concrete pavements of the required quality. The following reason is the advantage of asphalt over concrete. The main advantage of asphalt for road construction is its economy. Its cost is significantly less than the cost of concrete. The structure of an asphalt road takes much less time than the construction of a concrete road (Horvath & Hendrickson, 1998). This is because asphalt dries faster than concrete.

Conclusion

Summarizing all the above facts, one can conclude that asphalt is used more often than concrete due to its cheapness and ease of production. Given such attractive advantages, asphalt also has the disadvantage of wearing quickly. But despite this, repairing asphalt roads is easy and inexpensive. In addition, it is desirable to produce concrete for roads in the region where the road is being built, and as mentioned above, this requires a plant that includes many nuances.

Reference

Horvath, A., & Hendrickson, C. (1998). Comparison of environmental implications of asphalt and steel-reinforced concrete pavements. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1626(1), 105–113. Web.

Introduction

The great pyramids of Egypt and particularly those in Giza have raised more questions on how they were constructed than answers. The manner in which they were constructed is yet to be understood, and every now and then theories spring up to make some explanations. Some of the theories have even proposed that the giant structures were constructed with support from extraterrestrial beings. No single theory explains concisely how these structures were built and thus the pyramids still remain a mystery today. In this article, I will examine two of the theories which have been forward to explain in part the construction of the pyramids. However, I will start by explaining why the construction of the pyramids is a mystery. Lastly, a conclusion is drawn.

A Mystery

The mystery of the pyramids stems from their gigantic sizes, and the mathematical and structural engineering dimensions which they were constructed with. As at the time of the construction, modern geometry and structural engineering skills that have been discovered to have been used in the construction were not yet known. Constructing a pyramid and ensuring that the four walls meet at a point in a uniform manner is in itself a great feat. The Great Pyramid of Giza is said to occupy a square base of 13 acres. The pyramid was built with more than 2.5 million blocks with each block weighing between 2 to 70 tons each. How these blocks were moved to the construction site and up the pyramid, which is said to be 201 courses up, is a mystery. It is worth noting that modern machinery was not available therefore, all these work was done by manpower (GEP, n.d).

Two Theories

There are many theories which have been proposed to explain how the pyramids were constructed. Two of the theories are The Inside-Out Theory proposed by Jean-Pierre Houdin and the Transport Theories suggested by Andrzej Bochnacki.

The Inside-Out Theory

This theory tries to explain how the Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed. According to this theory, the Great Pyramid was constructed in two phases. The first phase involved the construction of the bottom third. At this phase, “blocks were hauled up a straight external ramp to build the pyramid bottom third, which contains most of the monument’s mass” (Handwerk, 2008, p. 1). It is postulated that the construction materials used in the external ramp were used in the construction of the higher parts of the pyramid. It is argued that the reuse of the external ramp materials to construct the higher parts would be a plausible explanation as to why no piece of the ramp has been discovered.

The rest of the pyramid was built with the help of “an inclined, internal, corkscrew tunnel, which would continue its path up and around as the pyramid rose” (Handwerk, 2008, p. 1). According to this theory, the tunnel was on the inside and therefore, by the time the pyramid was completed the ramp likewise could not be seen. A notch discovered on the Great Pyramid has been used as a backup for this theory. Another clue which backs up this theory is “an image that looks like a spiraling features inside the structure’s outer walls” (Handwerk, 2008, p. 1). This image was obtained early in 1986 by a French team using the microgravimetry technique.

Transport Theories

Transport theories were suggested by Andrzej Bochnacki. He proposed ways in which the huge blocks were moved. He started by pointing out that most of the biggest pyramids were built to the west of river Nile. The quarry was across the river and stone were cut when the river tide was low and transported when the tide rose.

After the stone blocks were cut, boats were tied onto the stones and transported when the tides were high.

The stones were moved to the west part where the river’s water usually moved out of the river channel into the fields. The stones were left there and moved when the water had receded. It has been argued that during the floods, water could move very close to the construction sites of most of the pyramids. This is thought to have made the work of transporting the stone blocks quite easy.

On the land, the stone blocks were moved with the help of some form of a fulcrum. According to Bochnacki (2006), statues were moved by this means.

Bochnacki (2006) went on to explain how the blocks must have been moved up the ramps. Stone blocks were placed next to each and with the use of wooden levers and wedges they were moved up the ramps.

Bochnacki (2006) also suggested a means which was used to raise the stone blocks up the pyramid with the use of hoisting machines.

The Convincing Theory

I find the theory suggested by Bochnacki (2006) to be more convincing. There are a number of reasons for this as explained below.

1. The transportation theories as suggested by Bochnacki (2006) make a comprehensive explanation on the most mysterious aspect of pyramid construction, that is, how the huge stone were moved. The explanation given from how the stones were picked with the help of floods from the quarries to how they were hoisted to the upper levels of the pyramid using hoisting machines make some sense to me.
2. Bochnacki (2006) made a lot of calculation to back up some of the proposals he made. For instance, the fulcrum that he proposed that must have been used to move blocks of stones on land is supported by mathematical calculations to show how it must have worked. This makes this theory more convincing because the suggestions made are practical and therefore they probably occurred. He also throws in convincing remarks on how the workers were able to evade the strong sun rays and high temperatures while working by putting in place 100 blocks on a daily basis.
3. Despite these comprehensive of proposal by Bochnacki (2006), there are still some unexplained mysteries. For instance, recent discoveries showed that some of the stone blocks used in the pyramid construction were cast (Barsoum & Ganguly, 2006). This means that they were not actually transported there but rather were made there.

Conclusion

The mystery of pyramid construction is still far from being solved. The Inside-Out theory suggests that the Great Pyramid was constructed starting from its central part towards the outer. Transportation theories suggested by Bochnacki (2006) try to explain how the huge stone blocks were move from the quarries, over the land and up the pyramids. More studies still reveal more secrets about the construction process making it even harder to understand how these huge structures were constructed. Despite the best efforts which have been put forth to explain the construction of pyramids, their construction still remain to be a mystery.

References

Barsoum, M. W., & Ganguly. A. (2006). Microstructural Evidence of Reconstituted Limestone Blocks in the Great Pyramids of Egypt. Journal of American Ceramics Society, 89(12), 3788-3796.

Bochnacki, A. (2006). A New Slant on the Pyramids. World Mysteries. Web.

GEP. (n.d). Dimension and Mathematics of the Great Pyramid. Global Education Project. Web.

Handwerk, B. (2008). Great Pyramid Mystery to be Solved by Hidden Room? National Geographic. Web.

Sheathing

Definition

This is a layer of fiber material or a board that can be applied on rafters, studs or exterior joists of a particular building to strengthen its structure as well as to act as a water-proof coating to serve the building. Sheathing is applied on walls, corners and the roofs of buildings.

Roof Sheathing

Installation of Roof Sheathing

Sheathings are nailed into the roof structure in a fairly straightforward procedure. The illustration below indicates how sheathing is installed. Sheathing, however, needs to conform to the ASTM standard requirements regarding the nails that are applied on the gypsum board (Build Your Own Home 1).

Materials for Sheathing

Regarding wall sheathing, plywood, oriented strand, fiber board and the wafterboard are applied since they allow for enough bracing, and they can also resist lateral loads from the wall. Consequently, polystyrene, rigid glass fiber, fiber board and the boards coated with asphalt are used for the exterior coat. Materials for sheathing also vary based on the country since various areas have diverse building codes that are tailor-made to meet their environmental requirements. In this project, glass fiber has been selected as the main material based on the Company Teed.

GlasRoc Sheathing

This is a sheathing material that is made by use of glass reinforced gypsum, and the gypsum is made water resistant by placing it under a paperless polymer and an acrylic coated surface. This is aimed at enhancing its durability by helping to hinder the delamination of the glass mat-facer. The GlasRoc board is designed for use in a roofing system that is mechanically attached because it can provide limited irritation and fire resistance as compared to other gypsum boards made of glass mat.

Merits of GlasRoc Sheathing

• Long-term protection to weather exposure for up to six months.
• Powerful water resistant surface that can prevent the penetration of water.
• Outstanding properties of fire resistance with several fire rated assemblies.
• Resistance to mold and mildew.
• High Compatibility with applications and the exterior wall system
• It can easily conform to the requirements of building design and codes.
• It is strong and flexible enough to bend over surfaces that are curved.
• Handling and to installation is carried out easily without any difficulty and this is especially the case with the lightweight sheathing. The sample of GlasRoc layers and exterior cladding is indicated below.

Common Alternatives

Apart from the gypsum board, the fiber board can also be used; fiberboard, otherwise also called black board, buffalo board or gray board sheathing, is considered to be an engineered wood fiber product. Just as gypsum boards, fiberboard is used on the exterior of a building, and it is nailed straight into wall studs. Fiberboard is installed with a plywood panel on the corners of the building to enhance rigidity. Fiber board can provide shear strength, particularly when the requisite nails are used. Despite being good on sound isolation, fiberboard does not prevent mold growth and wood boring insects.

In conclusion, from my analysis; GlasRoc is the best choice necessary, especially in an environment characterized with rain, snow and wind.

Steel Cutting

There are various methods used to cut steel. The normal desired angle should be orthogonal to the surface of steel sheet being cut. The main objectives of sheet cutting are to narrow a cutting slit, minimize energy consumption and to maximize the quality of cut edges as well as to limit the influence of heat.

Gas Cutting

Oxy-fuel is popularly referred to as gas cutting or oxy welding. This process can be used to connect two metals at the same time it can also be used to cut metals. In both processes of cutting and joining metals, heat at high temperatures is used. The high temperatures are obtained by using gas fuel (acetylene mixed in some right proportion of oxygen). The range of the heat produced in this process is 5700-5800 Fahrenheit. This temperature range is hot enough to melt steel among other commercial metals (Bhatia 3).

History

The common ways in which oxy-fuel processes tradition were “brazing, fusion welding, flame hardening, metalizing, soldering, stress relieving, cutting and bending” (Bhatia 3). Currently, oxy-fuel processes are common in the following processes “welding, brazing and cutting” (Bhatia 3).

How it Works

As pointed above, oxy-gas processes can be used both to cut and weld metals. The same apparatus shown above are used to for both processes. The only difference is that attachment. For the welding process, a welding attachment is attached but for the cutting process a cutting attachment is used. The cutting attachment is modified in such a way that it has “an additional tube for high-pressure oxygen, along with a cutting tip or nozzle” (Bhatia 43). The cutting attachment has more modifications as discussed below:

The tip is provided is provided with a center hole through which a jet of pure oxygen passes. Mixed oxygen and acetylene pass through holes surrounding the center holes for the preheating flames. The number of orifices for oxyacetylene flames ranges from 2 to 6, depending on the purpose for which the tip is used. The cutting torch is controlled by a trigger or lever operated valve. The cutting torch is furnished with interchangeable tips for cutting steel from less than one quarter inches to more than twelve inches in thickness. (Bhatia 43)

It is worth noting that depending on the thickness of the steel to be cut, the tip is adjusted accordingly to avoid costly damages. Precaution and double-checking is required when cutting using oxy-fuel process. The table below gives tentative ratios of cutting steel.

Advantages

1. Compared to a cut off grinder, oxy-fuel cutting is faster.
2. Oxy-fuel cutting can be applied in both thin and thick steel cutting unlike cut-off grinder and water jet cutting which are only appropriate for thin steel.
3. Gas cutting can be carried out manually, robotically or by use of machines. The use of robots can make any shape of a cut required.

Disadvantages

The acetylene gas if not properly stored can be self explosive

Water Jet Cutting

Water jet is traced back to the days of coal mining in USSR and New Zealand where water was collected from the stream and directed towards a blasted rock face that carried loose coal and rock. Pressurized water was used to excavate gold rock from the mining surface and it was Russia that first attempted to cut rock with pressurized water where a water canon was used to generate 700 bars. The following is an illustration of water jet.

This is the cutting of steel using machines that can cut solids with a maximum pressure stream of water. This is aimed at keeping the spray coherent, and it was used during the ancient times. Water jet is used to cut thin and soft metals while abrasive jets can be used to cut hard metals. This operates in different modes of pressure ranging from 4.100 bars and 6.900 bars. It is available in two types namely: abrasive water jets and abrasive water suspension jets. Water jets are used in cutting the printed circuit boards, wire stripping, and food preparation, wood cutting and tool steel (Steel Cutting 1).

Advantages of Water Jet Cutting

• No heat generated hence it is used in circumstances where too much heat may alter the properties of the metal.
• It does not produce dust particles when inhaled unlike grinding or machining hence harmless.
• Its width is small hence minimal waste of material during the cutting process.
• It can be automated for maximum production.
• Water cutters are much lighter than the laser cutters.

Disadvantages

• Only small material can be cut economically, and the cutting rate can at times be reduced hence it can prove to be costly.
• It is not applicable in cutting thick parts of the metal since it can compromise dimensional accuracy.
• Taper can also be a problem when it comes to thick materials.

Slab on Grade

Slab on grade is available in two types namely: stem wall and monolithic. With monolithic foundation, you pour as a single structure with a thick perimeter. The perimeter holds the load of the exterior shirt, and it is approximately 8-12 inches thick whereas the interior of the slab is 4 inches thick. The concrete is always poured in single step unlike the stem wall that is poured in parts of three or four. Stem wall can be constructed on a concrete block and can be alternative to pour concrete. The various types of slabs are: the plain concrete slab, slab reinforced for shrinkage and temperature, the shrinkage compensation concrete and shrinkage reinforcement slab post-tensioned to offset shrinkage and slab reinforced for structural actions (Committee 58). Slab on grade is understood to be any concrete slab that is poured on a soil that is excavated as shown below.

Process of making a Slab on Grade

The first step is the preparation and the leveling of the ground area where the slab is to be constructed. The position should be attached with strings. The grid pattern of the channels is made where one of the channels lining on the perimeter of the building. The depth of the channels depends on the frost line and the opinion of the engineer. At this stage there should be an erection of a barrier that can aid in preventing moisture from tampering with the foundation. Furthermore, at this stage, plumbing pipes that pass through the foundation are laid down with a rebar that can strengthen the foundation.

The second stage is pouring the foundation: the quantity of cement poured depends on the size of the house. At this stage, a vibration tool can be used to clear away the air pockets that are applied along the foundation edge. After the pouring, the crew begins to level off the cement, and the final smoothing can be done. The ties are inserted mainly for the sake of sill plate. Tables are kept off the foundation.

The last process is the curing of cement; this varies based on the weather, and quantity of the water used and mixes of the cement. The normal curing time is seven days or one week. Next, the tension cables are tightened, and the forms removed. Since the boards do not leave a smooth finish, it is imperative that butter coat is applied to make the foundation appear smart (Home Inspections 1).

Methods of Approach, Advantages and Disadvantages

There are five methods of designing slab on grade namely: the Portland Cement Association, the Wire Reinforcement Institute, the U.S. army corps engineers, Post Tensioning Institute and the Shrinkage-compensation Technique (Toolbelt 1).

Portland Cement Association

Advantages

• No reinforcement required.
• It can apply computerized solutions.

Disadvantages

• Affected by high temperatures
• Effect of slab discontinuities cannot be included.

Wireless Reinforcement Institute

Advantages

• It can be computerized hence efficient.
• Only loadings on the slab interior are placed into consideration.

Disadvantages

• Expensive

Works Cited

Bhatia, Alex. “Fundamentals of Gas Cutting and Welding.” CED Engineering, n.d. Web. 2011.

Build Your Own Home. “Plywood sheathing for the small-home-plan.” Make My Own House, 2011. Web.

CertainTeed. “Exterior Building Products.” Certain Teed, 2011. Web.

Committee. “Design of Slabs on Grade.” Civil Wares, 1997. Web.

Home Inspections. “How is a Slab on Grade Foundation Made.” Your Houston Home Inspector, 2010. Web.

Steel Cutting. “Waterjet steel cutting.” Steel Cutting, 2011. Web.

Toolbelt. “Slab on Grade.” Toolbelt Building, 2010. Web.

Yoyogi national stadium

Yoyogi national stadium is sports arena located in Tokyo, Japan. The stadium was designed by architect from Japan Kenzo Tange to house a gymnasium, basketball court and an Olympic standard size swimming pool as mentioned by James Turnbull. The stadium is a grand example of modern architecture in japan. (Kenzo Tange 1964)

Materials used and its special features

The Yoyogi stadium consists of a 1^st stadium and a second which hosts aquatics and basketball games.Above it is a suspension roof structure which is similar to a bridge.The suspension roof has two main cables span 126m in between, the two main columns and 65 m outside them in the longitudinal direction. Also the roof above it covers a circular plan of 120m diameters.

The second stadium also has a circular plan with a diameter of 65m.It is looks similar to the first stadium the only difference being that it has only one column from the top of which the main pipe runs down in a spiral like shape to the anchorage.

Kenzo Tange erected a central structural supporting spine from which the piece of work and the roof originate. The suspension roof top has two large steel cables which are of approximately 14” in diameter are (Kenzo Tange 1964).

Architect Kenzo constructed the gymnasium with a combination of steel, aluminum, glass and concrete blend which he mainly used. The stadium design gave an idea to the architectural design of the 1972 Olympic park in Munich.

It has been considered as one of the 10 most beautiful stadiums in the world.The main gymnasium hosts a capacity of 13,291 in the first gymnasium while in the second gymnasium a capacity of 3,202. (Kenzo Tang)

The Igloo in Greenland

Julian Ogina describes an igloo as a type of shelter built of snow, originally built by the Inuit. The construction was originally built mainly to insulate the house.The igloo was also used as a hunting ground by the Eskimos. The snow acts as an air insulator as a result temperatures are warmer than the outside due to the insulation.

An igloo is not only restricted to snow but can also be built by even tents. Joan oglin mentions three types of igloos, the smallest which was a temporary shelter for one night.

The second one is intermediate sized which was for accommodating the family and then the largest igloos which was mainly modeled from several smaller igloos attached by channels and had an exit.The large igloo played as a host to traditional dances and community celebrations. (Igloo 2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online)

Picture and research.

An igloo’s snow brick laying method. The fine snow used, must have enough physical strength to be cut and piled as required.

Materials used and its special features

The igloo in Greenland is mainly constructed using snow.To build one the builder takes a heap of fine grained snow and makes them into block shapes. Each block which is rectangular in shape. The first row is laid then additional blocks are added continuously on top of the first row in a spiral form inwardly, till it forms a dome like shape at the top.

A hole is left at the top which acts as a ventilation and ice on the wall inserted as windows. Also at the entrance there is a narrow semi symmetrical passage which is almost 10 feet. There is a low platform of snow covered with twigs topped by caribou furs that is used for sleeping.

Phaeno science Centre in Wolfsburg

Architect Zaha Hadid describes a phaeno as a hall like structure and looks like a landscape with craters and halls and cave like structures.Its description is of an architectural playground.It is one of the top most high end chain of cultural buildings in the world designed by British architect Zaha Hadid.

The structure provides a view to one of the most creative natural structures ever created in the world and considered as Germanys largest playing ground for ambitious innovations.

Phaeno science Centre shows how close together science and fantasy have been connected. It has also described by zaha hadid as looking like a mysterious object which has over the years given rise to curiosity and discovery

Materials used and special features

The building is mainly made of self compacting concrete on all of its walls.The structure boasts features like a spaceship.The building is raised above the ground on a concrete ground.

At its entrance the museum has an staircase the persons use as an entrance to the main floor others include a bookstore and a concert theatre which are situated in the cone shaped halls.

In the design Hadid also created a crater like landscape ,which enables variuos diagonal views to the different levels of exhibition scope. Zahi also developed an inner sections which has crater like cones which acts as a connection the outside and the mysterious dynamic landscape.(arc space.com/phaeno science center).

Hadid attibutes the phaeno center to opening up a new approach to the world of architecture in relation to natural science and technology and reawakens the desire of making discoveries.The building is considered as the largest self compacting concrete(scc) till date in europe.

Sydney opera house

The Sydney opera house is found in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is believed to be a true representation of Australia having been opened in the year 1973by her royal majesty queen Elizabeth 11.It is one of the most recognizable features in the modern world.

Jon Utzon (1918-2008) the architect and designer compares this building to the pyramids in Egypt and also the Coliseums of Rome.Having the ability to host over 3000 events annually ,it is believed to be one of the busiest places in Australia.(Tom Fletcher 2008)

Materials used in construction and the special features

The building is mainly made of concrete material. Its shell like roof is made of fungus ceramic tiles which were imported from Sweden and is made up of 1,057,000 tiles on the roof top.

The walls of the opera house are built using laminated glass and it has a size of 6223 square meters.The laminated topaz green glass were originally designed and imported from France. (The morning herald).

The concert hall believed to be the busiest in the world has a capacity of over 2,690. On the other hand the smaller opera hall has a capacity of 1547 and operates 24 hours a day and 363 days a year. (The herald 2008).

The building is used for functions such as ballet dance acts and opera musical concerts. Jorn Utzon designed the interior with pink granite and additionally made it with brush box poly wood.

Tadao Ando modern millennium museum

Tadao Ando designed the museum that was originally known as Fort Worth public gallery. It was then later on opened to the public on December 2002 as an attraction. The museum contains pictures from the post- world war, which are found in the library and the art gallery.

Here the gallery covers over 53,000 square feet. (Picasso Pablo).The modern museum mainly has a feature of diffused and reflected natural light on the gallery spaces. This originates from the water plaza outside the restaurant which has a mirror like surface and reflects the light into the entire building.

Tadao Ando describes the museum as a combination of nature and technology and is a great example of green revolution. This is due to using the light reflected from the water for lighting the building. He also describes as an example of modern art work technology.

Materials used and special features of the museum

Tadao Ando mainly constructed the building using glass walls which reflect natural light from the large pond outside. The pond acts as a mirror and reflects the light onto the transparent walls which reflects on the gallery surface. The roof above is made of thick concrete slab which is supported by Y shaped columns.

The walls are made of transparent glass which emit light reflected from the large pond. The museum has over (4900meter square of gallery space and in these gallery space has over 2,600 works of art.

In these works of art are pictures from post-world war 2 events. (Arc space. com/ modern). Art works included are from people like Jackson Pollock, Susan Rothenberg, Richard Serra, Andres Serrano and many more. (Wikimedia.com /the modern).

Scope of Work

Qatar has been chosen as a country which is going to host FIFA World Cup in 2022. Many scholars express misunderstanding and dissatisfaction with this decision in a number of reasons.

The one of purposes of this research paper is to consider the issues related to buildings and other facilities the country is going to face and to identify whether the decision FIFA has made is objective and an Arabian country Qatar will manage to host such a great tournament as World Cup 2022. To check evaluate the decision made by FIFA, it is important to consider the following issues.

The main megaprojects and World Cup facilities are going to be discussed along with critical evaluation of the environmental factors, transport and communication, and other components required for providing successful World Cup 2022. The research is going to focus on the already built and planned to be built stadiums, hotels, and other issues which require change to meet FIFA demands.

The literature sources are going to be considered and the information will be analyzed to make it possible to relate the discussion to the critical issues in the design and construction of the Qatar World Cup buildings and facilities in 2022.

The following facilities should also be explored, environmental factors, transport and communication, assembly and disassembly and reconstruction of the facilities somewhere else, climate change and emission control.

Objectives

The research which is going to be conducted has a number of objectives. First, to study the FIFA’s decision and try to understand what specific Qatar offers that FIFA has preferred it to USA, Australia, and some other developed countries.

Second, the managerial and design issues are going to be researched in construction of Qatar World Cup 2022. Third, being aware of the number of changes and innovative facilities used in the preparation of Qatar to World Cup 2022, it is natural to question whether the expected Cup is planned to be green and nature friendly or not.

To achieve the desired objectives, the following related facts should be discussed. The main megaprojects which should be described are hotels and stadiums building. Still, Qatar has one more megaproject which must be mentioned.

Lusail is a city which does not exist on the world map, but in 11 years Qatar government is planning to build this city which going to inhabit 200,000 citizens. It is planned that his city will host the World Cup final (“Qatar to host football World Cup in 2022” 8).

Looking at the plans devoted to the stadium building, it is impossible to avoid the fact that their architecture and design impress with magnificence, innovations and beauty. The use of the innovative technologies is inevitable as the design issues predicted to be implemented require direct technological assistance.

Here are the stadiums which are planned to be built, Doha Port Stadium in Doha designed by Albert Speer & Partner with expected capacity 44,950, Al-Shamal Stadium in Al-Shamal with expected capacity 45,120, Al-Khor Stadium in Al-Khor with 45,330 capacity, Umm Slal Stadium in Umm Slal with expected capacity 45,120, Education City Stadium in Al-Rayyan (capacity 45,350), Al-Wakrah Stadium in Al-Wakrah (Expected capacity 45,120), Qatar University Stadium in Doha with expected capacity 43,520, Sports City Stadium in Dohawith 47,560 capacity, and Lusail Iconic Stadium in Al-Daayen with expected capacity 86,250, a masterpiece of engineering (“World Cup 2022” n.p.).

Al-Gharrafa Stadium in Al-Rayyan (44,740 capacity), Khalifa International Satdium in Al-Rayyan (68,030 capacity), and Al-Rayyan Stadium in Al-Rayyan (44,740 capacity) will experience the major renovations (“World Cup 2022” n.p.). The reconstruction of these stadiums is necessary as they do not meet FIFA requirements being in the present condition.

The temperature in Qatar sometimes reaches 115 degrees that may be extremely inconvenient and even harmful not only for team members but also for fans. Keeping in mind the climate peculiarities of the country, Qatar government has found a perfect solution to the problem. Most of the stadiums are going to have canopies which may be closed and the air-conditioning systems are going to work with the maximum efficiency.

Skeptical consideration of such specific system shows that solar energy is able to heat water to 200C as well as to cool it. The cooling systems have been used for 100 years in industrial needs, so it can be easily transmitted to the utilization for human needs. The system is going to function in the following way.

The solar collectors are going to be located next to the photovoltaic panels with a number of mirrors which are going to direct sun power to the necessary direction.

The gathered energy is collected in specific tubes used for conversion into cooling for the stadium (“Qatar 2022 Showcase” n.p.). Thus, such facilities are planned to be used for Qatar World Cup 2022 to meet the FIFA needs and make the event comfortable and of the desired level.

It should be mentioned that the president of FIFA Sepp Blatter offers to move Qatar World Cap 2022 from summer to winter. Such decision may help protect health of the players as it is too difficult to play while enormous heat. Blaster states that, “We must play at the most adequate period to have a successful World Cup.

To have a successful World Cup, we have to protect actors, the players, which means (playing) in winter” (Casey par. 3). Still, such decision faces the dissatisfaction of the big clubs in Europe as if the World Cup 2022 is moved to winter, their national league schedules will appear in chaos.

Being an Arabian country, Qatar has specific relation to drinking alcohol in the public places and cloths wearing, especially for women. The problem with drinking in public may be easily solved by the creation of the special spaces, but the issue about cloths for women and other related questions have not been considered yet (“Qatar to host football World Cup in 2022” 8).

The stadiums are located in such a way that each of them can be reached within one hour from FIFA World Cup 2022 headquarters. This will help fans watch more than 1 match a day. An absolutely new metro system is going to b built. Its total length is predicted to be 320 km.

The accomplishment of the project is predicted for 2021. Moreover, the highway system and water taxis will also allow fans and teams to reach the place of destination for less than an hour. One more benefit from such compact location is the possibility of a tam to remain in their team base camp for the whole period of the tournament (“FIFA World Cup Stadiums, Qatar n.p.).

To answer the question whether Qatar World Cup 2022 is going to be green or not , a number of issues should be rsearched. On the one hand, the compact World Cup where stadia are located too close to each other to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide from cars and the use of the solar power make Qatar World Cup 2022 nature friendly.

On the other hand, air-conditioning predicted by the plan will not only consume solar power but will also emit greenhouse gases which are so harmful for the nature (Marshal n.p.).

Outcomes

The research should show that Qatar has a plan for getting ready for World Cup and the time they have (11 years) is enough to reach the desired aims. Implementing innovative technologies, Qatar still desires to remain green. The research and critical analysis of the construction design and planned facilities may help us draw conclusions about Qatar World Cup 2022 being nature friendly.

Works Cited

Casey, Michael. “Qatar 2022 World Cup in winter? Sepp Blatter expects tournament to be moved.” Huffpost Sport. 2011. Web.

CW Staff. “Qatar releases more 2022 World Cup stadium details.” Construction Week. 2010. Web.

“FIFA World Cup Stadiums, Qatar: Architecture information.” E-Architect. 2010. Web.

Marshall, George. “Qatar world cup 2022: A colossal wreck- boundless and bare.” Climate Change Denial. 2010. Web.

“Qatar to host football World Cup in 2022.” Middle East 418 (2011): 8. Print.

“Qatar 2022 Showcase: FIFA World Cup Stadium.” E-Architect. 2010. Web.

“World Cup 2022: Qatar’s stadiums in pictures.” The Guardian. 2010. Web.

Introduction

Conservation of resources is a moral responsibility for every individual and corporate entity in the world today. The concept of eco-friendly building is based on the need to stay tuned with the growing concern for environmental sustainability. Construction companies are currently coming up with plans to ensure all future construction projects are eco-friendly.

Numerous techniques for sustainable construction projects are being integrated into building plans. Such techniques include recharging ground water, solar power heating, water recycling, and water harvesting.

Making changes in building designs to adapt to sustainability concerns is essential for saving the environment and reducing the cost of building operation. This paper seeks to explore this statement further from the context of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

In the past, buildings were identified to have a negative impact on the natural environment. Radhi (2009) identifies that the building process failed to use resources especially water and energy in an efficient manner. The state of health of building occupants’ were sometimes imperiled by the building environment.

In addition, employee productivity could be low as a result of the poor state of buildings. Consequently, AboulNaga and Elsheshtawy (2001) say that green technologies in building and construction had to be adopted in order to reduce environmental degradation, pollution, and waste of resources.

Engineers and architects in the UAE are using resources such as water, sand, and the sun to transform the country. They have wide imaginations and have written a new chapter in the building and construction industry. Through the emirates green building council, engineers and architects think towards green initiatives in building and construction.

The council was formed in 2006 with the mandate of advancing the concept of sustainable buildings in the country. It ensures every local building is made to meet the standards of green technology. Engineers and architects in UAE have incentives that allow them to dream on projects that have hardly been tried before.

This further gives them the opportunity to bring ona board everything that makes construction feasible and efficient based on the current market standards. The Burj al-Taqa in Dubai is an example of a modern building constructed under the standards of sustainable buildings.

Research Questions

This research paper seeks to answer the following questions:

• How does the concept of sustainable building help to reduce cost and increase income revenue in UAE?
• What are the goals of advancing eco friendly principles in UAE?
• How is the concept of sustainable building achieved through planning and designing?
• Is there evidence of sustainability in some of the recent buildings and construction projects in UAE?
• In the context of the emirates, what are some of the benefits and disadvantages of sustainable buildings?

Concept definition: Sustainable buildings

Vos and van der Voordt (2001) define sustainable building as the process of constructing buildings which are resource efficient and environmental friendly. The two authors say that this process begins from the planning and designing stage and lasts throughout an entire life cycle of a building.

A similar definition is also provided by Warnock (2007) who further adds that the process particularly entails utilizing resource efficient and environmental friendly techniques during demolition, renovation, maintenance, operation, construction, and design. As a result, Warnock says that there is need for close collaboration by all the key stakeholders during all stages of a construction project.

This implies that clients, engineers, architects, and designers have to work together from the initial step of planning and designing to the time when the building needs to be demolished. All the parties work together and cooperate throughout an entire project.

The current practices in sustainable building may not be sufficient to establish perfect eco friendly buildings. However, Warnock (2007) says that constant development of new technology is ideally placed to expand and compliment the current building construction practices and enhance the concept of eco friendly buildings.

Literature review

The following section of the paper seeks to review literature materials in relation to the research questions. The information is retrieved from online database journals and printed journals.

The goal of advancing eco friendly principles in the UAE

The concept of sustainable development is a direct response to the concerns for environmental degradation and the energy crisis. In United Arab Emirates, the Green Building Council (GBC) is the body charged with the responsibility of advancing the eco friendly principles in the country (AboulNaga & Elsheshtawy, 2001). According to the council, the primary goal of advancing eco friendly principles is to foster sustainability and help protect the environment.

Nonetheless, there are a number of motives and goals which create the desire to advance eco friendly practices in building and construction. These motives relate to environmental concerns, economic, and social concerns. Current initiatives of eco friendly buildings advocate for a synergistic design to construction of structures.

They call for an approach referred to as sustainable design whereby green construction practices are integrated in the entire life cycle of a building thus creating a synergy in all the practices involved.

Advancing eco friendly principles in UAE helps to integrate a wide range of techniques and practices aimed at environmental conservation. In order to achieve this goal, building maintenance practices have to make use of renewable energy. For instance, constructions involve the use of photovoltaic techniques, active solar, passive solar techniques, and reduction of rainwater runoff.

Additionally, eco friendly practices in construction also involve planting trees and gardens on buildings. The building materials used have to be in line with environmental and human health concerns. For instance, wood is a preferred building material compared to asphalt or conventional concrete. Other sustainable building materials include: permeable concrete and packed gravel.

The practices of eco friendly buildings may not be the same in all countries and regions however the fundamental principles apply in general. The principles include:

• Reduction of waste and toxic materials
• Optimization of maintenance and operations
• Enhancement of indoor environmental quality
• Material efficiency
• Water efficiency
• Energy efficiency
• Structure design efficiency
• Sitting design efficiency

The essence of sustainable building is to ensure that at least one or more of these principles are optimized. At the same time, when the techniques for eco friendly buildings are used together, the overall effect is maximized.

Aesthetically, eco friendly buildings are attractive because of their nature to be in harmony with the environment. The buildings have natural features such as green roofs and sites that maintain the natural state of the surrounding environment.

Some of municipalities in the UAE are already in the process of creating awareness in within their jurisdiction in order to ensure advancement of eco friendly principles in the country.

Architecture and sustainable design

Ji and Plainiotis (2006) identify two steps involved in the foundation of building projects. The two steps are design and planning. The authors say that the latter is in fact a vital step of a building project. This is because its impact on performance and cost is particularly significant. The designing stage focuses on ensuring that the building remains sustainable throughout its entire life cycle.

The primary goal of sustainable design is to reduce the environmental impact linked to the life cycle of a building. However, designing varies with buildings because the process of construction is not as streamlined as the general process within the construction industry.

A major advantage of sustainable buildings as identified by Allen and Iano (2008) is the materials used in construction. The authors say that there are materials typically considered green. They identify lumber to be generally ideal for construction however, obtaining the materials requires cutting down of trees which generates another environmental concern.

Nonetheless, lumber from a certified forest are highly recommended (Allen & Iano, 2008). Lumber can be generated from renewable trees such as straw and bamboo. Woolley (2006) confirms the assertions of Allen and Iano (2008). In addition to lumber, he says that other sustainable building materials can include recycled metals, recycled stones, and other renewable non toxic products.

In essence, both authors say that the materials used for building have to be manufactured within the local surrounding of the building site in order to maintain the natural state of the surrounding (Allen & Iano, 2008; Woolley, 2006). For instance, United Arab Emirates is a desert and therefore sand is a common material used in the construction of its green building projects.

Sustainable buildings’ cost and profit

Traditionally, investors in the building and construction industry have been aware of the ever rising cost of operation on one hand while on the other hand revenues keep on decreasing. Kennedy, Smith, and Wanek (2002) identify that the cost of maintenance, water, energy, waste, and insurance have continued to rise. Amidst these concerns, the need for efficient use of resources and green technology is also begging.

According to the authors, construction of sustainable buildings has therefore proven to help investors, not only in UAE, to reduce the cost of operation and enhance the impact of buildings on the surrounding environment. Building without considering the concept of sustainability is unreasonable (Kennedy, Smith, & Wanek, 2002). Sustainable buildings are known to promote quality of human health.

They enhance the well being of occupants. From this argument, it can be deduced that sustainable buildings help to reduce illness thereby increasing the productivity levels of employees or any other occupants of a building. In the case of the work space, the concept of sustainable buildings implies reduced turnover through high level of retention.

If the cost of turnover for single employee in the UAE is assumed to be approximately $20000, sustainable buildings can help prevent such a cost. However, there is still need for further research to be done in order to affirm such a claim. Specifically, the studies should be able to link retention, sustainable design, and high performance to employee turnover rate.

According to Becker (2002) there is a significant increase in value when an office is transformed from non green to eco friendly. Through sampling of almost 10000 buildings, the study found that the buildings which were either LEED certified or Energy Star certified had a significant gain in rental income with a rise in occupancy levels. This study asserts the cost effectiveness of sustainable buildings.

In essence, sustainable buildings have a high rate of return on investment by increasing the asset value of the buildings. In relation to the risk management, insurance companies have recently started to embrace approaches that address the impact of climate change on properties. The companies are revising their terms and conditions to increase awareness of climate change.

Advantages and disadvantages of eco friendly buildings

Energy efficiency is the main benefit of eco friendly buildings. This is according to Ha¨kkinen & Nuutinen (2007) who add that the buildings are incorporated with measures to reduce excessive consumption of energy. The measures are aimed at reducing energy consumption in the process of construction, operation, and maintenance. For instance, services such as heating and ventilation in buildings rely on energy from renewable sources.

The Burj al-Arab in Dubai uses energy from the sun to maintain the internal temperature of the building. The materials used on the outside, tend to maintain a constant cool temperature no matter how hot or cold it gets on the outside. The buildings also embody energy and are made to recycle the embodied energy so as to avoid wastage.

As a way of reducing operating energy, architects and designers use methods of preventing air leakages. Sustainable buildings have little need for maintenance. They generally do not require the level of regular maintenance as the traditional buildings.

For instance, traditional buildings require regular renovation and exterior paintings because they succumb to environmental effects whereas the green buildings may not require paintings at all. In effect, this saves resources, energy, time, and money.

Disadvantages of sustainable building

Contrary to the fact that sustainable buildings are cost efficient, Radhi (2009) says that the building methods can be very costly. For instance, the case of UAE popular green building projects reveals a staggering amount of money used in their construction. Eco friendly buildings have the potential to reduce the cost of operations however the cost involved in their construction is can be very high.

Additionally, it is very difficult to control the internal temperature of the buildings especially when the cooling system depends on natural mechanisms. For instance, the Burj al Arab hotel in Dubai uses natural mechanisms that ventilate the internal environment of the building.

The material used to cover the exterior helps to keep the internal temperature cool despite the external temperature (Radhi, 2009). This implies that temperature within the building is constantly cool. It becomes difficult to control the temperature to suit the needs of occupants.

Another disadvantage concerns the structural orientation of the buildings. The structures that depend on solar energy have to be oriented in a way that optimizes exposure to the sun. Such a concern can be disadvantageous because it is likely to cause unnecessary friction among neighbors in addition to affecting how sunlight enters the various parts of the building. A common example is the dynamic building in Dubai.

The building has structurally been design in way to optimize exposure to the sun. There are a lot of complexities involved in order to archive this maximum exposure. For instance, every floor in the building has to be rotating individually in order for the solar panel installed on the roofs to be exposed to sunlight.

Examples of sustainable constructions in UAE

The Burj al-Arab

The Burj al-Arab is currently the tallest hotel building in the world. Its construction came to completion in 1999. According to AboulNaga and Elsheshtawy (2001) “it is situated 300 yards off shore from Dubai. It is one building that strikes out and puts Dubai and the entire UAE on the global map of iconic buildings.

The building’s design is inspired by the modern racing yachts found within the country’s coastal waters.” Dubai is about the relationship between the ancient desert and the edge of the sea therefore pushing the building off shore seems sort of appropriate. The concept for the Burj al Arab is rooted on the traditional activities within the region where people used to come together for trade.

The construction of the building took five years and finally concluded in 1999. Almost every level of the building construction demonstrated engineering and design challenges that had never been experienced before. At the time, the idea of constructing a high rise building on a manmade island had not been tried before.

The immediate concern was that of supporting a structure that tall and heavy on a manmade island. It was settled on the construction of a foundation consisting of permeable concrete on sand below the sea bed. This material would have little harm to the surrounding environment in addition to holding the building together.

Another challenge was that of the eroding effect of waves and sea water. It is commonly known that building constructed around coastal regions erode quickly as a result of the surrounding environment.

However, this concern was taken care of by the building materials used. For instance, in the Burj al Arab hotel, the forces of erosion were handled by the creation of a sponge that helps to absorb the wave action into the island rather than the wave action riding up like a surf wave.

Another challenge was the enormous amount of energy it would take to keep the Burj al Arab cool. In order to address this issue, the engineers and designers came up with a Teflon coated glass fiber. The material is considered eco friendly based on its functions and energy saving ability. The material creates a day light feel but it is not see-through because it is translucent.

This material has been used in similar projects in other countries for roofing. However, it had never been used vertically on building walls. The material reflects sunlight allowing the building to stay cool on the inside no matter the temperature on the outside. The interior of the building is also inspired by the surrounding. Water is considered wealth in any dessert culture. Recycling water fountains are installed on the inside to enhance its attractive nature.

Dynamic tower

Sand is a major resource in UAE and so is the sun and wind. Engineers in the country always have to battle with harnessing the powers of nature. The dynamic tower is another example of sustainable construction in UAE. The building is also situated in Dubai, one of the fastest growing modern cities in the world. The building uses the energy of the sun and wind for its operation. In other words, it is powered by both solar energy and wind energy.

The tower is considered to be the first building in motion and was completed in 2012. The building’s floors can turn 360 degrees in less than 90 minutes. The bottom floors are programmed electronically to take advantage of solar energy. To maximize wind power, giant wind turbine blades have been inserted horizontally in between the floors.

As the floors rotate independently, their exposure to the sun increases. The floors have solar panels on their roofs and as they rotate independently on a sunny day, their exposure to the sun is increased thus maximizing on solar energy. Basically, the building powers itself by using renewable energy thus meeting the standards of eco friendly buildings.

The Cheese building

The cheese building in Dubai is another building that is built based on sustainability standards. Traditional sky scrapers normally use glass windows to cover the outside of the building and the structural core is inside. But the dessert environment in the country forces designers and engineers to consider another approach in the construction of high rise buildings. The cheese building is pioneers the future of high rise buildings.

In designing the building the traditional approach is basically inverted. An interesting design of the building is a three foot gap between its exterior concrete wall and the interior glass (AboulNaga & Elsheshtawy, 2001). The gap helps to create a chimney effect where hot air enters through the building and rises up past the windows. The phenomenon creates a cooling effect on the building.

Basically, the building does not have to use external sources of power for ventilation. The building can actually power itself to keep the internal environment cool. The narrow space creates a conduit for the warm air to rise and the rush of air substantially cools the building’s interior environment.

Additional, reversing the process of construction has helped to create a shade which further cools the building (Radhi, 2009). The two designs and techniques combined imply that the cooling cost for the building has been significantly reduced by more than 30 percent. The materials used to make the concrete also help to maintain the natural state of the surrounding.

Dubai Floating bridge

The Dubai floating bridge is another construction project showing a great ecological advantage. According to Radhi (2009, p. 240) “the bridge was built to ease up the traffic that became a problem in the city. It is built in such a way that it does not interfere with the flow of water underneath it.” This allows for sea plants to grow and aquatic life to continue.

Conclusion

The paper has focused on the concept of sustainable and eco-friendly buildings in the context of the United Arab Emirates. The paper is based on the thesis statement that says “green technology applied in building and construction is essential for environmental sustainability and cost reduction.”

From the discussions, the paper has determined the validity of this statement and indeed established that sustainable buildings are ideally placed for environmental conservation and cost reduction. The concept of sustainable buildings emerged from environmental concerns and the energy crisis experienced from the early 70s. It involves the use of resource efficient and environmentally friendly techniques in constructions of buildings.

This process begins from the planning and designing stage and lasts throughout the entire life cycle of a building. It particularly entails utilizing resource efficient and environmentally friendly techniques during demolition, renovation, maintenance, operation, construction, and design. As a result, key stakeholders are engaged in close collaboration during all stages of a construction project.

The stakeholders basically include clients, engineers, architects, and designers. All the parties work together and cooperate throughout an entire project. Current initiatives of eco-friendly buildings advocate for a synergistic design to construction of structures. They call for an approach referred to as sustainable design whereby green construction practices are integrated into the entire life cycle of a building thus creating a synergy in all the practices involved.

Overall results

The study has found out that the future of building and construction in UAE is eco-friendly buildings. The country through the Emirates Green Building Council has already put in place measures that ensure every future building project meets the principles and standards of eco-friendly buildings. The United Arab Emirates has established its goals for advancing the eco friendly principles.

Through the Emirate GBC, the country seeks to foster sustainability and help protect the environment. This study has also determined that sustainable buildings are not entirely beneficial because there are demerits associated with them. Even though green technology is the way to go, there is a great sense of technological innovation required to achieve it.

There is no doubt from the findings in this paper that sustainable buildings are cost-effective. They have a high rate of return on investment by increasing the asset value of the buildings. Advancing eco-friendly principles in the UAE helps to integrate a wide range of techniques and practices aimed at environmental conservation. In order to achieve this goal, building maintenance practices have to make use of renewable energy.

There is also aesthetic value with eco-friendly buildings. They are attractive because of their nature to be in harmony with the surrounding environment. The buildings have natural features such as green roofs and sites that maintain the natural state of the surrounding environment.

Lastly, studies have also shown that eco-friendly buildings have the potential to reduce cost and increase profits especially in the line of a work station. By looking at the status of the UAE in terms of attracting professional workers across the globe, it can be concluded that eco friendly buildings are ideal for the work environment.

References

AboulNaga, M., & Elsheshtawy, Y. (2001). Environmental sustainability assessment of buildings in hot climates: the case of the UAE. Renewable Energy, 3(4), 344-350.

Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2008). Fundamentals of building construction: materials and methods. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Becker, F. (2002). Organisational dilemmas and workplace solutions. Journal of Corporate Real estate, 4(2), 129-149.

Elizabeth, L., & Adams, C. (2000). Alternative Construction, Contemporary Natural Building Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Ha¨kkinen, T., & Nuutinen, M. (2007). Seeking sustainable solutions for office buildings. Sustainable solutions, 25(11), 437-451.

Ji, Y., & Plainiotis, S. (2006). Design for Sustainability. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press.

Kennedy, J., Smith, M., & Wanek. (2002). The Art of Natural Building: Design, Construction, Resources. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publisher.

Radhi, H. (2009). Evaluating the potential impact of global warming on the UAE residential buildings–A contribution to reduce the CO< sub> 2 emissions. Building and Environment, 5(4), 234-244.

Vos, P., & van der Voordt, T. (2001). Tomorrow’s offices through today’s eyes: effects of innovation in the working environment. Journal of Corporate Real Estate, 4(1), 48-65.

Warnock, A. (2007). An overview of integrating instruments to achieve sustainable construction and buildings. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 18(4), 233-239.

Woolley, T. (2006). Natural Building: A Guide to Materials and Techniques. New York: Crowood Press.

Abstract

Ward House was constructed between 1873 and 1875. The building is located in Rye Brook in New York. It was constructed and owned by William Ward. Ward House is a significant historical site since it is the oldest concrete building in the US. Ward House was constructed using reinforced concrete rather than modern building materials such as bricks and glass.

The building consists of four floors, which have a total of 17 spacious rooms. Undoubtedly, different materials would be used to construct the building if it were to be built today. These include steel, glass, and molding materials. Also, modern construction equipment such as cranes would be used at the construction site.

Introduction

Ward House is one of the most important landmarks in New York, USA. The building was the first to be built in the US using reinforced concrete. The successful completion of Ward House brought revolutionary changes in the US construction industry since it led to the use of concrete rather than wood as the main building material.

Currently, Ward House is used as a recreational facility that attracts thousands of tourists annually. This paper will focus on the construction of Ward House. It will highlight the materials, methods, tools, and equipment that were used to construct the building.

When, Where, and Size

Ward House is located in Rye Brook in New York. The building was constructed in a residential area at the border between New York and Connecticut (ASCE). The compound is located off Comly Avenue and can easily be accessed by road. Although the building is considered to be in New York, part of its 8-acre compound is located in Connecticut (Spielvogel 123).

Ward House is held in high esteem in the US due to the architectural breakthrough that was achieved during its construction. As the first concrete building in the US, Ward House is a symbol of the country’s civilization and engineering prowess.

The construction of Ward House began in 1873 and ended in 1875 (ASCE). The building was designed by Robert Mook and constructed by William Ward, who was the owner. Thus, the building was named after its owner. William Ward was a renowned mechanical engineer and a businessman.

His main objective of constructing the building was to experiment to determine whether reinforced concrete could be used successfully to build a house (Spielvogel 124). William Ward conceived the idea of constructing the concrete building in 1870. However, he had to conduct a series of tests and experiments to determine the viability of the project before starting construction work in 1873.

Following its completion in 1875, William Ward used the building as a residence for his family up to 1976 “when it was listed on the National Register of Historical Places” (Spielvogel 126). In 1977, the building was sold to Mort Walker who was a comedian.

One of the main features of Ward House is its large size as can be seen in figure 1. The building consists of an octagonal tower with four floors that have several rooms and spacious halls (ASCE). It also has a square tower that houses several tanks that are used to keep water for fighting the fire.

The first floor of the building consists of a huge hallway, dining area, and reception room (Spielvogel 127). The second floor has three bedrooms and a spacious library. Similarly, the third and fourth floors consist of bedrooms and storage rooms. Overall, the building has seventeen spacious rooms.

Civilization and Culture

The building was constructed towards the end of the 19th century when the Industrial Revolution was the main civilization in the US (Schumaker and Wajda 68). The citizens were experiencing a culture change as new immigrants entered the US as businessmen and laborers. The culture of the US was significantly influenced by European culture.

Modernity was highly regarded in nearly all parts of the country. Traditional methods of production, organization of cities, and lifestyles were rapidly being abandoned as the country embraced modernity (Schumaker and Wajda 74). Industrialization led to significant improvement in the standards of living, thereby increasing the population of the country.

As a result, the demand for housing increased, especially, in industrial centers. Architects and city planners had to find effective solutions to the housing problem by developing cheap methods of constructing houses. People preferred to live in modern houses that were built using European architectural designs and durable building materials.

Improved distribution of wealth and the increase in the popularity of modern lifestyles led to the adoption of Gothic Revival and the Second Empire architectural designs in the US. Gothic Revival was popular between 1830 and 1870, whereas the Second Empire style was mainly used from 1850 to 1885 (Poppeliers and Chambers 68).

Gothic Revival style was characterized by the design of houses that had complex and irregular shapes that fitted the natural landscape in rural areas. Consequently, it was mainly used to design country homes such as Ward House, as well as buildings in small towns (Poppeliers and Chambers 71). Apart from country homes, Gothic Revival was commonly used to construct churches, which had huge castle-like towers and windows.

The Second Empire style was developed in France and became popular in the US in the mid 19th century. The Second Empire style was a symbol of high social status and permanence (Poppeliers and Chambers 75).

Homeowners who used the style were mainly the affluent who were interested in large permanent houses. In the US, the Second Empire style was considered as a symbol of modernity. Most residents of urban areas rapidly adopted the style by renovating their homes.

The design and construction of Ward House were heavily influenced by both Gothic Revival and the Second Empire styles. The design of the building’s roof, windows, and towers were based on the Gothic Revival style, which was popular in New York (Spielvogel 91). The design of the building’s interior was mainly informed by the Second Empire style, which favored large rooms with stylish decorations.

By combining the elements of Gothic Revival and the Second Empire styles, William Ward managed to construct a building that reflected the features of modern architecture and the culture of the US society in the 19th century.

Construction of Ward House

Method

Ward House was constructed using basic civil engineering techniques due to the limited access to advanced construction technologies in the 19th century. Since no house had been built in the US using only reinforced concrete, William Ward had to develop his own techniques to construct the building. The building was designed through manual drawings and measurements.

The drawings were done using watercolor papers and pencils. The use of pencil made it easy to erase the drawings in order to make corrections or adjustments. After designing the house, Robert Mook emphasized the possibility of constructing it using concrete.

However, he did not identify the type of concrete that was required to build it. As a result, William Ward decided to conduct several deflection tests to determine the level of reinforcement that was required to construct a stable concrete building. The experiments revealed that iron reinforcements were required to improve the stability of the building (Spielvogel 92).

By 1873, William Ward had concluded his experiments and acquired the building materials that were required to construct the house. The construction process began with the excavation of the ground to facilitate the construction of the foundation that supports the building. The excavations were approximately six feet deep and were filled with reinforced concrete to create the slab on which walls and pillars were to be erected (Onderdonk 53).

Following the completion of the foundation, the walls of the ground floor were constructed in approximately six weeks. However, construction of the subsequent floors took longer because the construction team faced difficulties in erecting tall pillars to support the building.

After the completion of the construction process in 1875, William Ward performed several quality tests before moving into the house (ASCE). Specifically, he tested the stability of the house by placing a weight of 26 tons on the upper floor of the house. The beams deflected by 0.3 mm, thereby confirming the stability of the building (ASCE).

Interior and Exterior Design

The internal part of the house is characterized by colorful wall finishes. The walls were decorated according to the Second Empire style using a variety of paints (Spielvogel 122). The walls and floors have open spaces that are linked to the fireplace. This provides a central heating place that keeps the house warm during the cold season.

The external part of the house is characterized by smooth concrete finishes. It has a mansard roof with several concrete chimneys. The house has large gabled dormer windows on every panel of the octagonal tower. The windows improve the aesthetic appeal of the house. They also provide ventilation and allow sunlight to light the house during the day.

Materials

Concrete was the main material that was used to construct the house. The concrete was prepared using 4,000 barrels of high-quality Portland cement (ASCE). The cement was mixed with 8,000 barrels of sand. Also, 12,000 barrels of bluestones and over 10,000 barrels of white beach pebbles were used in the construction process (ASCE). The bluestones and pebbles were mainly used in the construction of the building’s foundation.

The concrete was mixed at the construction site to ensure its consistency and strength. Iron rods of varying sizes were used to reinforce the concrete. Specifically, William Ward relied on lightweight iron rods whose diameters were approximately 1 cm.

The process of preparing the concrete was based on the technique that had been developed in France by Francois Coignet. The technique involved drying the iron-reinforced concrete before using it to construct the walls of the building. The doors and windows of the building were made of timber.

Tools and Equipment

Ward House was constructed using simple tools and equipment. Industrial development had led to the production of various construction tools and equipment in most parts of the US. These included hammers, shovels, wheelbarrows, plumb bobs, handsaws, mattocks, and trowels (Spielvogel 142). Mattocks was used to excavating the ground during the construction of the building’s foundation.

Shovels were used to move gravel during the excavation process. They were also used to mix concrete at the site. Trowels were used to spread plaster on the walls during the construction process.

Doors and window frames were made at the site using handsaws, hammers, nails, and manual measuring tapes. Plumb bobs played an integral role during the construction and testing process. They were used to assess the extent to which the walls of the building were truly vertical.

Transportation of building materials was done manually. Wheelbarrows were used to transport building materials within the construction site. Gravel and heavy materials such as pebbles were transported using horse-drawn carts (Spielvogel 139).

Building materials were lifted from the ground to various floors in the building using simple pulley systems. Building materials were also carried by the construction team from the ground to various floors in the house.

Labor

The construction work was supervised by William Ward. Since the building was being constructed as an experiment, William Ward hired only a few skilled laborers to assist with the construction work (ASCE). William Ward focused on providing technical advice to the construction team and monitoring their activities. He was also in charge of quality tests and authorization of alterations that had to be made during the construction process.

The laborers, on the other hand, were in charge of activities such as mixing concrete, moving building materials and assembling components such as door frames. The rationale of using a small workforce was based on the fact that the building was not very large. Also, a small workforce was easy to manage and to train.

If it were to be Built Today

Method

Different materials, technologies, and tools would be used if Ward House were to be built today. The design of the house would be based on modern styles rather than Gothic Revival and the Second Empire styles (Onderdonk 46). This perspective is based on the fact that both Gothic Revival and the Second Empire styles have lost their popularity because of their reliance on heavy and expensive building materials.

Besides, they do not reflect the city lifestyle that characterizes the 21st century. The construction process would not require deflection tests since there are engineers and architects with adequate experience in constructing large concrete buildings. Green technologies would be incorporated in the design and construction of Ward House if it were to be built today (Onderdonk 56).

For instance, it would have large glass windows to enable sunlight to pour into the building, thereby reducing dependence on electricity.

The building would have solar-powered water heating systems to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Similarly, the water tower would be replaced with powder or liquid chemical firefighting equipment to conserve water. Since Ward House has four floors, it would be fitted with high-speed elevators to enhance movement.

Materials

A wide range of materials would be used if Ward House were to be constructed today. The use of concrete would be limited to the construction of the floors and pillars. A large portion of the walls would be built using bricks and glass to reduce the cost of construction.

This perspective is based on the fact that glass is relatively cheaper than concrete. The roof of the building would be constructed using polymer roof tiles (Harvey 89). Polymer tiles weigh less and are cheaper than concrete. Also, they have better cooling capabilities than reinforced concrete.

Portland cement would still be used to construct Ward House if it were to be built today. However, the Portland cement that would be used today is likely to have a better quality than those that were used in the 1800s (Harvey 92). The concrete would be reinforced using steel rather than iron rods. Empirical studies reveal that steel has a higher tensile strength than iron.

Thus, it can provide better reinforcement to concrete than iron rods. The windows and doors would be made of steel and glass panels rather than wood. The durability of steel is higher than that of wood. Also, glass panels would improve the aesthetic appeal of the windows.

The bench-tops in the Kitchen would be finished using engineered stone or high-pressure laminate rather than pure concrete. The engineered store is made using small pieces of stones that are bound together using resign. Engineered stone is a popular finishing for modern kitchens due to its durability and stain resistance (Harvey 96).

Also, it enables the homeowner to choose a variety of modern colors and edge profiles for her kitchen. High-pressure laminate, on the other hand, is popular because of its stylish and contemporary looks (Harvey 97). Other interior parts of the house would be decorated using stylish molding materials and modern paints.

Tools and Equipment

Modern tools and equipment would be used if Ward House were to be built today. Hammers would be replaced with nail guns, which require little energy to use. Also, the use of nail guns is associated with fewer injuries than traditional metallic hammers. Shovels and trowels would still be used to mix small quantities of concrete at the construction site.

The construction team would use high-pressure concrete mixers to prepare the concrete and to pump it to various floors in the building. Unlike shovels, concrete mixers are mechanical machines that improve the consistency of concrete and reduce the time required to prepare and to lift it to various floors of the building that is being constructed (Onderdonk 115).

Heavy building materials such as bricks would be lifted using high capacity cranes rather than pulleys at the construction site. Gravel and sand would be transported using modern trucks (vehicles) rather than horse-drawn carts. Undoubtedly, vehicles would significantly reduce the amount of time required to transport the building materials.

Labor

Fewer workers would be required if Ward House were to be constructed today. Given the increased use of machines such as cranes and mechanical concrete mixers, most modern buildings require only a small workforce to undertake the construction work. William Ward would be replaced with an independent consultant to supervise the construction process. The use of external consultants is commonplace in modern construction projects since it helps in improving the quality of buildings (Harvey 141).

In addition, the construction process would be led by a qualified civil or structural engineer rather than William Ward who was a mechanical engineer. Regulation in the modern construction industry requires property owners to hire qualified civil engineers and consultants to undertake construction projects.

Conclusion

Ward House will continue to be a significant landmark and a valuable historical site in New York. The building will remain important in the history of the construction industry in the US since it was the first to be built using reinforced concrete.

If the house were to be built today, significant changes would be made in its design and construction method. Also, different building materials would be used for its construction. The changes would make the building to be more durable and attractive to the modern homeowner.

Works Cited

ASCE. Ward House 2013. Web.

Harvey, Ken. Fundamental Building Materials, Florida: Boca Raton, 2009. Print.

Onderdonk, Francis. The Ferro-Concrate Style, London: Sage, 2012. Print.

Poppeliers, John, and A. Chambers. What Style is it: A Guide to American Architecture, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Print.

Scheumaker, Helen, and S. Wajda. Material Culture in America, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2008. Print.

Spielvogel, Barbaralee. The Landmarks of New York, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print.

Opening

3-D printing is an efficient and essential tool for engineers, doctors, product designers, and entrepreneurs. 3-D printing is mostly used for prototyping, create broken parts, etc. The applicability of 3-D printing is incredibly vast; it can even produce medical implants. The technology of 3-D printing defines future progress since prototypes are generated faster and last as much as the actual object does.

This technology is based on Additive Manufacturing (AM), and its operations depend on the computer directing the 3-D printer to add every new layer continually as a precise cross-section of the final object. Additive manufacturing uses Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), which uses the thermoplastics that turn into semi-liquid form at specific temperatures and solid on cooling down (Barnatt 2). The melted thermoplastic is precisely positioned layer upon layer while moving on a three-dimensional axis (Kim and Robb 19). The trends of 3-D printing are rising and will continue growing according to data obtained by the Google insight graph by 2015. 3-D printing is an innovation most people are interested in trying according to the statistics.

The popularity of the new invention has risen sharply since its benefits became obvious to the target audience. Because of the opportunities, which it offers in construction, the device can be considered a major breakthrough.

The Benefits of a 3-D printer in construction

1. 3-D printing makes the construction process faster and more accurate. The advantages are mainly attributed to the fact that the human factor is eliminated in modeling (Husseini para. 3). Since machine production is involved, the element of approximations is resolved, and only exact values are given during the modeling of objects.
2. Human labor is reduced mainly because the 3-D printing technology eliminates the need for manual architectural designs and manual prototype construction (Husseini para. 4). The actual architectural models of a building are built with the help of computer programs feeding the results to a 3-D printer. The printer carefully generates a sample of the building as directed, thus, making a prototype.
3. Waste production is reduced with the use of 3-D printers (Husseini para. 3). The content that is produced by the printer is always accurate, and any miscalculations always lead to recycling the thermoplastic materials that were used in the process.
4. 3-D printing helps reduce both health and safety risks involved (Husseini para. 2). 3-D printing replaces heavy-duty work and dangerous jobs on the site during construction. Tasks such as wall structures are replaced by three printers preventing the possibility of the walls collapsing on the masons (MoorefieId-Lang 70).
5. 3-D printing defies the use of traditional forms of construction. The printing technology can help overcome challenges once it incorporates the architect’s and owner’s design. Traditionally flat walls had to be joined at ninety-degree angles because alternate models seemed impossible. 3-D printers can remove this obstacle enabling architects and owners to build buildings with more curves.
6. The cost of development is reduced. 3-D printing will remove the need for extra labor force required in the construction industry and the need to buy manufactured materials since 3-D printers can produce them for their owners.
7. Quality of development is increased with the use of 3-D printers. Most of the building errors are eliminated due to the high accuracy of a 3-D printer. The destruction of buildings due to human error is removed since the printer cannot make simple errors that humans make during the design of a building unless when it malfunctions. All those involved are immediately relieved of their guilt, and the existence of any lawsuit occurring is minimized, all thanks to the use of a 3-D printer in construction.
8. The standards of development are increased because of the quality increase. If most of the companies embrace 3-D printing, what seemed impossible in construction is made possible due to the flexibility of the 3-D printer. The model graph clearly shows the rise in quality of building because of a 3-D printing application.

The Risks of a 3-D printer

1. A reduction in the number of workers in the construction industry is expected. Removing studs, sidings, and drywalls from the process of building reduces the total number of people needed on the ground. The reduction of jobs leads to unemployment in the long run increasing the crime rates in the region.
2. Allocating risks becomes difficult when 3-D printing is involved. When a problem occurs, it is hard to find who will take the blame. One risk to consider includes the contractual warranties. Example is the material and equipment that are to be furnished will be of perfect quality and new unless otherwise. The second case is that work will be free from mistakes and be of standard quality. The third example is that work will be completed according with the set requirements of the contract (Gibbs para. 2).
3. With the emergence of 3-D printing copyrights, infringement is a significant issue since duplications of designs and structures will occur. There will be a major challenge for some companies copying other companies’ development models; all these have been made easier and faster because of the emergence of 3-D printers (Griffey 8).
4. If most companies embrace 3-D printers, the construction industry will be flooded, and the price of houses in the market will drop significantly. With the construction being made easier by the printer, many companies will emerge and increase the competition in the construction industry (What Material Should I Use For 3D Printing? – Advanced Materials Review #1 – BendLay, Laywoo-D3 and LayBrick para. 3.).

Closing

Since 3-D printing is getting increasingly popular, the company investing in it will save a lot of money. 3-D printing benefits according to my opinion outweigh the risks, embracing it will prepare the company for any evolutions that are to occur in the future. A competitive edge over other building companies is expected since the jobs will be efficient and more reliable. At the rate, in which technology is going, we will soon come to print not only buildings but entire urban sections (Lipson and Kurman 53).

The price of a 3-D printer might be very high, but it is worth the cost considering the large amount of profit it would give to the company. If there is an investment worth, the risk is 3-D printing. The company making a first move will have the benefit of first mover effect in the construction industry. It will have already won the trust of its customers, and it will already be firmly rooted in the business before other companies start embracing it.

Before considering this emerging cutting edge technology as a development method, one should reflect on how it changes the exposures to danger and do some enquiry from a knowledgeable and trustworthy counsel and insurance level. The graph below shows that 3-D is in its early stages of adoption by many companies. In the next five years, the use of 3-D printers will increase significantly reaching its tipping point.

Works Cited

Barnatt, Christopher. 3D Printing: The Next Industrial Revolution. New York: ExplainingTheFuture.com, 2013. Print.

Gibbs, Samuel. “Metal 3D Printing and Six Key Shifts in the Second Industrial Revolution.” The Guardian. 2014. Web.

Griffey, Jason. ” The Types of 3-D Printing.” Library Technology Reports 50.5 (2014): 8-12. Print.

Husseini, Adam. “3D Printing and the Construction Industry.” Building Technologies 2014. Web.

Kim, Julie and David Robb. “3-D Printing: A Revolution in the Making.” University of Auckland Business Review 17.1 (2014), 16–25.

Lipson,Hod and Melba Kurman. Fabricated: The New World of 3D Printing. Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2013. Print.

MoorefieId-Lang, Heather. ” 3-D Printing in Your Libraries and Classrooms.” Knowledge Quest 43.1 (2015), 70–72 Print.

What Material Should I Use For 3D Printing? – Advanced Materials Review #1 – BendLay, Laywoo-D3 and LayBrick. 2015. Web.

Business Case

The Ayla Hall Project arose from the identification of the need for an events hall in Western Abu Dhabi. This is because most Events Halls in Abu Dhabi are adjacent to the beach in the Eastern parts of Abu Dhabi. There is a growing demand for event halls in more serene locations of Abu Dhabi away from the busy beaches. The main benefit that will accrue to the stakeholder of the project is that investors will have a competitive return on investments. The basis of this benefit is the projections made regarding the project in comparison to similar facilities and in line with the growing demand for Events Halls in Eastern Abu Dhabi. This project will be successful if the Project Management Committee is able to deliver the project on time and within the budget allocated by the Ayla Residents Association.

Scope Overview

The main activities of the Ayla Hall Project are as follows. The first phase of the project is planning. During the planning phase, the consultant will coordinate the activities of the Project Management Committee towards the development of an architectural drawing and landscape design. In addition, the committee will carry out value engineering after the completion of the preliminary plans. The committee will also prepare landscaping plans and make decisions regarding the layout of the entire facility. The second main activity will be the construction phase. This phase will involve all stakeholders at various levels.

The local government will carry out inspections at various stages of construction to ensure that the project meets all regulatory requirements. The third main activity of the project will be installation of the interior fittings. Interior fitting in this case refers to the paintwork, interior décor, installation of pipes and faucets, installation of electrical outlets, as well as installation of equipment for use in the hall.

The primary deliverables of this project will be as follows. First, the project will deliver an Events Hall as specified by the client. Secondly, the project will deliver all the equipment needed for the operations of the hall. The third deliverable will be a landscaped lawn for outdoor activities such as breakout sessions and team building activities.

The two main objectives of this project are as follows. First, the project intends to develop an events hall to meet the rising need for an events facility in Eastern Abu Dhabi for local residents and for visitors to the area. The second objective of the project is to create value for the Ayla Residents Association.

This project does not include the operations of the Ayla Hall Project after construction. In this regard, the recruitment of employees to run the facility and the management of maintenance contracts do not form part of this project. In addition, the project does not cover the construction of roads leading to the facility, as well as the connection of the facility to utility providers (gas, electricity, internet, and water).These aspects will be under a separate project managed by the residents association because of existing supply contracts.

Milestone Schedule and Acceptance Criteria

The table below presents the acceptance criteria for this project.

The milestone schedule for this project is as follows.

Risks

This project has many risks associated with the construction process. The main project risks associated with the Ayla Hall Project are resource risks, schedule risks, and management risks. Resource risks in the context of the Ayla Hall Project refer to resource constraints that may affect the timely delivery of the project. The client has enough money to fund this project provided market conditions affecting the cost of materials and labor do not change rapidly. The Ayla Residents Association does not have a backup plan to raise extra finances for the project. Lack of finances will affect relations with contractors, and will hamper delivery of the materials the contractors need to complete the project. In addition, the cost of maintenance of the project in areas such as such as site security and renegotiation of contracts will escalate.

The risk owner in this context is the client. The main assumption in this regard is that market forces will not change rapidly during the active life of the project. Schedule risks may also affect the timely delivery of the project. The risk factors include poor weather, labor unrest, the impact of resource risks, and the impact of negative reviews by regulators. The occurrence of these risk factors will affect the entire project. The risk owners in this case include all the stakeholders of the project.

Each of the risk factors identified above affects several project stakeholders. The main assumptions under the risks associated with the schedule of the project are these risk factors will not all occur. This will limit the impact of the schedule risks on the project. The third category of risks is management risks. The Project Management Committee comprises different stakeholders who include the contractors, the client, consultants, and the local government. A disagreement within this team can lead to delays. This can lead to the emergence of secondary risk factors. The most vulnerable areas of the project in regards to management risks include the project schedule and the delivery of the project as envisioned by the client.

Stakeholder List

The five main stakeholder groups in this project are the client, the contractor, the consultant, the local government, and the suppliers. The client for this project is the Ayla Residents Association. The Ayla Residents Association owns the land that will host this project. It also raised the funds for the construction project. The Ayla Residents Association’s chairperson is a member of the Project Management Committee and represents the interest of the Ayla Residents Association. The second stakeholder in this project is the consultant contracted by the Ayla Residents Association to develop the business plan as well as the structural plan for the project. The Ayla Residents Association hired Spacetech Consultants to provide all the consultancy services required for the project. The consulting firm has a representative in the Project Management Committee.

The third main stakeholder group is project contractors. The nature of the project is that it will require several contractors to develop the events hall. The main project contractors are civil time Contractors and Power works Limited.

Civil time Contractors will handle the architectural design, civil works, and construction supervision. Power works Limited will handle all the electrical works required for the upcoming facility. Suppliers are also a key group of stakeholders in this project. The delivery of this project will require services and provisions from a wide range of suppliers. The final stakeholder in the Ayla Hall Project is the Abu Dhabi Local Government. The local government must issue construction permits after approving the plans. In addition, it carries out regular inspections to ascertain that the construction project adheres to the construction and environmental regulations.

Team Operating Principles

The three operating principles of the project management team are trust, respect, and mutual support. All team members will endeavor to maintain trust by being transparent, accountable, and honest. The team members will also handle one another with respect because all members are specialists in their skill areas. The team members will also do their best to offer mutual support to each other for the good of the project. The team will communicate using online platforms. The team will also have a weekly meeting to review progress. Each member of the team will play a specific role in the course of the project. The leader shall ensure that all members have access to the resources they need to play their roles. One member shall act as the team’s secretary, and shall keep all minutes. The rest of the members will carry our various assignments in line with the position of the project. The team will make decisions by consensus. In cases where it is impossible to agree, the team will make decisions by a majority vote.

What is modular construction

Modular construction is the process of constructing building components off-site and putting together the components (also known as modular parts or modules) on-site. The modular parts could consist of numerous individual parts such as the walls, frames, doors windows and ceilings put together to create a complete modular building unit or be several prebuilt ‘complete’ modular building units put together on-site to make one large unit. The final construction should reflect the intended design and specifications achieving high build quality (Eagle 2014).

The decision to fall back on this type of construction is very often motivated by the need to meet the strict deadline for erecting buildings, as modular construction is known for high quality that can be easily reached within the shortest possible time while the result will be long-lasting and strong.

For this reason, modular construction is a common technology for building industrial plants. Nevertheless, today it is more often used for constructing business centres, telecommunications, stations, churches, educational structures, military objects, airport facilities, restaurants, and even healthcare institutions. Among the common customer using this type of construction, there are local, state, and federal governments, huge corporations and non-profit organizations, retailers and healthcare providers (The Modular Building Institute 2010). An example of where modular buildings have been used at a large scale is the B2 building in New York that was the world’s largest modular building comprising of a 32 storey residential tower where 60% of this building was constructed off-site. However, it was before the Sky City building in China that boasts a magnificent 220 storey building construction that was said to be completed in 90 days. In addition to the projects mentioned above, this practice has been used by the authorities of Hong Kong in public housing construction (Chiang et al. 2006) and Singapore (Poh & Chen 1998).

Velamati (2012) pays specific attention to the stages of modular construction detaching four specific stages. First of all, the future building is designed by the developers. At this stage, the plan is also approved by the authorities, so that it meets all the requirements regarding safety and the process of construction. At the second stage, modules are manufactured and assembled in the factory environment. Next, modular parts are transported to the assembly yards where they will later be put together. Finally, the building is constructed, and the process is over.

Advantages of modular construction

Modular buildings are becoming favourable to conventional construction, as the individual modules are carefully engineered to withstand the effects of transporting and craning them onto the foundations onsite making them structurally stronger than traditionally constructed buildings. There is also better construction quality management off-site ensuring that stringent quality control and quality assurance protocols are in place to promote an exceptionally high quality of construction in every step of the project. It is achieved through repetition, inspection and operating in a controlled factory environment, and adhering to regulations in place. All of these steps help improve performance (Court et al. 2006).

Modular parts can be built to exact specification and be replicated with the minimal error off-site usually in a factory setting thus reducing the time of completion and the need for amendments significantly. Labour reduction is also a key advantage and by using modular buildings, there is less need for supervisory personnel at the sites thereby further reducing cost and completion time. It is believed that an increased amount of personnel accounts for higher costs and longer completion times as it facilitates means for unnecessary worker interface (Proverbs, Holt & Olomolaiye 1999). In addition to it, Jameson (2007) believes that modularization helps decrease labour peaks because most work is conducted in a factory environment by the machines and with the use of assembly lines. Together with that, it is a perfect tool for reducing conflicts in the working place because the number of workers is at a minimum, so, they rarely intercommunicate and collide.

Velamati (2012) points out another desirable advantage of modular construction. The author states that it creates minimal site disruption as approximately 60-90% of the construction activity is carried out off-site in the factory environment and only the assembly, and minor work is done on-site. Moreover, it improves overall safety and security and eliminates construction hazards especially when used for erecting schools, hospitals, building dense and heavily populated areas where the safety of people and also the running of businesses are paramount. In addition to it, the author also stresses that modules in comparison with conventional construction are better insulated and more moisture tolerant, as most parts are assembled in the factory environment where weather conditions cannot affect the process and ruin the material used for building and design.

There are also advantages deriving from the strict schedule for design and construction. First of all, because of the detailed process, the delays in constructing the building are almost impossible. However, there is one crucial condition in this case – the schedule should be developed with bearing in mind possible risks and delays in transportation and assemblage. Second, strict schedule implies the strict control over the process and coordination at every stage. Third, modular buildings are usually erected faster if compared to conventional, that is why cost benefits are resulting from both savings during shorter periods of construction and income from earlier introducing into service and receiving rental payments (Ataei et al. 2015). The authors also point out that strict schedules also have a positive impact on environmental advantage. Because less time is spent on constructive, the potential negative influence on the local natural environment is reduced.

Finally, the experts from the Modular Building Institute (2010) claim that the flexible design of modular constructions makes them reusable, it means that they can later be used for erecting the building that varies from the initial design. Moreover, they can be switched during the process of assembling as one element can be used as floor, ceiling, wall or rafter. It is what makes this technique unique and to some extent universal.

Disadvantages of modular construction

Even though modular construction has many advantages, numerous significant disadvantages should take into consideration when choosing the type of construction. For example, Taghaddos et al. (2014) focus their attention on cons that might derive from short times of construction. First of all, the authors claim that because this technique is often used when the deadlines are strict, there is a need to develop a schedule that would not ignore any single minute. They stress that designing such a plan requires exquisite time management skills, and it is very often complicated to find specialists who can cope with this task. For this reason, there are sometimes delays in constructing the buildings and meeting the deadlines. Moreover, the authors pay specific attention to the limitations of this method. That said, they note that because all the modules should be ready before construction and kept in one place that is called assembly yards, there are often limits in space, as it is difficult to find the necessary surface for storage. Furthermore, the investigators stress on the necessity to involve many specialists with different skills into the modular projects. They acknowledge that hiring a worker is not a problem; what is a real challenge is to find an HR who would be able to manage them effectively. Finally, the authors believe that one more disadvantage of this type of construction is that it requires too many transporters that are first used for shipments and later for transporting the modules from one place in the assembly yard to another (Taghaddos et al. 2014).

Another disadvantage of modular construction is stated by Chiang et al. (2006) who state that the modules used in the building should correspond with particular buildability criteria determined by the state. These criteria can be used as the barrier to entry for new modules manufacturers to the market, thus leading to the emergence of monopolies in the economy. However, the authors claim that there is a way of overcoming this barrier by hiring official consultants who might help manufacturers change the production process so that the final product complies with the standards. The only problem here is that the services of the consultants are costly, that is why the price for the modules rises. What also becomes more expensive is the process of constructing a building, as it also should fall within the standards. In some cases, such new projects are more than 40% more expensive, that is why buildability criteria are another fruitful way of precluding the emergence of new companies that is, at the same time, a significant disadvantage of modular construction.

Modular construction and simulation

Taghaddos et al. (2014) believe that simulation can become an effective tool for working out the disadvantages of the modular construction, especially the constraint emerging during the process of erecting the building using the modules. According to the authors, to avoid the negative aspect of this type of building, it is necessary to assess all potential limitation that might emerge during the process such as delays in transportation, various problems deriving from the human factor, and inaccuracies in plans and schedules. The authors claim that the result of the simulation is a series of reports and graphs illustrating all the available resources. In the case of a thorough analysis of the outputs of the model, it is possible to eliminate the possibility of inaccuracies and guarantee that the deadlines are met and the plans are fulfilled.

What simulation is beneficial for is improving the scheduling of onsite installation. It is especially effective if used with visualization, claim Moghadam et al. (2012). They believe that this method helps to simplify the minute-in-minute plan for assembling and better the overall performance. The authors propose to develop three scenarios for the whole process of construction – pessimistic, optimistic, and average. It should be said that the pessimistic scenario is still acceptable because the company would still meet the deadline. The only thing that authors stress is that it is more beneficial to follow the optimistic scenario because it will help improve productivity and performance.

The use of modular construction in hospital buildings

Today, modular construction has become popular with healthcare providers, as more and more hospitals building are erected with modules. Bearing in mind that the advantages of the modular building significantly outweigh disadvantages, it is no surprise.

Ataei et al. (2015) pay specific attention to the use of modular construction in hospital buildings. The authors believe that there are several reasons for which this type of construction is more beneficial for healthcare providers than the conventional. First of all, they point out that hospital buildings are usually sophisticated and have many levels of complexity. It means that there is a need for very detailed design and, what is even more significant, bringing the initial design to life. In the case of modular construction, this objective can be easily achieved. Second, hospitals need to be sure that their buildings are safe and of high quality that can as well be guaranteed due to the strict control measures throughout the whole process of construction. Third, the demand for healthcare services continually grows. It means that the new facilities should be built within the shortest possible time. As it was shown above, using modular parts in building saves not only time but also money, that is why this type of construction is perfect for the hospitals.

Eagle (2014) states another benefit of modular for constructing a hospital in comparison with the conventional building. The author thinks over the necessity to build another building or repair some parts of the building under exploitation. What is special about modules is that they are assembled in the factory environment. It means that all the primary work is done away from patients. So, the hospitals manage to avoid dust and noise that adds not only to the comfort of patients but also to their safety. In addition to it, the author stresses that because of strict planning, it is possible to manage the resources financial as well as raw materials. It means that using this type of construction helps minimise the amount of scrap that as well improves the sustainability of a hospital because less money is spent first on buying materials, then on cleaning up the wastes.

To prove that modular construction is beneficial for healthcare institutions, Court, Pasquire and Gibb (2008) carried out an in-depth investigation of the UK hospital built with the use of modules. For this specific study, they have analysed the data regarding the overall effectiveness of conventional constructing including quality, time spent for finishing the projects, health and safety including the number of incidents in the working place and work-related illnesses, and the level of the workers’ productivity. In addition to it, the authors studied whether the use of the corridor modules is more beneficial than traditional construction. The results of the exploration were fascinating, as the authors have found out that the overall consequences were positive and could be divided into six groups: quality, time, sustainability, cost, health and safety, and site benefits. In general, erecting building using this type of technique helped save the costs and raw materials, as the number of wastes was lower than in the case of conventional construction. Second, it decreased the time for finishing the project because the workers knew that they had to meet strict deadlines and most works were finished in a factory setting, thus, resulting in achieving better quality with involving less workforce. Third, it helped improve the level of safety, as there were no accidents in the working place and the productivity of employees as they were controlled at every stage of the process.

Even though the use of modular parts for construction is, for the most part, beneficial, some barriers preclude it from becoming the widespread practice. These barriers are studied by Azhar, Lukkad and Ahmad (2012). First of all, the authors believe that this type of construction requires high-skilled workers that would work on design and planning, but they are hard to afford by the ordinary building companies. Second, not all factories have the inventory of the needed technological level that could be used for assembling the modular parts. Third, in most cases, people are unaware of the benefits of modular construction over conventional (Azhar, Lukkad & Ahmad 2012). Finally, big corporations are just used to conventional construction that is why they need some time to adapt to something new even though it is more advantageous (Carriker & Langar 2014).

Conclusion

Modular construction is not a new technique for erecting a building, and it has already gained popularity among the most varied customer from healthcare and educational institutions to non-profit organizations and governments at all levels. What first of all should be said about this technology is that minimizing the number of workers involved and maximizing the amount of work finished in a factory environment is a source of limitless benefits not only for healthcare institutions but also any other.

To sum up, the primary advantages of modular construction are minimizing the costs and maximizing the revenues that can be achieved by thorough budgeting and planning the number of necessary resources as well as finishing the construction earlier, so that there is an opportunity to receive rental payments earlier. The second advantage is improving the level of overall performance because every stage is strictly controlled and managed. Third, this type of construction is safer for the natural environment as the projects are finished sooner if compared to conventional construction. The fourth benefit is that it helps increase safety in the working place. Finally, modules are flexible in design and can be reused and recycled.

Together with that, there are as well some disadvantages of this type of erecting the buildings but they all come down to constraints whether it be a lack in time, skills or resources. Furthermore, it sometimes can be less beneficial than thought because there are buildability criteria established by the state that should be met. In the case, if the company fails to comply with them, it has to hire consultants, ad the process of reaching the determined standards is time-consuming and costly. Nevertheless, there are some disadvantages, what should be said is that they are outweighed by the advantages and can be eliminated by using simulation and visualisation while preparing the plan of the projects and developing the schedule of assembling.

References

Ataei, A, Gebrail, F, Daliri, F & Bolourian, N 2015, Productivity of modular construction, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.

Azhar, S, Lukkad, M Y & Ahmad, I 2012, ‘Modular v. stick-built construction: identification of critical decision-making factors’, Proceedings of the 48th ASC Annual International Conference, Associated Schools of Construction, Windsor, CO.

Carriker, M & Langar, S 2014, ‘Factors affecting large scale modular construction projects’, Proceedings of the 50th ASC Annual International Conference, Associated Schools of Construction, Windsor, CO.

Chiang, Y H, Chan, E H W & Lok, L K L 2006, ‘Prefabrication and barriers to entry—a case study of public housing and institutional buildings in Hong Kong’, Habitat International, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 482-499.

Court, P, Pasquire, C & Gibb, A 2008, ‘Modular assembly in healthcare construction – a mechanical and electrical case study’, Proceedings of the 16th Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction Prefabrication, Assembly and Open Building, IGLC, Santiago, Chile, pp. 521-532.

Court, P, Pasquire, C, Gibb, A & Bower, D 2006, ‘Design of a lean and agile construction system for a large and complex mechanical and electrical project’, Proceedings of the 14th Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction, IGLC, Santiago, Chile, pp. 1-14.

Eagle, A 2014, ‘Speed to market’, Health Facilities Management Magazine, May 2014, pp. 18-23.

Jameson, P H 2007, ‘Is modularisation right for your project?’ Hydrocarbon Processing, December 2007, pp. 67-71.

Moghadam, M, Al-Hussein, M, Al-Jibouri, A & Telyas, A 2012, ‘Post simulation visualization model for effective scheduling of modular building construction’, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 39, no. 9, pp. 1053-1061.

Poh, P S H & Chen, J 1998, ‘The Singapore buildable design appraisal system: a preliminary review of the relationship between buildability, site productivity and cost’, Construction Management and Economics, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 681-692.

Proverbs, D G, Holt, G D & Olomolaiye, P O 1999, ‘Construction resource/method factors influencing productivity for high rise concrete construction’, Construction Management & Economics, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 577-587.

Taghaddos, H, Hermann, U, AbouRizk, S & Mohamed, Y 2014, ‘Simulation-based multiagent approach for scheduling modular construction’, Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 263-274.

The Modular Building Institute 2010, Improving construction efficiency & productivity with modular construction, The Modular Building Institute, Charlottesville, VA.

Velamati, S 2012, Feasibility, benefits and challenges of modular construction in high rise development in the united states: a developer’s perspective, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.