Category: Construction

Introduction

In the construction industry, different conditions, terms or elements exist to ensure that the contract is carried out in a well stipulated manner and that the parties are governed to act in the interests of each other. The conditions are as discussed below.

Key conditions used in construction contracts

The first condition entails the intentions of the parties involved in the contract. The parties are bound to act in a contractual spirit based on mutual trust and cooperation for the contract to be wholly successful (10.1). The terms and conditions used in the contract ought to be helpfully and fully defined to both parties of the contract so as to enhance clear understanding (11). Communication is very essential while entering into the contract to ensure that all the parties are in agreements as they fully have an understanding of the terms. All forms of communication that ensues in the contract are formal and should all be done in writing and incase a period for reply is specified in the contract data, then this should specifically done within that period (12).

The employer has the power and is in lead control of the contract. He may consequently give instructions or directions that alter or change the works information on how the contract will be carried out (13.2). Such are binding and must be followed to the letter to ensure a workable contract. The site that the construction will take place should be accessed by the contractor to enhance early planning of the construction. The contractor must be allowed by the employer to access and use the site and should provide the services well stated in the works information (14). Where the contractor may notice or may require to bring attention to the employer about something in regard to the contract, such early warnings in regard to how the contract should be carried out are a significant requirement (15). This further helps in ensuring that the parties very well understand the terms binding them in the contract.

As regards, the condition of time to the contractor may not start before the set date and completion may be on or before the set completion date (30.1). The contractor must submit a scheduled forecast or programme of activities to be carried out throughout the contract (31). He may not start before, and the completion of the contract may be before, or after the completion date as stated in the contract. The element of time is a major concern in the construction industry as failure to meet the scheduled time may lead to inconveniencing the employer. The employer is entitled to instruct the contactor to stop or restart the work according to how he sees its progress. In cases where there are delays due to certain events occurring, this may constitute compensation (60). Such events may arise from the action or inaction by the employer though also includes some neutral causes such as physical conditions beyond the control of the employer. The procedures for notifying quotations, compensating events are stipulated in the contract forms (62 and 63).

In regard to the condition or element of control, to start with, the early warnings obligation as regards the contract and its practice may constitute a control mechanism which is very vital in the contract (15). The employer has the overall say as pertains the working out of the construction contract. The employer may delegate any actions and may similarly cancel any delegation (13.4). An employee may be removed through his instructions (21.3). Hence the control condition will cover the employer’s requirements and the expected standards of the project. The quality of the project should not be compromised, and any defects noticed should brought to the attention of the employer and a defects certificate produced (41.3). Before a defects certificate is issued, the contractor is liable for replacement of lost plant and materials and any damages to the works (43.1).

The condition concerning the costs involved in the project, price and other forms of payment, that is, money, the contractor is required to make an application for payment by the stipulated assessment day, once a month (50.1). The application entails a detailed account of how the money has been used and assessed (50.2). A certificate is normally issued to certify the amount to be paid in accordance to the work performed, that is, the degree of completion. Ordinarily, the employer is to pay within three weeks after the next assessment day (51). Officers such as the quantity surveyor help in the certification of work completed.

The statutory obligation condition is implied, and arises in instances of breach of the statutory duty by the employer. The contractor in such cases is indemnified against claims or proceedings and costs arising thereby (81.1). Specifically, in regard to the health and safety and CDM stipulated regulations, there is no express reference in that regard. The only instance of such provision could be through the provision of reasons for termination of the contract by the employer for the contractor breaks a regulation (90.3).

Insurance is very vital in the construction contract. There is an insurance table provided in the contract within which the contractor is to provide joint names for insurance purposes (82.1). There are several forms of insurance with basic and a major reason for compensation or replacement cost in respect of loss or damage to plant, materials, individuals and the works. The insurance cover extends from the starting date to the completion date in the case of plants and materials and defects certificate in the case of the works. The other form of insurance is the liability insurance. This insurance insures the owner from possible accruing legal liabilities for another person’s loss. Moreover, insurance is also required to cover the contractor’s liability for damages to property other than works, and injury or death to persons for the minimum cover as stated in the contract. The contract stipulates the extent to which the contractor’s liability for loss or damage to the employer’s property will be covered with the insurance (80.1).

Termination is another basic element of the contract. This clause should be included. Both the employer and the contractor have the right to terminate the contract though this is not expressly stated in the contract. A construction contract can be terminated for a cause purposes or convenience reasons. Other reasons, which may lead to the termination of a contract includes insolvency of the contractor, the parties may also bring the contract to an end by basically modifying the agreed contractual terms and conditions. Owner’s deficiency in fulfilling his obligation may also lead to termination of the contract among other reasons. The employer must issue a termination certificate (90.1) after which the contractor must cease work and leave the construction site (91.1) and may have the work completed by others. The amounts accruing on termination are as stated according to the reasons which dully apply (92).

Additionally, the contract has the condition for miscellaneous or provision for other unforeseen occurrences. It stipulates for instance that use of NEC Engineering and construction short sub-contract would be necessary. With reference to the contract data, payments provisions in regard to Addendum Y (UK) 2 may be considered though not allowed within a short contract. The Addendum Y (UK) 2 on the third parties rights is a state as suitable for use within the short form. Additionally, Clauses 93 to 95 on dispute resolution in the short form should be replaced by clauses93UK to 95UK, for use in the United Kingdom where the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 applies.

Where disputes arise between the employer and the contractor, their settlement should be in reference to the adjudication (93) and other forms as specified in the contract. Under the adjudication process, this requires the presence of an appointed adjudicator whose name may be given in the contract. The adjudicator has the power as indicated and based upon the relevant sections of the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 and supplemented either by the statutory Scheme for Construction Contracts, or whichever adjudication process has been named in the contract. The adjudicator’s decision is final and binding unless and until referred to a further tribunal. The arbitration process should be well stated in contract data.

Reference list

Clamp,H.,Cox,S. &Lupton,S. (2007) Which contract? RIBA Publishing15.Bonhill Street London.

Outline

1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Place, period, and size of the first New York subway
4. Civilization and culture were prevalent during the construction
5. How the first New York subway was constructed
6. How Beach’s subway could be built today
7. Conclusion

Abstract

The main aim of this paper was to report on the construction of the first subway in New York, and how the subway would be constructed in modern times. Alfred Ely Beach is credited for constructing the first subway in New York. Beach’s subway operated from 1870-1873 after which it closed down because of financial and political factors. Beach constructed the pneumatic subway tunnel by using a tunneling shield. He also designed a train car, which fitted perfectly into the pneumatic tube. Due to the advanced technology present in modern times, the subway would involve more sophisticated technology.

Introduction

A subway system refers to a special category of trains that operate through underground tunnels. Subway systems consist of several rails, which begin and end at dissimilar places but at the same time overlap at certain points to enable passengers to alight. The rails, used in subway systems, are similar to other railway systems. This means that the subway rails have similar measurements to other railway lines. For example, “in New York City the subway rails’ gauge is 4 feet, 8.5 inches” (Carey 16). The trains also consist of numerous connecting cars that have seats and, straps that enable passengers to hold on to whenever the train is full (Carey 17).

Steam engines powered subways, which operated in the past. However, today most subways use electricity to operate. The construction of the first subway in the world took place in London around mid the 19^th century. The idea of subway construction later spread to other cities in the world. For instance, the New York subway was the first subway in America. This paper explores the construction of the first New York subway. It examines how, when, and where the first New York subway was constructed.

Place, Period, and Size of the First New York Subway

The construction of the first New York subway is attributed to Alfred Ely Beach. Alfred Ely Beach was a native of Massachusetts. Beach was a publisher, a patent lawyer, and an inventor (Carey 16). For example, he invented the typewriter for the blind. However, one of the most famous inventions, which Beach came up with, was the first subway system in New York (Fischler 23). The subway system was known as the Beach Pneumatic Transit. The inspiration to come up with an underground transportation system resulted from several reasons. First, Alfred Beach got his inspiration from the Metropolitan Railway, constructed in London.

Second, he sought to find a solution to the problem of traffic congestion, which was a major challenge in the city of New York. For instance, in 1860 areas such as Broadway experienced major traffic congestion. Therefore, Beach proposed the construction of trains powered by pneumatics as opposed to the subway trains in London, which used steam engines.

Beach started the construction of the first subway in New York City in 1869 through his company known as the Beach Pneumatic Transit Company. He began to construct the subway underneath Broadway following a successful exhibition of the major subway system at the American Institute in 1867 (Fischler 20). He invested his capital to jump-start the project. After 58 days, Beach had completed the construction of the subway.

The subway system was a single tunnel, which was approximate “312 feet (95 Meters) long, and 8 feet (2.4 Meters) long” (Fischler 25). By 1870, the construction was complete and it operated from Warren Street to Murray Street beneath Broadway up to1873. Beach’s subway had a single station, which was located “in the basement of Devlin’s clothing store, a building at the Southwest corner of Broadway and Warren Street” (Fischler 23).

The subway had a single car that operated along the single tunnel. Most passengers who rode on the Beach Pneumatic Transit were largely eager to satisfy their curiosity. A majority wanted to have an experience of using a subway system. In the first year of the subway’s operation, 400,000 rides occurred. However, the project was so flamboyant that it could not operate on a large-scale basis. For instance, “the subway station had comfortable chairs, ample lighting that revealed the luxurious interior of the station, as well as, statues and a goldfish pond that passengers could look at while they waited for their turn to enter the ride” (Roess and Sansone 137-138).

The subway train had a capacity of transporting 22 people per trip. The public showed their approval for the transportation system. However, Beach failed to get permission to expand the subway. Therefore, in 1873 when he finally got a go-ahead, he had lost both public and financial support. The major blow to Beach’s project was an economic slump, which made investors freeze their funding for the project. Additionally, the public who rode on the subway could no longer be in a position to do so because of financial constraints.

After Beach’s pneumatic train closed down, the entrance to the tunnel was also closed. In 1898, a fire outbreak led to the destruction of the subway station. Initially, there were plans to extend the tunnel towards the Battery in the South and towards Harlem River in the North (Solis 133). However, this plan never took off, and in 1912; the construction of the Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit led to the demolition of Beach’s tunnel (Post 129). Therefore, Beach’s subway never became part of the New York City Subway, which officially began its operation on October 27, 1904.

Civilization and Culture Prevalent during the Construction

Civilization is a term that refers to “the material and instrumental side of human cultures that are complex in terms of technology, science, and division of labor” (Post 123). When used less strictly, the term civilization also refers to a culture of a particular group of people. Western civilization and culture were prevalent during the construction of the first New York subway. The Western civilization has its root in Europe. The period was characterized by a greater quest for knowledge, which resulted in various inventions across Europe and later spread to different parts of the world. Several transformative historical episodes took place during this period.

For example, the last quarter of the 18^th and the 19^th century witnessed the occurrence of the industrial revolution in Europe and America. The industrial revolution led to the development of transportation and communication networks in different parts of the world. Britain became the first country to construct a subway system in London. Therefore, other European countries, as well as, America derived their inspiration from the London subway.

Most of the European countries had no option but to improve their transport systems to curb the consequences of the industrial revolution and enlightenment, which were major elements of Western civilization. Western civilization resulted in the growth of towns and cities, an increase in population due to better living standards, and the emergence of democracy. Therefore, European countries and Americans had to come up with solutions to social problems such as traffic congestion. As a result, the idea of the subway system developed not only in Europe but also in America.

The culture of private ownership of property for profit gain was also prevalent during the 19^th century when the first New York subway was constructed. For instance, in America and Europe, some capitalists emerged. The main aim of the capitalists was to accumulate wealth through profit gain. Capitalism greatly prejudiced the construction of the first New York subway. For example, a group of the political class who owned property on Broadway sabotaged the construction of Beach’s subway.

Some of the people who opposed the Beach’s project were Alexander T. Stewart and Jacob J. Astor. These groups of capitalists feared losing their property through the tunneling process. Similarly, other investors had invested in the elevated railways therefore; the construction of underground railways would pose a stiff completion to them. Additionally, the property owners viewed the construction of subways as unpractical. The project also suffered a serious blow when investors withdrew from the project due to an economic slump.

Western civilization and culture played a significant role in the construction of the first New York subway. The construction took place due to increased knowledge and inventions, which had occurred in various fields and the architectural field was not an exception. Beach’s subway acted as a prototype of a subway system. It laid a foundation for the construction of the New York City subway, which began its operations officially in 1904. Today, the New York City subway is the largest in the world. Therefore, Beach’s subway made a significant contribution in the field of the built environment. The construction of a subway offered a solution to the problem of traffic congestion, which the city of New York suffered from. Such enormous contributions in the architectural field are attributed to Western culture and civilization.

How the First New York Subway was constructed

Alfred Ely Beach’s quest of finding a solution to the problem of traffic congestion in Broadway led to the invention of a pneumatic transit system for transporting passengers and mails (Solis 185). Beach built the first pneumatic tube, propelled by compressed air. The pneumatic tube operated underground through a tunnel. Therefore, to construct the subway, Beach used the tunneling technique of construction. One of the most significant machines used by Beach in creating the subway tunnel was the tunneling shield. Beach’s tunneling shield was an improvement of the hydraulic shield design that Brunel used to excavate the Thames Tunnel in 1825.

A tunneling shield “is a protective structure used in the excavation of tunnels through soil that is too soft or fluid to remain stable during the time it takes to line the tunnel with a support structure of concrete, cast iron, or steel” (Solis 186). Therefore, the tunneling shield provided support to the tunnel as Beach and his team continued with the excavation process.

The tunneling techniques of construction are of various forms and used depending on the type of soil. Some of the most important factors to consider when constructing a tunnel include ground conditions, the length, and the diameter of the tunnel, as well as, the final use of the tunnel (Post 129). There are three major techniques of tunneling namely, the cut-and-cover method, bored tunnels, and immersed tube tunnels. Beach used the cut-and-cover technique of tunneling, which was a predominant method of tunneling during the 19^th century.

The cut-and-cover method of tunneling is a simple method of constructing tunnels. It involves excavating a trench into the soil and covering the trench with a strong overhead support system (Roess and Sansone 140). There are two types of cut-and-cover methods of tunneling namely, the bottom-up method, and the top-down method. The bottom-up method entails excavating a trench and constructing a tunnel inside it. After the completion of the tunnel, an overhead surface is constructed. On the other hand, the top-down method involves the construction of “side support walls and capping beams from ground level” (Post 130). The tunneling shield makes it possible for the excavation of deep tunnels as opposed to shallow tunnels. Thus, Beach’s tunneling machine enabled him to construct his subway system beneath Broadway successfully.

The tunneling machine used by Beach created a trench of seventeen inches with a single press on the earth’s surface (Solis 185). During the tunneling, the workers were to remain inside the tunneling shield, which remained “flexible enough to move left or right, up or down” (Solis 187). Additionally, “Broadway by that time had a sandy ground hence making it more suitable for Beach to use the tunneling shield” (Fischler 30).

His son Fred, who was twenty-one years old acted as the supervisor of the project. Fred together with the hired laborers embarked on the project in high spirit and gradually they made tremendous progress. However, some of the hired laborers succumbed to fear because of the conditions. The laborers feared that the horses that passed overhead could crush into the tunnel and bury them alive. Consequently, a good number of the laborers hired for the construction of the tunnel quit the project. On the other hand, those who remained carried on with the project by removing the excavated soil and operating with lantern light.

Fortunately, Fred and his team proceeded with the project without much hindrance. According to some writers, the noise produced during the tunneling process sounded like a piece of music to Beach’s ears (Fischler 24). However, during the construction process, the major challenge was an excavation of a wall of rock. The tunneling process almost came to a standstill due to the wall of stones, which the laborers encountered. They realized that it was an old fort’s foundation. Therefore, the removal of the stones that acted as a foundation to the old fort would likely lead to the collapse of the street overhead. Nevertheless, Beach’s determination propelled him to instruct the laborers to continue with the tunneling process. Fortunately, after some days, the ground overhead remained firm without any signs of collapsing.

During the tunneling process, manual laborers filled the soil and the dirt from the tunnel into bags. The workers then used wagons to transport the bags full of soil. On the other hand, another group of workers proceeded with the construction of the tunnel walls. The process of digging and constructing the tunnel took fifty-eight days. This level of success resulted from proper coordination of the entire team because it enabled Beach to complete the project faster without suspicion from the public. However, to complete the project successfully, Beach had to part with a fortune. The estimated amount of expenditure added up to approximately $350,000 of his savings (Fischler 26). He used part of the amount for the prolific furnishing of the subway station and the twenty-two-seater train car.

The train car that Beach had designed fitted appropriately into the pneumatic cylindrical tube. “A giant fan that the workers nicknamed the Western Tornado” (Solis 185) propelled the entire system. The fan propelled the train at a speed of ten miles per hour. Beach managed to complete the entire project in 1870 after which he opened it to the public for use. Due to political, as well as, economic factors the operation of Beach’s subway system came to a halt in 1873. The constructors of the BMT subway later recovered the remains of Beach’s pneumatic transit system in 1912 (Roess and Sansone 146). Despite the years that had elapsed, the train car retained its magnificence.

How Beach’s Subway could be Built Today

The twenty-first century has witnessed tremendous improvement in technology in various fields. There are more sophisticated construction machines, materials, and methods. Additionally, there are more effective and efficient sources of energy such as electricity, petroleum, atomic energy among others. Therefore, the availability of advanced construction methods, machines, as well as, a skilled labor force would result in the construction of a complex and efficient subway system compared to Beach’s first subway. However, this does not dispute the fact that Beach played an important role in developing the first subway in New York.

The construction of a subway in modern times could involve the use of better tunneling techniques such as sprayed concrete technique (New Austrian Tunneling Method). This method of tunneling uses “calculated and empirical real-time measurements to provide a safe support to the tunnel lining by using geological stress of surrounding rock mass to stabilize the tunnel itself” (Post 166-168). The method also involves the use of sprayed concrete technology, which improves the strength of the tunnel wall. A modern subway would also have several cars to increase the transportation capacity. The subway would be more flexible to enable passengers to alight at various stations and connect to other places via buses.

A modern subway would have computerized trains without drivers. This ensures that the computer systems fitted inside the trains control the trains. The computer systems control interior lighting, as well as, navigation (Post 175). The computerized trains enhance the efficiency of the entire subway system. For instance, tracking train locations will alleviate any occurrence of human error. The subway trains could also be fitted with robot waiters to attend to passengers by offering refreshments. Installation of radio systems inside the train would also enhance the efficiency of the trains because it will enable passengers to communicate with the train operators at the control room.

If Beach’s subway were to be constructed today, the waiting station would be more spacious. It would also be equipped with leisure joints such as cafeterias, casinos, cinemas, and restaurants, in which passengers can relax as they wait to board the train. Additionally, the stations would have waiting lounges, which are fitted with entertainment systems such as television sets and music systems. Compared to Beach’s train that had a speed of ten miles per hour, a modern subway would have electric-powered engines to enhance its speed. The modern subway system would as well be fitted with electrically controlled ventilation, as well as fans to ensure that there is adequate circulation of air.

Conclusion

The 19^th century witnessed several developments, and the architectural field was not an exception. Several structures such as dams, canals, roads, and railways were constructed in various cities. For instance, in New York Alfred Beach constructed the first subway. Beach’s subway was one of its kind. Its construction involved the use of the tunneling method and the tunneling shield. During the construction, Western civilization and culture were prevalent. The advanced Western civilization and culture enabled Beach to construct a subway tunnel with much success. For example, he had the necessary machines, energy power, and labor force to carry out the project.

However, the construction of a similar structure today would involve more sophisticated and efficient methods of subway construction. Similarly, the operation of the subway system would entail advanced systems to improve the efficiency of its operation. In conclusion, Beach’s subway was a significant prototype, which laid a foundation for the construction of other subways. For example, Britain borrowed the idea of the tunneling shield that Beach had developed.

Bibliography

Carey, Charles W. American Investors, Entrepreneurs, and Business Visionaries. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009. Print.

Fischler, Stan. Subways of the World. New York: MBI Publishing, 2001. Print.

Post, Robert. Urban Mass Transit: The Life Story of a Technology. London: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. Print.

Roess, Roger P and Gene Sansone. The Wheels That Drove New York: A History of the New York City Transit System. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

Solis, Julia. New York Underground: An Anatomy of a City. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print.

Introduction

Shelter is a basic human need and houses are considered an essential part of modern society. There are numerous types of houses constructed to provide shelter to humans. Wood-frame houses are the most common types of houses in Canadian suburbs. Millions of home owners use this building system to construct their residential houses. Roaf and Manuel observe that Canadian wood-frame construction is a mean of using a renewable locally available resource to build durable houses (415).

Wood-frame construction provides some of the world’s most affordable housing using the abundant forest resources for housing material (1). This paper will set out to elaborate on the process of building a residential house in Canada. It will talk about the pre-construction process and explain the construction process in order to highlight the techniques and materials utilized to produce a typical wood framed designed house with a basement.

The Pre-construction Process

The pre-construction phrase occurs once the decision that a residential house will be constructed has been made. The pre-construction phase is critical to the success of the entire construction effort. The first step in the pre-construction phrase is to acquire the piece of land where the house will be set up. Once the land has been identified, it is crucial to assess the land.

During the land assessment stage, it is important to understand zoning. Zoning dictates the manner in which the land can be utilized by the owner. By visiting the zoning department, one can obtain important information on the restrictions that might affect the type of house proposed. Lind et al. declare that it is integral to ensure that the property acquired is zoned for the intended use before carrying on to the construction stage (11).

Once it is determined that the proposed residential house can be built at the site, a survey of the land is carried out. Land survey helps to ensure that the ground is suitable for a house. Anderson documents that before ascertaining if the grounds are suitable for construction, the subsoil conditions must be determined by carrying out various tests or investigating other houses built near the construction site (1).

Through test borings, the subsoil conditions can be determined and if rock ledges are encountered the feasibility of building on the land is accessed. In addition to this, land assessment is integral to the construction process since it might influence other factors such as house design and building orientation. The building orientation will contribute to the energy efficiency of the residential house. Lind et al. state that the windows should be located in such a manner that they capture solar gains during winter and enhance house cooling during the summer months (9).

Once the land has been surveyed, the next pre-construction process of determining a budget can be curried out. The budgeting phrase entails deciding on the amount of money that one is willing to spend on the construction process. Budget plays a crucial role in the construction of residential houses since it often determines what can be done (Anderson 1).

With an unlimited budget, it would be possible to build almost any type of house. However, most people do not operate on limitless budgets and the budget determines the size and type of house that can be built. The budget should be realistic and one should determine how much money they can afford for the house. The budget should be produced before the house starts being designed to avoid costly changes to the building plan.

To establish a firm budget for the project, an accurate estimate of the construction cost is needed. In most cases, the owner provides the design builder with a conceptual design of the house. Like any other project, the success of the house construction process depends on effective planning. Before construction can begin, a floor plan should be created.

This phase can be undertaken by the house owner or by a hired architect. While an individual can effectively make a simple plan for himself, a competent architect might be needed for complex house designs. An architect is also best suited to ensure that the available space is utilized in the most efficient manner. With the conceptual design, it is possible to determine the cost of construction. Changes can be made to ensure that the building cost is within the budget limit specified by the owner.

An important and very challenging task in the pre-construction phase is obtaining property. In typical residential construction, the owner begins to research financing at this stage. In the case where the home owner has sufficient funds, he does not have to be troubled by the financing stage. However, most people do not have the means to independently finance the building of a house. A lender is therefore needed to provide some of the money required for the project.

This money can be acquired as a construction loan and permanent mortgage. The IICLE declares that financing is always an owner responsibility since it is the owner’s financial integrity and equity in the property that will determine if a lender makes a construction loan (12). The lending institution will want a number of documents from the owner. Lenders require blueprints, site plans, and a complete cost estimate of the building process.

A land deed is also required to act as collateral for the loan. To protect their investment, lenders will want information on the general contractor being used to carry out the construction. Reviewing the credentials of the contractor reduce the risk by ensuring that the contract is not only competent but also legally authorized to carry out construction projects.

Before construction can commence, it is necessary to obtain a permit from the local government. This permit ensures that the proposed residential building complies with governmental requirements such as code and zoning (IICLE 13). Some regions have stringent building codes and covenants in place to protect the development’s aesthetic and architectural integrity. The owner must therefore have his designs plans approved before construction begins.

The design plans presented to the building department should be sufficiently detailed to enable the examiner to determine if the proposed house is compliant with the building code of the region. Once the municipality officials have determined that the basic requirements have been complied with, a building permit is issued. This marks the completion of the pre-construction process and from here, the residential house building project is ready to move on to the construction phase.

However, it is important to ensure there is easy access to the site even after the permit has been given. Anderson reveals that before construction work can commence, measures should be taken to ensure that the equipment and delivery vehicles can get to the construction site (2). The tools used for the construction process require power to operate making sources of basic power a necessity. Provision for water must also be made since the construction work will require water. Finally, a storage area for keeping the variety of materials used during construction should be designated.

The Construction Process

The first physical step in the construction process is preparation of the building site for construction. In this step, the site to be occupied by the house is cleared out. The trees that are growing within 20 feet of where the house will be located should be removed since their roots can affect the integrity of the house’s foundation.

The next step involves placing the house on the physical site. The house placement is determined by factors including zoning regulations and the subsoil conditions (Burrows 10). A surveyor is typically responsible for marking out the outer walls of the house. The location of the corners must be done accurately since the entire construction will be based on these measurements.

Excavation and Foundation Building

The next important step in construction is the excavation process. Lind et al notes that the topsoil on the building area should be stripped before excavating begins. Since the house will contain a basement, the foundation will include a basement excavated deeply into the site using earth-moving equipment. Anderson notes that power trenchers are the most common equipment used in excavating for the walls of houses (4).

The soil removed during the excavation process is carefully stored for future use. The width of the trenches should be enough to allow workers to move freely while constructing the foundation wall. After excavation has been done, the footing concrete is poured and set. Allen and Rob state that the footing serves as the base of the foundation and it is responsible for transmitting the weight of the building into the earth (106). The footing must be on undisturbed soil or rock and as such, the minimum depths of footings are determined by the soil conditions. The contractor pours concrete into the footing trench to provide the reliable foundation.

The next step involves constructing the foundation. Allen and Rob state that the foundation is responsible for transmitting the weight of the floor, wall and roof into the building’s footing (106). Foundations may be made out of concrete blocks, cast in place concrete or preserved wood. On average, the foundation wall is 7feet and 4 inches high but it can extend to 8 foot. While constructing the foundation, space is left for openings including the basement windows.

The foundation wall rises above the level ground outside the house. This is critical to ensure that the wood framing is protected from the soil moisture contained in the ground (American Wood Council 6). The height above ground level should also be high enough to provide crawl spaces. Crawl spaces provide access for the house to be inspected periodically for termites. It is important to damp-proof the foundation thereby stopping moisture from moving into the wall.

Damp-proofing can be done using sheet material or bitumen. In addition to this, it might be necessary to waterproof if the foundation is subject to hydrostatic pressure. Drainage provisions are made for the foundation wall unless the house is built on free-draining soil. The drain pipes are installed around the perimeter and this prevents infiltration of water into the basement. Once this is complete, the foundation is backfilled. The backfill loading should be uniformly applied against foundation walls (Allen and Rob 450).

Framing

After completing the foundation work, the construction efforts move to the framing task. Framing involves using wood-frame elements to produce a strong and stable building structure that can not only accommodate occupants but also resist physical elements such as wind, snow, and earthquakes (Stephenson 130). Lind et al. document that repetitive framing members are used in the wood-frame construction process (89). These members are made of engineered wood products of dimension lumber and they are spaced at n more than 24inches apart.

The most common framing method is platform framing. In this technique, the floor platform is constructed and the walls are subsequently added. The walls can be built in a horizontal position and then tilted into their vertical position once they are complete (American Wood Council 7). The first floor framing involves bolting sill plates to the foundation walls. Around the floor openings, beans and rim joints will be used to carry loads. Intermediate support structures for the floor are required in the basement. Steel or wood beams are used in the basement to support the floor loads.

The wall framing is then constructed and when ready rotated into vertical position. The bottom plates are nailed onto the floor framing members with temporary braces being used for support. The interior walls of the house are assembled and erected in the same manner as exterior walls. These walls act as room dividers as well as bearing walls for the ceiling joists (Anderson 4).

Top plates are added to the walls once they are in position. Ceiling joists are then placed and nailed into place. The joists are placed across the width of the house. The ceiling joists support ceiling finishes or act as the floor joists for second and attic floors. Rafters are then placed on the top plate to accommodate the roof.

Roofing and Exterior Finishing

After the roof trusses have been positioned, the next step includes installing roof sheathings. The sheathings are made of lumber planks or plywood and they are applied over roof trusses and nailed to cover the entire roof (Datin 144). A membrane is installed along the edge of the roof to stop water from entering into the roof. After the roof sheathing is in place, a roof covering of choice is installed. Coverings may include galvanized steel, asphalt shingles, or clay tiles. During roofing, provisions are made to gather rainwater from the roof and direct it away from the building.

After completing the roofing, wall sheathing follows. This step involves placing an outside covering to the wall framework (American Wood Council 11). The covering can be made of plywood, fiberboard, or lumber. The sheathing panels can cover the wall and the sill area. To improve the durability as well as the aesthetic appeal of the house, external cladding is added to the sheathing. After wall cladding, flashings, which are components used to redirect water to designated drainage area are installed.

The next stage involves installation of windows and exterior doors to the house. The space for these elements is already provided for when building the walls. At this stage, the constructor decides on the type of windows and doors to be used. Windows installation should be done carefully to avoid water and air leakage problems. If the house is designed to have a skylight, these windows will be installed at this stage.

Interior Work

After completing the exterior part of the house, the project moves on to the interior. The interior utility systems are installed starting with the plumbing. After plumbing, the heating and cooling ductwork is installed. Heating, plumbing, and electrical services are placed in the space between framing members.

To make the indoor conditions healthy and comfortable, space conditioning systems are employed (Rock 15). This includes heating, cooling, ventilating, dehumidification and air filtration systems. The heating and ventilation systems are the only compulsory systems but many houses include the other systems to increase comfort.

The interior wall and ceiling should be given a finishing to improve their appearance. In most houses, a painted gypsum board is used to give the wall a pleasing appearance. For the bathroom, ceramic or porcelain tiles can be used. The floor is then covered using various products such as laminated flooring or ceramic tiles.

Floor covering increases the durability of the floor and also makes the cleaning process easy. The next step involves installing interior doors and cabinets. Doors provide some privacy by separating various rooms in the house. The kitchen cabinets and clothe closets improve the functionality of the house.

The final step in construction is applying finishing coatings on the building. Finishing material is used to the completed framing to make the building durable and weather tight. The coating might be in the form of paint, varnish or stain and the choice is made by the house owner. Coatings not only improve the look of the house but they also provide protection from water, light, and abrasion (Stephenson 130). At the end of the construction process, the house is ready for occupancy. The owner should carry out regular maintenance to increase the life of the house and reduce the cost of repairing.

Recommendations

To ensure the best results are obtained from the construction process, good design and construction practices must be followed. This will ensure that the house constructed will not only be durable but it will provide comfort and safety to the occupants. Ensure that the house is properly reinforced to cope with the weather conditions in the region.

Some regions of Canada are prone to extreme weather ranging from wind and snow. The wood-framed residential house should be tailored to withstand extreme wind conditions and the snow loads found in the region. Failure to build with extreme weather conditions in mind might lead to the house collapsing or being damaged by extreme wind of heavy snow.

Safety should always be included in the design and construction process. The building should not only meet but aspire to exceed the various safety level standards required by the local authorities. Design for safety will reduce the risk faced by the future occupants of the house in case of emergency situations such as fires. While the National Building Code does not explicitly require fire-rated construction for residential houses, builders can take some measures to increase fire safety. The doors and exit routes can be made large enough to ensure that occupants can escape easily in the event of a fire emergency.

The environmental footprint of the residential house should be considered. Specifically, the construction effort should aim to reduce the environmental footprint of the building. Constructing a residential house with energy efficiency in mind will reduce the environmental footprint of the building. Energy efficiency can be achieved through a number of ways. The building design should be compact and better insulated and airtight assemblies should be used in construction.

Conclusion

This paper set out to discuss the process of building wood frame designed house with basements. It began by noting that this kind of house is popular in Canada. The paper then described the pre-construction process, which is integral to the successful construction of the house. Through this process, the necessary property for building and financing is acquired. The construction phase includes setting the foundation to the building and then wood framing the house. After the exterior of the house has been finished, the interior is dealt with. In the end of this process, the Wood frame designed residential house with basement is ready for occupancy.

Works Cited

Allen, Edward and Rob Thallon. Fundamentals of Residential Construction. NY: Wiley, 2011. Print.

American Wood Council. Details for conventional wood frame construction. Washington, DC: American Forest & Paper Association, 2001. Print.

Anderson, Leo. Wood Frame House Construction. Tennessee: The Minerva Group, Inc., 2002. Print.

Burrows, John. Canadian Wood-frame House Construction. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, 2006. Print.

Datin, Peter. “Wind-Uplift Capacity of Residential Wood Roof-Sheathing Panels Retrofitted with Insulating Foam Adhesive.” Journal of Architectural Engineering 17.4 (2011): 144-154. Web.

IICLE. Pre-Construction Issues 2009 Edition. Illinois: IICLE Press, 2009. Print.

Lind, Richard, David Ricketts, Jasmine Wang, Chris McLellan and Barry Craig. Canadian Wood-Frame House Construction. Ottawa: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, 2013. Print.

Roaf, Susan and Manuel Fuentes. Ecohouse: A Design Guide. NY: Routledge, 2007. Print.

Rock, Brian. “Thermal and Economic Evaluation of Slab-on-Grade Insulation in Wood-Framed Buildings.” Journal of Architectural Engineering 15.1 (2009): 14-25. Web.

Stephenson, Tom. Understanding Construction Drawings for Housing and Small Buildings. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

Introduction

Required documents on site before beginning a construction

Before undertaking any construction various documents must be in place on the site. They range from construction certificate from the Environmental Planning Assessment Amendment Act that is obtained in accordance with section 81A (2) (a) of the act. Contracting documents, that contain among other things drawings, specifications, construction programme, contract terms & conditions, development schedule, etc., help in close supervision of the construction.

This is the document that the contractor commits himself to accomplish the agreed task for an agreed payment. Of more importance are the plans. They include site plan, floor plan, elevations engineering and service plans that have to be duly signed and stamped by the appropriate authorities. The development and consent conditions document contain specific requirements that are certified by the approving authority.

The specification document has a full description of all the work to be done and may include a description of finishes. This document helps to create a clear picture of what should be expected at the end of the project. Also to be found on site, is the call forward sheets document that provides a summary of the programme and has details of the supplies needed, including the name and address of the supplier and sub-contractors. It indicates a description of the required equipment to be ordered and its task.

It contains the order numbers, the date the order was placed and the expected date of delivery. Also found on the site are the documents that have changed and revision of the original plan. They have both drawings and writing of the revision that explain the documentation against the original document for comparison purposes. A document register, maintained in a spreadsheet is, among other documents, used to check and monitor changes to all documents in the original plan.

Project schedules are also important documents that are required before any construction is commenced. It shows the progress of the project. It presents the allocation of resources as labour, materials and cash flows. All tasks to be done are listed in order, one after completion of another.

Part 1

1. The nature and type of soil.
2. In cases where neighbouring houses need support from damage. This consumes time not initially allocated in the time schedule.
3. A communication on interruption of sequencing of material provision. Due to the type of soil where the project is being done, I have seen it necessary to make changes to the sequencing of provision of materials. This will allow more time to support the neighbouring premises as per the Development Consent act no. 12
4. In the explanation, I will include the consequences that are involved in case no care is provided to neighbouring houses, since the costs will increase in case there is damage to the houses that may need support. The owners of such houses are entitled to full compensation by the developer.

Window order schedule

Call forwardsheet

Contractual allowances

Framework $928

Concreter $4639. 2

Ground works $1600

Total $7167. 2

Overheads 15% $1075. 08

Sub total $8242. 28

Risk factor 15% $1236. 3

Sub total $9478. 58

Profit 17% $1611. 36

Total $11089. 94

Reasonable cost due to variation

Machine and driver 16hrs X $85 = $1360

Labourer 16hrs X $45 = $720

Total variation $2080

The claim of $2080 is on the lower side. The reasonable claim, therefore, should be more than $2080, since there may be other uncertainties like machine breakdown and time may be more than 16 hours.

Additional costs in variation

Due to the nature of hard rock that was being excavated, the number of working hours increased by 7. At the same time the fuel consumption of the machine increased considerably, including the machine repairs as a result of hard rock excavation. This has resulted in an increase in excavation cost by $1724. 05 as shown in the variable table below.

Progress claim and payment

Contract allowance $11089. 94

Total variations $3804. 05

Adjustable allowance $14893.99 (Less)

Cost of work not completed

Amount to be paid $5165. 55

Question eight

Payment worksheet

Amended call forward sheet

Variation Cover letter

Dickens Construction Company,

Beric Centre, Delfolk street,

DX 3456, Delfolk street

Telephone 23458765

The director,

Steel dealers,

Nolfok Ryde

DX 45647,Ryde

Telephone 9087678

Dear sir,

RE: CHANGE OF ORDER

Due to the revision by my client on all WC and bathroom windows, I hereby notify you to make changes in the initial order. The windows are to have obscure glasses.

The details of the changes are enclosed with the current purchase order.

Thank you for your continued support.

Yours faithfully,

John Hurry.

Contractor;

Dickens Construction Company.

Variation document

Components of filling sand include sand, cement, water proof and water. This can be done by a mixer or mixed manually by use of a spade to properly mix all the ingredients used in making filling sand. Good filling sand should be used as soon as it gets ready. This helps in making a stronger structure before it begins to dry up.

Reinforcement materials include timber, trees or metal rods. All floors apart from the ground floor, are supported by wall studs that are supported firmly by horizontal nog. The support is necessary when the floor is wet as it helps to prevent it from collapsing. The timber or trees that are used as wall studs should be strong enough as the mass to be supported is heavy.

Vapour barrier plastics, that are used to prevent the slab, used to make concrete from becoming dumb. This practice makes the floors and walls stronger preventing them from collapsing. Water absorbed by walls that are not made from strong water proof agents are vulnerable to short life spans. Water weakens the strength of cement used in construction. Damp walls, have their paint coming off since paint is a water repellent.

Concrete –sand/gravel, water and a water dosing system of water. This controls the amount of water needed and regulates the sand humidity. The movable charging moving scale is used to extract and dose individual types of sand and gravel. Water has to be moderated with cement to give the best quality of concrete.

Qualities of personnel for construction

There are several qualities that should be considered in a contractor personnel. To begin with, the first requirement for a good personnel is a permanent accessible mail and telephone number for enhancing easy access and communication. Moreover, experience is another important quality that should be looked into. This gives the client confidence in the work to be done by the contractor. Of importance, a good personnel should have an insurance policy. This helps the client not to compensate the contractor in case of incidences of accidents. Flexibity, is another quality that should be looked into in a contractor.

The best contractor is to be ready to make any changes where necessary that will produce quality work, and has to make the concerned authorities aware of such changes. To crown it all, the personnel should give a warranty of a given period of time to the task being undertaken. This is subject to the agreement documents that are signed during the contracting stage.

The task and reasons for sub-contracting

Sub-contructing is essential in areas like catering that involves supply of foodstuffs to the personnel at the construction site, printing of materials that include the documents that are found in the construction site. Plastering, decorations and painting can be sub-contracted since they are not so sensitive areas that may cause alarm on the strength of the house. Water supplies and transportation of construction materials to the site can also be sub-contracted.

Sub-contracting helps to complete the work at the agreed time, gives the main contractor flexibility as he can hire and fire workers depending on the amount of work. Sub-contracting is cheaper, because the contractor can negotiate downwards of the initial payments made. In case of accidents, the contractor is not entitled to pay the sub-contracted workers. The contractor has power to give orders to whoever he sub-contarcts. This makes them easy to manipulate to give the best out of them.

Introduction

The level of complexity in construction projects is quite high, especially in large construction projects where the magnitude of work is high. Among the issues that emerge in construction projects, which reduce efficiency, are physical accidents, health hazards, and the wastage of construction materials, among other issues. These are setbacks when it comes to production efficiency (The Modular Building Institute 1). This paper suggests that a higher deployment of technology (automation) and mechanization is necessary for improving production efficiency in construction projects. The paper explores how these factors that reduce production efficiency can be dealt with through automation.

Automation and the reduction of accidents in construction sites

More often than not, construction sites have an array of activities going on at the same time. Given the nature of workload in construction sites, people working in these sites are at a high risk of being injured by the falling objects because they cannot detect such objects (Zou, Zhang, and Wang 1-2). Navon and Kolton (733) argue that construction professionals pay less attention to the issue of safety in the construction sites because of concentrating on the progress of the project. Most fatalities and injuries on construction sites come from objects that fall from heights. Therefore, most researchers in the field of construction engineering are looking at the possibility of automating the safety procedures to reduce the exposure of people in the sites to accidents. One of the suggested technologies is the automation of fall prevention procedures. Such a safety model helps in identifying areas that pose a risk in construction projects. With the model, it is easy to identify the hazards in the construction sites. Besides identifying areas that pose a risk, the model also proposes the mechanisms that can be used to protect people from such risks. Such models are established and run on a continuous basis throughout the lifecycle of construction projects (Navon and Kolton 2006, 739-741). According to Navon and Kolton (2007, 226-27), it is important to incorporate automated safety models into project management cycles in the preliminary stages of the project; that is, the design stage. This helps in minimizing the faults and risks in the early stages of the project, thereby enhancing the stability of the projects.

According to Mikami et al. (1), most construction sites or industries pose great health risks, resulting in high rates of employee turnover and sick-offs. These reduce productivity. One of the modalities of reducing the health-related risks is the development of mechanical systems that can help in detecting the dangerous levels of wastes that are released during construction. For instance, there should be systems that provide warnings when the dust levels are too high. In addition, mechanization can help prevent employees from getting into contact with the hazards through the development of machines that handle the tasks for such tasks.

Material wastage minimization through automation and mechanization

According to van Gassel and Maas (44), the ability of companies in the construction industry to minimize resource wastage depends on the pace at which they can adopt computer-aided technologies in their construction projects. One of the modalities of reducing resource wastage is through the use of automated systems like robots to deliver materials. One thing that increases the costs of construction projects is the rampant wastage of construction materials. The costs of construction projects can be far much lower if such wastages are put in check (Zhai et al. 747). According to Mikami et al. (1), the wastage of materials in the construction industry can be dealt with through the deployment of effective structural stability technology in the development of construction materials. This is patterned by the construction operations, like the automation of most of the material handling processes in the actual phases of production to reduce the chances of damage and overuse of materials by the laborers.

Wakisaka et al. (111) observe that large construction projects, like the construction of high-rise buildings, can be more labor-intensive when there is an immense use of manual labor. Moreover, there is a high chance of material wastage in such projects. However, the researchers ascertained the essence of using a parallel material delivery system and a system of managing materials using computer-aided design technology. Under a single material delivery system, several cranes are attached to ensure that there is speedy delivery of materials. This ensures that there is quickness and efficiency in construction. It also reduces the cost of manpower and the possible wastage of materials by the laborers (Wakisaka et al. 112). van Gassel (1019) observes that the most desired technique in construction is the mechanizing of Removable Modular buildings to embrace the construction of new and permanent structures. Embracing higher standards of mechanization in most of the components of the RMB enhances the standards of construction.

Effective management of urban construction

The complexity that is exhibited in the construction projects that take place in the urban areas requires the deployment of the best project management techniques to cut down the costs of such projects. Therefore, the deployment of information technology enhances the quality of practices in such construction processes (EIO 5). Effective management of urban projects depends on the ease with which the supply chain process is structured. Automated management of risk and value in urban construction projects enhances the ability of project managers to influence the manufacturers to adjust the materials to fit the specific building standards and codes in the urban areas (Gudnason and Scherer 398).

There is a need to have a comprehensive strategy when it comes to the management of urban construction projects. In this case, urban planners must be involved in the assessment of construction plans to ensure that all key considerations are taken into account by the construction companies. Among these are the hydraulic grade lines, the flood paths, and the velocities of different places in town. Local construction plans must look into these infrastructural issues as they all determine the sustainability of the urban construction projects. For example, the lack of consideration of the flood paths in the construction plans can result in the soaking up of buildings in case of flooding and heavy rains (Calabrese 203).

Urban construction projects entail a lot of demolitions and the disposal of materials. Therefore, the enhancement of mechanical recovery techniques is one of the best ways of reducing the costs of disposing of materials. The debris can be mechanically recycled and redeployed in the construction sector (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1-2). Moreover, there is the issue of ensuring that the risks that are associated with the projects are known and taken into the consideration by the project managers, thereby reducing the possible effects of such dangers (Hou 11).

According to Calkins (390), urban construction projects are quite complex due to the complexity of the infrastructure platform in the urban areas. Urban areas have huge and dense populations, a factor that points to the need for a higher level of consideration of risk management in project construction (Maas and van Gassel 435-436).

Conclusion

The argument presented in this paper denotes that there are numerous ways in which productivity efficiency can be attained in construction projects through the deployment of information and mechanical technologies. Such technologies reduce the cost of labor. They also save on the cost of material, as well as increasing quality in construction projects.

Works Cited

Calabrese, Luisa. The Architecture Annual 2007-2008. Delft University of Technology. Amsterdam: 010 Publishers, 2010. Print.

Calkins, Meg. The Sustainable Sites Handbook: A Complete Guide to the Principles, Strategies, and Practices for Sustainable Landscapes. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2012. Print.

EIO. Resource Efficient Construction. 2012.

Gudnason, Gudni and Raimar Scherer. EWork and EBusiness in Architecture, Engineering and Construction. London: Tylor and Francis Group, 2012. Print.

Hou, Zhixiang. Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation in Electrical Engineering. New York, NY: Springer, 2012. Print.

Maas, Ger and Frans van Gassel. “The Influence of Automation and Robotics on the Performance Construction.” Automation in Construction 14.4 (2005): 435-441. Print.

Mikami, Yorihito, Shirou Sukenari, Seiji Aso, and Ryohei Takada. “Development of Mechanization and Labor Saving Technology for Refractory Maintenance.” Nippon Steel Technical Report No. 98. 2008. Web.

Navon, Ronie and Oren Kolton. “Algorithms for Automated Monitoring and Control of Fall Hazards.” Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering 21.1 (2007): 21-28. Print.

Navon, Ronie and Oren Kolton. “Model for Automated Monitoring of Fall Hazards in Building Construction.” Journal of Construction Engineering & Management 132.7 (2006): 733-740. Print.

The Modular Building Institute. Improving Construction Efficiency & Productivity with Modular Construction. 2010. Web.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Building Savings: Strategies for Waste Reduction of Construction and Demolition Debris from Buildings, 2000. Web.

van Gassel, Frans and Ger Maas. Mechanising, Robotising and Automating Construction Processes, 2005. Web.

van Gassel, Frans. Mechanization and Automation by the Manufacturing of Removable Modular Buildings, 2010. Web.

Wakisaka, Tatsuya, Noriyuki Furuya, Yasuo Inoue, and Takashi Shiokawa. “Automated Construction System for High-rise Reinforced Concrete Buildings.” Automation in Constructions 9.3 (2000): 229-250. Print.

Zhai, Dong, Paul M. Goodrum, Carl T. Haas, Carlos H. Caldas. “Relationship between Automation and Integration of Construction Information Systems and Labor Productivity.” Journal of Construction Engineering & Management 135.8 (2009): 746-753. Print.

Zou, Patrick X.W., Guomin Zhang and Jia-Yuan Wang. Identifying Key Risks in Construction Projects: Life Cycle and Stakeholder Perspectives, 2005. Web.

This project is a real estate project and the cost of the structures includes the cost of land on which the project is constructed. The cost of construction is also included when valuing such a project; this includes the cost of the material used in the construction, as well as the labor. All the costs are determined using the current costs of building the structure and the current value of land. After all these cost have been added together, the accrued depreciation of the property of the project is determined then subtracted from the costs of the project (Maguire and Robinson 145). The final value is what the property is worth.

The revenue of the project includes all the incomes generated from the property (Maguire and Robinson 189). This project has a hotel and suites, and since the project is expected to generate a regular income the annual gross income is calculated according to what the property can when the market study is done. During activities that generate income, the project incur expenses such as management and advertising expenses, repairs, maintenance, utilities, insurance and taxes, and all these should be factored when calculating the revenues of the project (Smith 315). The rate of return on capital should also be determined.

The replacement chain NPV

Financial analysis is done to projects to determine which project is financially viable; however, projects can differ in their lifespan like in this case study. The two projects have a different useful life; one might be durable than the other, and this means that the managerial options are replaced at the end of the project. Therefore, a capital budgeting proposal evaluation of projects with different life pans can be done using replacement chain analysis method (Smith 417). The analysis uses the replacement chain NPV, and this chain is simply the NPV for replacing the each project.

• R = replication times
• NPVn = net present value for one replication
• K = average weighted cost of capital
• t = time period
• n = size of the replication

The NPV for each project is calculated for each year until the last useful year of the project, NPVs for each project are summed up to determine the overall NPV for each project. After finding the NPV for each project, the difference in the NPV is not used to determine the project that is more financially viable; this is because of the difference in the projects’ life times (Baum and Crosby 274). Therefore, the NPV Replacement Chain for the two projects need to be determined using the formula below but with a common useful time; assume that t is the same for the two projects.

Comparing two projects’ NPV, the project with the highest NPV should be chosen over the other.

The equivalent–annual-annuity method

Sometimes, using the replacement chain method can be involving, in such a case, the equivalent –annual-annuity method can be used to compare two projects of different life span. When using this method, NPVs for each project are determined, then using the NPVs, the Equivalent-Annual-annuity for each project is determined to find the expected payment over each project’s useful life (Baum and Crosby 392). This is done with an assumption that the future value of each project at the end of the useful life will equal to zero. The equivalent-annual-annuities for two projects are then compared, and the one with a high Equivalent-Annual-Annuity is chosen over the other.

References

Baum, Andrew & Crosby Neil. Property Investment Appraisal. London: Routledge, 2005. Print.

Maguire, Peter & Robinson Jackson. Building evaluation by prospective lessees. Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology, 2000. Print.

Smith, Peter. “Occupancy Cost Analysis”. Building in Value – Pre-Design Issues. London: Arnold, 2009. Print.

Increasing attention is being paid to the use of metallic materials as a replacement for non-porous graphite in bipolar plates (BPs) for polymer exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. Ideal bi-polar plate materials require good electrical conductivity levels, significant resistance to corrosion, good compressive strength, and reduced permeability as well as density. Despite metallic plates bearing most of these properties, they are constantly plagued with corrosion problems.

Bipolar plates are a fundamental component of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. They are designed to perform many functions, such as: distributing the fuel and oxidant in the stack; facilitating water management within the cell; separating the individual cells in the stack; carrying current away from the cell; facilitate heat management (Lee & Huang, 2003). Currently, the main commercial bipolar plates are made of non-porous graphite because of their chemical and thermal stability. However, the high price of the non-porous bipolar plates prevents them from being widely used.

Metallic materials are thought to be one of the most promising candidates to substitute for nonporous graphite bipolar plates because of their good mechanical stability, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and recyclability. Also, they can be easily and consistently stamped to the desired shape to accommodate the flow channels (Lee & Huang, 2003). As a component in PEMFC, metal bipolar plates should have very high corrosion resistance because any metal ions generated from the corrosion process can migrate to the membrane, lower the ionic conductivity of the membrane, and thereby degrade the performance of the fuel cell stack. Moreover, any corrosion layer will lower the electrical conductivity of the bipolar plates and thus increase the potential loss of PEM fuel cells due to the high electrical resistance. At the anode and cathode, bipolar plates are at -0.1VvsSCE and 0.6VvsSCE, respectively (Lee & Huang, 2003). Therefore, metallic bipolar plate corrosion under the PEMFC environments is different from free potential corrosion.

The potential-pH diagram is a map showing conditions of solution oxidizing power (potential) and acidity for the various possible phases that are stable in an aqueous electrochemical system. The boundary lines on the diagram, which divide areas of stability for the different phases, are derived from the Nernst equation. Potential-pH diagrams have been used in many applications, including fuel cells, batteries, electroplating, and extractive metallurgy (Heli, 2004). We believe that this is the first time that potential-pH diagrams have been used to predict the corrosion of the metallic bipolar plates under the PEMFC working conditions.

Problem Statement

PEM fuel cells are of prime interest in transportation applications due to their relatively high efficiency and low pollutant emissions. Bipolar plates are very important components of a fuel cell and account for up to 80% of its weight. The functions of the bipolar plates are (Elmasry & Sallam, 2010).

1. Provides electrical connection between adjacent cells in a stack
2. Separates gases between the adjacent cells
3. Facilitates water management within the cell
4. Enables Heat Transfer
5. Supports thin electrodes and membrane
6. withstands clamping forces of stack assembly

The most widely used material for bipolar plates is graphite. Graphite is a weak and brittle material and so is not a suitable candidate for the job. Its low mechanical strength does not help it withstand the clamping forces and its brittleness makes it difficult and very expensive to machine channels with complex designs into it. These restrictions prevent fuel cells from going into mass production and becoming a major source of clean energy.

Literature review

Background information

Bipolar plates are key elements in the hydrogen fuel cell power stack, as they conduct current across cells, in addition to enhancing water management within the fuel cell. In the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) hydrogen fuel cell design, bipolar plates are fabricated in mass production and they must be made of materials with excellent manufacturability and suitable for cost-effective high volume automated production systems. Currently, graphite composites are considered the standard material for PEM bipolar plates because of their low surface contact resistance and high corrosion resistance (Barbir, 1995). Unfortunately, graphite and graphite composites are classified as brittle and permeable to gases with poor cost-effectiveness for high volume manufacturing processes relative to metals such as aluminum, stainless steel, nickel, titanium, etc. Since durability and cost represent the two main challenges hindering the fuel technology from penetrating the energy market and competing with other energy systems, considerable attention was recently given to metallic bipolar plates for their particular suitability to transportation applications. Metals enjoy higher mechanical strength, better durability to shocks and vibration, no permeability, and much superior manufacturability and cost-effectiveness when compared to carbon-based materials, namely carbon-carbon and carbon–polymer composites (Barbir, 1995). However, the main handicap of metals is the lack of ability to combat corrosion in the harsh acidic and humid environment inside the PEM fuel cell without forming oxidants, passive layers, and metal ions that cause considerable power degradation. Considerable attempts are being made using noble metals, Aluminum, and various coated materials with nitride- and carbide-based alloys to improve the corrosion resistance of the metals used without sacrificing surface contact resistance and maintaining cost-effectiveness.

Gold-coated titanium and niobium were the materials used by General Electric in the 1960s that were later replaced by graphite composites to reduce cost and weight. In recent years, due to lack of graphite durability under mechanical shocks and vibration combined with cost-effectiveness concerns of its high volume manufacturability, considerable research work is currently underway to develop metallic bipolar plates with high corrosion resistance, low surface contact resistance, and inexpensive mass production (Tawfik, Hung & Mahajan, 2007). Various types of metals and alloys are currently under testing and evaluation by researchers working in the field of PEM fuel cells to develop bipolar plates that possess the combined merits of graphite and metals. The ideal characteristics of a bipolar plate’s material are high corrosion resistance and low surface contact resistance, like graphite, and high mechanical strength, no permeability to reactant gases, and no brittleness like metals such as stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, etc. The main challenge however is that corrosion-resistant metal bipolar plates develop a passivating oxide layer on the surface that does protect the bulk metal from the progression of corrosion, but also causes an undesirable effect of a high surface contact resistance (Tawfik, Hung & Mahajan, 2007). This causes the dissipation of some electric energy into heat and a reduction in the overall efficiency of the fuel cell power stack.

Cost and durability are still the two pronounced challenges for the PEM fuel cell industry. The cost of large supplies of fuel cell materials and high-volume manufacturing processes must be reduced for PEM to reach an economic viability and allow it to penetrate the energy market and compete with other systems. The durability of the PEM fuel cell is another important parameter that must be improved to enhance the reliability of the two main components, namely bipolar plates and MEA. Further research and development efforts must be conducted to rectify the bipolar plate corrosion mechanisms as described below (Li & Sabir, 2005).

Metal bipolar plates

Metals such as stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium are considered for use in the manufacture of bipolar plates because of their excellent electrical conductivity and mechanical properties. However, they are normally faulted due to corrosive action they are subject to.

Corrosion failure by pinhole formation

Unfortunately, corrosion processes occur regardless whether the fuel cell is operating or not unless extreme measures are taken to evacuate the fuel cell stack of water. Corrosion failure mode is due to pinhole formation through the bipolar plate. The significant drawback with the metal bipolar plates is corrosion problems on the surface. Corrosion problems arise from the formation of an oxide coating from chemically reactive metals. These oxide layers are electrically insulating, usually on the order of 10¹² ohm-cm, which imparts high contact resistance leading to a voltage drop in the fuel cell, which cannot be accepted. To avoid this voltage drop, the formation of such a resistive layer has to be prevented by coating the metal surface. The protective coating must be conductive and provide complete corrosion protection. The coating must also be chemically and mechanically stable in a fuel cell environment. The application of such a conductive, low-cost coating has been found to be very difficult to accomplish.

Corrosion failure by electro catalyst poisoning

Common electro-catalysts include Pt and Pt–Ru alloys that are susceptible to poisoning by adsorption. Most poisoning adsorbents include CO, sulfur, chloride, and low boiling point hydrocarbons. For metallic coatings on Al, little, if any at all, sulfur and chloride will be present eliminating their possible poisoning of catalysts. The same is also true for CO and hydrocarbons if a metallic coating on aluminum is used. It is possible that O2 on the cathode side may react with metal ions to form an oxide (e.g., Fe2O3, CuO) (Turner & Brandy, 2005). Since these oxides are not bound to any site, it is probable that they will be flushed from the electrodes by convective action of the air and water on the cathode. It is possible that the corrosion by-products may react chemically with the oxygen to form an oxide in the electrode (Turner & Brandy, 2005). This oxide may or may not leave the electrode causing potential fouling problems within the electrode due to blocked pores. It may be possible for H2 gas to reduce the metal ions to their metallic state. The metal deposits would be located in regions where the proton may reside including the liquid phase water and the ionomer coating of the catalysts. In a similar manner to the cathode, the metal deposits may flush out of the electrode via the convective flow action.

Corrosion failure by passivation formation

The overall comprehensive testing and evaluation of various materials for metallic and non-metallic bipolar plates are clearly compiled to provide a quick reference of the most up to date research findings in this area of PEM fuel cell technology.

Review of corrosion issues in metallic bipolar plates for PEMFCs

In PEMFCs applications, corrosion of metallic bipolar plates is one of the mostly researched issues because as the metallic bipolar plates corrode, metal ions are released and block the ion conduction mechanism for H+ at the membrane (Turner & Brandy, 2005). In addition, the contact resistance will increase due to the oxide layer formation at the surfaces (Tawfik, Hung & Mahajan, 2007). Finally, the pinhole type of corrosion (i.e., pitting corrosion) can further lead to accelerated corrosion due to the concentration cell formation (i.e., two different potentials occurring on the same plane) (Turner & Brandy, 2005). All these phenomena caused by corrosion of the metallic bipolar plates would directly lead to performance degradation and shortening stack life.

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) has placed some goals for metallic bipolar plates to be used in fuel cell stacks. The corrosion goals are set as follows. At the anode side the corrosion current at 0.1V vs. SHE (standard hydrogen electrode) while hydrogen is bubbling through an acid solution (representing the acidic fuel cell environment) should not exceed 1 μA/cm2 (Tawfik, Hung & Mahajan, 2007). On the other hand at the cathode side the corrosion current at 0.85V vs. SHE while oxygen is bubbling through an acid solution should not also exceed 1 μA/cm2. In addition, the goal for the cost of a metallic bipolar plate is suggested to be less than 6$/kW (5).

Coated metals

Metallic bipolar plates are coated with protective coating layers to avoid corrosion. Coatings should be conductive and adhere to the base metal without exposing the substrate to corrosive media (Li & Sabir, 2005).Two types of coatings, carbon-based and metal-based, have been investigated (Turner,H. & Brandy, 2005). Carbon-based coatings include graphite, conductive polymer, diamond-like carbon, and organic self-assembled monopolymers (Turner,H. & Brandy, 2005). Noble metals, metal nitrides and metal carbides are some of the metal-based coatings. Further, the coefficient of thermal expansion of base metal and the coating should be as close as possible to eliminate formation of micro pores and micro cracks in coatings due to unequal expansion (Turner,H. & Brandy, 2005). In addition, some coating processes are prone to pinhole defects and viable techniques for coating bipolar plates are still under development (Turner,H. & Brandy, 2005). Mehta and Cooper presented an overview of carbon-based and metallic bipolar plate coating materials. Carbon-based coatings include: graphite, conductive polymer, diamond like carbon, organic self-assembled monopolymers. Metal-based coatings include: noble metals, metal nitrides, and metal carbides (Turner,H. & Brandy, 2005).

Barbor and Gomez concluded that the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), corrosion resistance of coating, and micro pores and micro cracks play a vital role in protecting bipolar plates from the hostile PEM fuel cell environment. The authors also argue that even though PEM fuel cells typically operate at temperatures less than 100 ◦C, vehicle service would impose frequent start up and shut down conditions, and temperature differentials of 75–125 ◦C would be expected during typical driving conditions. A large difference in the CTE of the substrate and coating materials may lead to coating layer failure. One technique to minimize the CTE differential is to add intermediate coating layers with CTEs between that of adjacent layers (9). Materials such as Al, Cu, and Ni, are very susceptible to electrochemical corrosion in acidic solutions that are typical of PEMFC operating conditions. However, materials such as Au and phosphorous Ni show very high resistance to electrochemical corrosion, comparable

Research methodology

A number of properties that makes a material suitable for fuel cell operation will be evaluated. These include conductivity, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and mass of the sample and its cost of production. The materials to be evaluated will include Titanium, Aluminum, Stainless Steel, Graphite, and Moldable Polymer Composite.

Measurement of in-plane and through-plane conductivity

In-plane (bulk) conductivities will be measured according to ASTM Standard F76- 86. Current contacts will be placed at the four corners of the plaque allowing for a constant current to pass through the specimen. The voltage drop will be measured across the specimen with a Keithley 2000 digital multi-meter at ambient conditions (Wang, 2006). Two characteristic resistances, RA and RB will be measured. The plaque resistance, RS, is obtained by solving the Van der Pauw equation: exp(-πRA/RS)+exp(-πRB/RS)=1…….(1)

The resistivity, ρ, is given by p=RSd , where d is the thickness of specimen. The volume conductivity, σB, is defined as 1/ρ.

Through-plane conductivities will be measured based on a method proposed by Landis and Tucker. [20] A 76.2 mm x 76.2 mm plaque was placed between gold plated copper electrodes. Between the electrodes and sample was placed a piece of carbon paper (Toray TGP-H120) to improve electrical contact between the electrodes and sample. The system was placed under a compaction force of 2000 pounds (approximately 1000 psi) and the resistance was measured. The sample is removed, and the resistance of the test cell (including carbon paper) was measured again under the same conditions to obtain a “baseline” resistance (Wang, 2006). The sample resistance could then be calculated by subtracting the baseline resistance from the total resistance. The resistivity of the material was calculated by: p=((RT-R _baseline) A)IL(2)).

Where p is resistivity, A is cross-sectional area of sample, L is the thickness of sample, and RT and R _baseline are total resistance and baseline resistance, respectively. The through-plane conductivity, σT, was then calculated as 1/ρ.

Measurement of half-cell resistance

To measure the half-cell resistance of a bipolar plate, an apparatus will be set up similarly to the one used to measure through-plane conductivity. A bipolar plate having dimensions 12.2 x 14.0 x 0.3 cm and an active area of 100 cm2 will be placed between the gold plated copper electrodes. Carbon paper (Toray TGP-H-120) will be placed on both sides of the bipolar plate, and hence, in between the sample and electrodes. The size of the carbon paper will be 10 x 10 cm in order to completely cover the active area. The sample will be placed under a compaction force of 2000 pounds (approximately 130 psi) while a constant current of 250 mA will be passed through the sample (Wang, 2006). The potential will be measured between the collectors and the half-cell resistance will be calculated based on Ohm’s law. The bipolar plate will be removed, and the potential across the electrodes and carbon paper will be measured to produce a baseline resistance. The baseline resistance that is the resistance of the testing circuit excluding the bipolar plate but including carbon papers and electrodes will be measured after testing of the plate. This will be done to ensure the stability of the baseline of the instrument and to evaluate the contribution of the bipolar plate to the total half-cell resistance.

Mechanical properties of materials

In addition to electrical conductivity, the bipolar plates should also have adequate mechanical properties and resistance to creep to be used in fuel cell stacks where they would be subjected to a constant compressive load. However, it is difficult to obtain high conductivity and sufficient mechanical properties simultaneously. As a result the mechanical properties of most materials used to produce bipolar plates are still lower than the target values.

Corrosion Test Methods

Corrosion potential of a substrate can be obtained from the open circuit potential of the metal substrate in liquid electrolyte (Wang, 2006). In order to observe the behavior of the electrode in varying potentials, potentiodynamic experiment should be conducted. This experiment shows us if the electrode is in active or passive state for corrosion (Wang, 2006). This experiment also provides initial corrosion current values at certain potentials regardless of time (Barbir, 1995). Corrosion current values at certain potentials can be obtained with this method very quickly. A linear sweep voltametry experiment is made between -0.5V and

1V at 1mV/s sweep rate. All potentials mentioned here are compared with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode. At a certain potential, the graph would give a peak, which represents the corrosion potential value, while the corrosion current could be obtained from the tangent curve of the negative and positive over-potential curves (Wang, 2006).

In this study, both potentiodynamic and potentiostatic experiments will be carried out for stamped, and hydro-formed bipolar plates in a custom made corrosion cell controlled with a PAR 2200 potentiostat. To resemble the PEMFC environment, the metallic bipolar plates will be placed in an acidic liquid electrolyte tank which contains 0.5 M H2SO4 solution at 80°C. This corrosion cell consists of a specimen holder where a metal blank [bipolar plate] is held inside and acts as a working electrode, Poco graphite counter electrode, an Ag/AgCl reference electrode, and a gas bubbler at the bottom. All of this setup is placed inside a temperature controlled environment.

In order to remove the residual oil and dirt from the surface, all specimens will be cleaned with acetone before testing. Sensitive cleaning will be also applied to remove the oil in channel grooves by placing the specimens in an ultrasonic bath filled with acetone for 30 minutes. The non-active area and the back part of the test specimens will be covered with Teflon tape, and thus, only the active area of the bipolar plate will be exposed to the acid. The working electrode [i.e., bipolar plate] will be placed in the corrosion cell before placing the electrolyte. All connections inside the cell will be covered with Teflon tape to prevent the corrosion from the sulfuric acid vapor. Additional 0.5 M H2SO4 will be also placed inside the temperature controlled environment with a closed tap to prevent excessive evaporation of the acid at 80°C. A potentiodynamic experiment with no gas, a potentiodynamic experiment with one of the gasses and a potentiostatic experiment with the same gas will be carried out continuously for each test sample. The acid level will be controlled several times during the experiment to submerge the working electrode under the electrolyte throughout the test period. The potentiodynamic experiments will be performed by increasing the potential from – 0.5V to 1.0V at a rate of 1mV/s (Barbir, 1995). All of the potentials are given vs. Standard Hydrogen Electrode [SHE]. Three different potentiodynamic conditions will be carried out which include: purge no gas [acidic condition], purge H2 [anode side condition], and purge O2 [cathode side condition]. On the other hand, the potentiostatic experiments represent the steady state operation condition of the fuel cell and the current value will be obtained and recorded when the system reaches steady state while keeping the potential constant at 0.1V vs. SHE during H2 purge and at 0.8V vs. SHE during O2 purge

Analysis of results

Analysis will focus on evaluation of the materials that present the best characteristics necessary for functionality of bi-polar plates. Among the key characteristics for evaluation will include conductivity, permeability, and cost of production, corrosion resistance and mechanical strength. For portability mass will also be considered.

References

Barbir, K. (1995). “Progress in PEM fuel cell system development.” In: Yurum Y. (Ed), Hydrogen energy system, NATO ASI Ser. E., Vol. 295, pp. 203–213.

Chaudhuri, T. & Spagnol, P. (2005). Bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells: A review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 30, 1297-1302.

Elmasry, M. & Sallam, M. T. (2010). Structure and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite Produced by Hot Pressing Technique.SAT-13-MS-14, 2, 2010, 23-45.

Heli W. (2004). Turner: Ferritic Stainless Steels for Bipolar Plate for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells, Journal of Power Sources 128, 193-200.

Lee, S. J. & Huang, Y.P. (2003). Metal Processes: Coating aluminum to enhance properties. Processes Techno, 140, 2003.

Li, X. & Sabir, I. (2005). Review of bipolar plates in PEM fuel cells: Flowfield designs. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 30, 359-371.

Tawfik, H. Hung, Y. & Mahajan, D. (2007). Metal bipolar plates for PEM fuel cell – a review. Journal of Power Sources, 163, pp.755–767.

Turner,H. & Brandy, M. P. (2005). Corrosion Protection of Metallic Bipolar Plates for Fuel Cells, May 22–26, DOE Hydrogen Program Review,

Wang, D. O. (2006). Northwood. An Electrochemical Investigation of Potential Metallic Bipolar Plate Materials for PEM Fuel Cells, Presented at International Symposium on Solar-Hydrogen-Fuel Cells, Cancun, Mexico.

Introduction

Construction has been an essential part of human activities since the beginning of history. It was vital to build a home and places to stay, and it was important how to organize this process. Thus, the basic features of management within the scope of construction were visible already throughout the undertakings of the first people. It might even seem that the development of construction management since the mentioned period is a good theme to discuss. However, there were no critical factors that would have affected the construction management theory substantially. It should be claimed that in the framework of construction management, the most crucial shifts have been taking place since the 1960s due to several points. Hence, the latter statement can be a good foundation for the relevance of the investigation below. In this paper, research on the evolution of construction management from the 1960s to today will be conducted.

Main text

In the beginning, it might be rational to give a clear definition of construction management. According to researchers, “Construction management is the process of planning, coordinating and providing monitoring and controlling of a construction project” (Miller). This division of project management is aimed to function in the construction industry. It should be stated that some kinds of construction utilize this style of management – “industrial, civil, commercial, environmental, and residential” (Miller). All of the listed categories have their approach to running a project, but each of them follows the established principles of the related methodology. Although authors provide a different number of stages of construction management (Miller; “Construction project management”), the essence is the same, and many sources emphasize the importance of the phenomenon for the industry. Hence, an in-depth understanding of the evolution of construction management is a crucial factor for the comprehension of the concept as a whole.

The science of management starts in the early 1900s with its primary roots in the United States. According to Short, “Adaptation in the construction industry started after World War II, in the 1950s” (1). It should be mentioned that after the War, there was a period of prosperity of construction; in particular, it was the second age of high-rise buildings. In the 1960s, there was “the introduction of the perimeter-framed tube form in concrete by Fazlur Khan in the DeWitt–Chestnut Apartments (1963) in Chicago” (Chang and Swenson). Then, the construction of the 35-story CBS Building (1964) in New York and the 725-foot Shell Oil Building (1967) in Houston took place (Chang and Swenson). Such popularity of high-rise constructions continued in the future – up to nowadays.

The above tendency spread around the world rapidly and contributed to the increase in the complexity of construction management. Furthermore, long-span construction also became a trend – plenty of significant and vast stadiums were built (Chang and Swenson). It might be assumed that the described feature of construction that was getting more sophisticated was a crucial factor that affected the evolution of management in the industry to a great extent.

From the 1970s, there was a consistent implementation of diverse organizational models for procurement. The design-build approach implied that one company is in charge of the whole delivery. Then, “the performance requirements concept was adapted to be used in specifications” (Sjoholt 7). It seems apparent that the process of construction became even more complex than in the 1960s, so as related contracts. Many lawyers started to be involved in the industry, and plenty of legal disputes took place – such conditions required from managers a high-level qualification and full awareness of various aspects.

Moreover, in the 1970s, new kinds of contractors and developers started investing in land and abandoned industrial areas and buildings for the open market; they could even offer to finance clients. Domestic markets expanded to the global ones, which indicated the importance of international cooperation. During the period, construction managers had to develop and adhere to the set principles and rules of collaboration, taking into account many factors.

Then, computers were available in many countries already since the 1960s; however, mostly in service centers. By the end of the 1970s, plenty of planning consultants was employed by construction companies because these consultants were aware of how to utilize computers properly (Sjoholt 8). Generally, they were little familiar with construction, and it could take much time to make necessary calculations. Thus, it might be supposed that the attempt to implement computers during the period did not meet the expectations and even detained the substantial development of management systems.

Another factor related to computing systems was the vision of a new generation of construction process control to use databases for project creation. It gave rise to data-based management information systems and expert systems during the 1980s (Sjoholt 8). Plenty of scholars chose the latter theme for numerous investigations, but there was little practical use of their findings. The utilization of computers during the period between the 1960s and the late 1980s did not contribute to the improvement of construction management.

In the future, there were considerable improvements that had been followed by new software provided for the open market. In the 1990s, the evolution of various management programs and tools lead to the second generation of them. The flow of materials required efficient construction management that would be founded on new opportunities. In the late 1980s, “there were proposals to transfer methods from manufacturing and trade businesses … resulting in a few development projects” (Sjoholt 8). Meanwhile, the structure of wholesalers shifted to larger groups of retailers. They were investing in the computerizing of stocks and deliveries. It fitted the rising interests of contractors in logistics and such an approach. What is more, during the 1990s, the emergence of such concepts as supply chain, SWOT analysis, and benchmarking facilitated construction management to a great extent.

The following factor that affected the evolution of construction management is related to the increased concerns about the quality of products and services. Manufacturers started focusing more on customers’ satisfaction: According to Sjoholt, “ISO issued the first quality assurance standards in the 9000 series in 1984” (10). The emergence of these standards in construction might be considered a revolutionary process. All sectors had to pay more attention to their accounting and reports on qualities if they aimed to remain profitable. This sort of system was new for the construction industry; hence, it was a significant market for consultants and certification bodies. Managers had to adapt to these new conditions quickly and obtain vital knowledge and experience, as well as to follow sustainable strategies of companies.

Modern peculiarities of construction management that have not significantly changed since the 2000s are as follows. The consumers of the building industry expect that the services “can be supplied with relatively unsophisticated technology and inexpensive materials” (Chang and Swenson). Hence, there is a tendency for the sector to be in the framework of low technology. Due to the latter, there has been little research on and investment in the high technology implementation in the industry. However, scholars provide some notable ideas and findings on the issue; for instance, Li and Liu propose to utilize multirotor drone technologies in construction (1). For managers, it seems reasonable to concentrate on the organizational process without applying and seeking high tech.

Finally, today’s necessity of fast and efficient decision-making serves as a foundation for several common and vital functions of a construction manager. These are setting the objectives and the scope of the project, improving resource allocation, executing numerous operations, and building strong communication channels (Koutsogiannis). The manager is also required to be acquainted with and able to apply modern software that is available via both computers and smartphones.

Conclusion

In conclusion, construction management has walked a long way to the modern state of the art. It has become a necessity, and many higher educational establishments prepare qualified professionals in this area nowadays. Since the 1960s, construction management has been affected by a plethora of diverse factors. The above investigation allows assuming that these factors are the increasing complexity of the industry, the emergence of computers, occurring of different tools, no necessity for high technology, and the need for fast decision-making. The discussion revealed the fact the development of construction management was not smooth due to the early attempts to implement computing systems in the industry. However, this management has been crucial and has not lost its value with the flow of time.

Works Cited

Chang, Pao-Chi and Alfred Swenson. “Construction.”Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020, Web.

“Construction project management: The ultimate guide.”projectmanager.com, Web.

Koutsogiannis, Anastasios. “Construction management 101: The ultimate guide.” Letsbuild, 2019, Web.

Li, Yan and Chunlu Liu. “Applications of multirotor drone technologies in construction management.” International Journal of Construction Management, vol. 12, no. 5, 2018, pp. 1–12.

Miller, Mike. “What is construction management?”Study.com, Web.

Sjoholt, Odd. “The evolution of the management systems in construction.”irbnet, 2003, Web.

The Nature and Scope of Thesis

Countries around the world have realized that the best way of managing the competitiveness of the market is to successfully government and private projects completed in time and as per the expectations. There is a need to embrace professionalism when addressing different projects, from minor construction to major governmental projects that may cost billions of dollars. Construction projects ideally should be a partnership of various stakeholders that need to be involved for successful and safe project completion, delivering the project on time and within the planned budget. Unfortunately, this is not the reality for many projects where the architects, general contractors, subcontractors and project owners have differing goals. A study of how this process could be improved is necessary. There is a massive benefit if this process runs smoothly. My thesis will examine how and what efforts should be made to make projects run smoothly where different parties involved in them have the same vision, agenda, and goals. This thesis will involve the collection of primary and secondary sources of data in order to guide the conclusion and recommendations that will be made. It will be empirical research that will support every argument with facts from the field and those gathered from secondary sources such as books and reputable academic journals. The scope of this thesis will be limited to ways in which stakeholders can cooperate in order to achieve mutual benefits. Anything outside the subject of my thesis will be beyond the scope of the research.

The subject of the academic work

In every academic work, it is always important to define the subject in order to find relevant materials that can be used to achieve the desired results. In this academic work, I will focus on how to improve partnership among different stakeholders in the management and control of construction projects. This subject is motivated by the fact that real estate players are faced with the problem of conflicting interests, making it possible to achieve the desired results. The intended title for the thesis is as follows: Improving Partnership among different Stakeholders in Management and Control of Construction Projects.

The aim of the academic assignment

It is a fact that there is a need for advanced education in order to understand how to relate with various stakeholders. Based on the problem that we know in the background, the aim of this study is as follows:

• To find out the problems faced by different stakeholders in project development and management processes.
• To find out the assignment scope of each party and the agenda of each assignment.
• To find out the process that every party is having and the correlation to the other parties at that time.
• To understand the efforts that should be made so that this process can be improved to make the outcome beneficial to all parties.

Scientific methodology

At the level of the master study program, there are a number of scientific methods that can be used when conducting research. The most conventional methods of scientific research are quantitative methods and qualitative methods. The qualitative method takes the descriptive form when analyzing data. On the other hand, the quantitative method uses mathematical tools in order to arrive at a given conclusion. It is important to choose the most appropriate methodology in order to conduct the research. Quantitative research was considered very relevant. It involves collecting data from primary and secondary sources and using mathematical methods to arrive at a conclusion. The inductive reasoning makes it possible to make a generalization of the entire population out of the sampled group.

Hypothetical result

The following are my expectations of the master program at this institution:

• I expect to gain deeper knowledge and information from this master’s program in order to enable me to become effective.
• From this master’s program, I will expect to learn how to manage a building construction project in an international scope, and how to deal with various problems in the related area. This will improve my expertise in this field.
• I expect that upon completing the program, my communication skills will be improved, a fact that will not only improve my efficiency, but also the manner in which I will handle different stakeholders.

Lived experience

I have developed a strong interest to advance my architectural career since the day I graduated from the university. I have amassed new knowledge and experience in this field because I have been working in architectural firms. After graduation, I worked as an interior design consultant for about one year. I started as a junior designer and took more responsibilities in several architectural and interior projects as I continued to work in this firm. I learned project management skills, from developing a project plan, making schedules, monitoring the schedules, and managing change events within a project. After a year of working as an architectural and interior consultant, I went to work at my family company. I took the position of the project and production officer majorly focusing on housing interior and project. However, this did not stop me from working as a freelance architect.

This effort has not been without challenges. One problem that I often encounter in managing a project is the inability of some projects to meet the time requirement. This has mainly been due to the varying interests of the architects, general contractors, subcontractors, and owners of such projects. This is one of the reasons why I have planned for my future thesis for the Master of Construction and Real Estate Management to be on how to improve the partnership with all the relevant stakeholders within a project in order to achieve good results.

The Marvin Nichols Reservoir was planned by the Texas Society of Professional Engineers President Marvin Nichols. The proposed Reservoir would be built on the Sulphur River near Texarkana, Texas, in sections of Red River and Titus Counties. The Reservoir has been classified as a source of water for the Dallas area and is estimated to cost a huge sum of money and comes at a heft cost that is estimated to cost around $4.4 million. There have been debates and discussions that have been ongoing for decades on whether the Reservoir should be constructed or not. It had greatly faded from the spotlight but is now gaining momentum.

In a bid to stop the construction of this Reservoir, coalitions were launched to sensitize people on the effects of its construction. Personally, I also agree with the sensitization because the construction of the Reservoir would consume thousands of acres of land owned by the local residents. This will take away their homes and inheritance and eliminate several family cemeteries and Native American heritage places. This will be seen as stealing from families who have owned the pieces of land for many generations and rendering them homeless. Under federal law, additional land called mitigation is required to settle the disrupted people. Fears arise as many doubt whether they will be compensated for their lands. Other residents feel that even if they are compensated, they are too attached to their homes as their ancestors lived and were buried there; thus, this remains a heritage to them.

The economy would also be greatly affected since the many acres of land that belonged to the residents were mainly used for farming and fishing. Agricultural activities become impossible due to the interruption of the groundwater environment and the natural landscape (Sun et al., 2019). Apart from farming activities, the locals had established other business activities in the area that had been their source of income for a long time. The disruption of these activities would impact the growing economy. The area also had ongoing wood activities that supplied timber. If these were to be shut, people would have to go far away in search of timber, increasing the cost and price of timber.

The inundation of animal habitats by the proposed Marvin Nichols Reservoir would be the Reservoir’s greatest impact on wildlife habitats and a huge number of endangered species (White et al., 2017). The Texas Parks and Wildlife Ecological Systems Classification data collection was created by analyzing color infrared and multi-spectral satellite imagery utilized in the Environmental Evaluation Interim Report. The Reservoir is proposed to have an impact on 5.2 percent of forested wetlands and 2.4 percent of bottomland hardwood forests. They include both wooded wetlands and bottomland hardwoods and are regarded particularly significant as wildlife habitats.

The construction of the Reservoir would impact cultural resources since there are a number of cultural resources known to exist and human remains in the area. Thousands of acres of archaeologically significant zones and reservoir footprints as a percentage of earlier cultural resource surveys are also part of this habitat. Cultural resource impacts are managed during permits by working with the Corps of Engineers and the Texas State Historical Commission. Investigation and recording of archaeological sites and proper relocation of cemeteries are all part of the mitigation process. This archaeological mitigation method increases project expenses, and it has been factored into the cost estimates for the proposed Marvin Nichols Reservoir.

Construction of this Reservoir would minimize flows into the Gulf of Mexico bays and estuaries. The project would lower flows by around 670,000 acre-feet per year if the Reservoir was fully utilized with no return flows (Ellis et al., 2018). The discharge from the Atchafalaya River into the Gulf of Mexico in Louisiana would be reduced by around 0.4 percent. Decreasing the Atchafalaya’s discharge means returning the river to its natural state, balancing only a small portion of the flows brought to the Atchafalaya by human diversion from the Mississippi River. This impact would be minimal but is of some importance to be noted.

Senate Bill One, passed by the Texas Legislature in 1997, established a regional water planning mechanism for the state. The Texas Water Development Board (TWDB) oversaw the planning process, establishing regulations for planning and establishing 16 water planning zones around the state. Construction of the Marvin Nichols Reservoir was one of the water management strategies developed, and this has attracted conflicts and opposition from different groups of people. The former planning director for the Tarrant Regional Water District, Wayne Owen, opposes the construction. He thinks that obtaining federal permission might take anywhere from 15 to 25 years due to mandatory analyses of environmental effects and viability. The Texas Conservation Alliance’s Janice Bezanson stated that the development of the Reservoir would have a severe impact on the animal habitat and economic stability in the area.

As discussed above, the construction of the Marvin Nichols Reservoir would generally cause more economic and environmental harm. Thus, this poses a challenge to environmental offices, human well-being departments, and economic analysts to strongly oppose its construction. New efforts are being undertaken to stand against the proposed construction of the Reservoir, and citizens throughout Northeast Texas are being educated about the economic, social, and other impacts that would result from the Reservoir’s construction. If well supported, these coalitions can easily gain meaning and accomplish their mission.

References

Ellis, M. R., Region, D., Plan, R. W., & Ellis, D. M. (2018). Surface Water Supplies. [PDF document]. Web.

Sun, Y., Xu, S. G., Kang, P. P., Fu, Y. Z., & Wang, T. X. (2019). Impacts of artificial underground reservoir on groundwater environment in the reservoir and downstream area. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(11), 1921. Web.

White, K. H., Rubinstein, C., Settemeyer, H., & Ingram, M. (2017). The Case for a Texas Water Market. [PDF document]. Web.