Category: Conservation of Forest

Introduction

Coastal ecosystems are areas where the land and water meet creating a distinct structural and diverse environment. Unfortunately, coastal ecosystems are highly sensitive to changes in the surrounding environment, causing concern that some areas will now struggle to maintain biodiversity due to human activity, and other factors (Council 2015). One major ecosystem present along Australia’s coastline is the Great Australian Bight. The Great Australian Bight is very well-known globally due to its abundance of unique marine life and great surfing spots. More than 85% of species that live in this stretch of coastline are not found anywhere else in the world. Unfortunately, the Great Australian Bight is also known for having the largest untapped oil reserves in Australia, according to Norwegian energy company Equinor. This company has proposed to drill a deep-water oil well 370km offshore to a depth of more than two kilometres in search of oil (Duffy 2019). Although drilling in the Great Australian Bight has been occurring since the 1960s, it has never gone to a depth as what is proposed by Equinor. This is an important topic in Geography, especially coastal geography, as the impacts of drilling in the Great Australian Bight can be non-reversable. The devastation will cause lasting effects on the reefs, surrounding beaches, surf and close-by communities. The future of our oceans depends on having a greater protection of marine environments; a shift away from fossil fuels and potentially destructive practices like deep sea drilling, and towards clean energy solutions. Australian citizens, specifically South Australian’s have voted against the drilling in the Bight. The outcomes of the drilling may become devasting for Australian coastlines and the surfing reserves in the south-west. This essay will explore the environmental impacts caused by humans, specifically in the Bight and highlight the connection between coastal communities and their surfing reserves. A review of literature focusing on ecology, surf culture, modern issues and general trends will be looked at followed by further analysis of the case study, ‘Big Oil Don’t Surf’ in the Great Australian Bight. Researching this topic is vital for the future of ecological sustainability in Australia to establish a long-lasting, diverse surfing community.

Literature Review

Ecology

Ecology is a branch of biology that studies the interactions between organisms and their physical environment. (OpenStax 2015). Felix Guattari’s research, ‘The Three Ecologies’ focuses on the three different ecologies that exist in the world and proposes new, interesting ideas relative to these. Guattari states, “Ecology in my sense questions the whole of subjectivity and capitalistic power formations, whose sweeping progress cannot be guaranteed to continue as it has for the last decade” (Guattari 2000, p. ). In presenting a problem of ecological disequilibrium, he is suggesting that we all must move on from the ‘normal’ and break away from repetitiveness to prepare for the best future possible. Guattari uses the three ecologies to confirm his main argument, these include mental, social and physical ecology. Mental ecology draws on the ideas of reinventing the relation of the subject to the body, to phantasm, to the passage of time and to the ‘mysteries’ of life and death. He presents considerations to radically decentre social struggle and ways of coming to one’s own psyche (Guattari 2000, p.34). Social ecology consists of developing new, innovative ways that will modify living as couples or as families. Environmental ecology looks at human intervention and has become extremely reliant on this. Examples of this particular ecology includes the regulation of carbon, machine ecology, creation of new living species etc. Guattari’s work helps to understand ecology in the modern world but also explores how the future can be improved by experimenting with each of the three ecologies and expending our knowledge and resources.

Surf Culture

The article ‘The Sense of Victorious Struggle’: The Eugenic Dynamic in Australian Popular Surf-Culture described the early years of the twentieth century Australia as being the era that surf was discovered as a recreation. There was a distinct appreciation of the eugenic qualities of this activity. The article focused on the open-air recreation, the struggle against the elements and the general ‘health-giving’ physical experiences that surfing brings. However, found that the literature on the history of surf-culture has not recognised the relationship between the developing culture of surfing on Australia beaches (Rodwell 2009). Surf culture is an Australian birthright. Australian’s possess a unique national culture and a huge part of that culture is the ocean and surfing (Surfer 2010). Surf culture represents the environment, conservation and a minimalistic lifestyle. Surfing is extremely dependent on the environment resulting in a large number of interest groups forming to influence the utilization of coastal properties relevant to surfing. Being capable of surfing the best possible waves is dependent on conditions that may change rapidly, given the unpredictable nature of the weather and their effect on the surface of the ocean. The sport of surfing is limited to an ocean coastline with beaches, the culture of that beach often influenced surfers and vice versa.

The beach has always been one of the most privileged sites in Australian culture. Surfers have become one of the most well-known icons of Australian beaches. The relationship with men and surfing plays a major role in Australian surf culture. Men are seen as those straight as steel, austere surfers who dominate Australian waters. The article ‘The Point’: surfing, geography and a sensual life of men and masculinity on the Gold Coast, Australia, unpacks the role feelings and bodies play in how men belong and bond, using the Australian waves as a reference. It can be seen in the article that a male’s masculinity when surfing comes alive. Masculinity is not simply something that is mapped on to bodies, rather it is an attempt to control, rationalise and contain (Evers 2009).

Modern Ecological Problems/ Biggest Issues in Australian Coastal Towns

There are a variety of issues that Australian coastal towns currently experience. Some of these issues include growing populations, increasing infrastructure and global warming. Economic growth results in higher demand for food and natural resources, however, generates new technologies for environmental management. Changes to the climate regimes and rising sea levels associated with global warming will create pressures on both the natural environment and production systems. The biggest pressure will come from the interaction between seal level rise and human settlements. These factors combined will greatly affect coastal ecosystems in Australia (Cork 2011).

Many coastal towns that are located near major metropolitan areas have recently experienced an influx of people in search of scenic, natural settings and a relaxed lifestyle. This form of migration has resulted in environmental and social changes in a number of towns across Australia. Unfortunately, these changes have drastically transformed the unique character that all of these places possess and have affected their attractiveness as coastal communities (Springer 2010).

General Trends (politically swayed?)

Land use in coastal Australia has experienced a large number of major trends. These include:

• Continuing urban expansion in both capital and major regional coastal cities
• Continuing expansion of the conservation and Indigenous estates
• Continuing decline of native forests and an increase in the extent of native forest managed for conservation, many in coastal ranges
• Changes in flows from rivers into coastal environments, due to increased extraction of water for urban and agricultural use, and to drought
• Growth of mining developments in the north-west of Australia, increasing coastal recreation
• Improvements in land management practices, which has reduced flows of sediment and chemicals to the coast (Springer 2010).

The trends set out above express the changes that coastal Australia has undergone in regard to land use. The effects of these have impacted Australian coast lines and the coastal communities and have been somewhat damaging to major surfing reserves.

Discussion

The Great Australian Bight is one of Australia’s most attractive environments for tourism and living. The Bight holds more marine diversity than the Great Barrier Reef and attracts more than 8 million visitors per year. As this region holds one of the largest untapped oil reserves in Australia, it’s exposure to oil drilling has become one of the biggest concerns for Australian communities located in the south-west. Equinor’s proposed project to begin deep water drilling off shore will create many risks to local fishing and tourism industries that rely on a pristine natural environment and together contribute $10 billion a year to our economy (Duffy 2019).

The coastline of the Great Australian Bight extends from Cape Pasley in Western Australia to Cape Catastrophe on the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. Even a minor accident caused by the drilling offshore surrounding the marine protection zone has the potential to be disastrous to the ecology as a result of strong currents and extreme conditions present in the region (Greenleft 2017).

According to The Conversation, the Great Australian Bight’s environment is wild, with extreme weather bringing storms, strong winds and waves. The geography of this region is very remote, largely unpopulated and lacks the infrastructure to respond quickly and efficiently to an oil spill if one occurred. If an oil spill was to occur, Equinor has proposed that, at best, would take 17 days to respond and worst case being 39 days. The company has predicted the oil spill could even reach from Albany in Western Australia to Port Macquarie in New South Wales. These statistics are devasting for Australian coast lines if this event was to occur (Duffy 2019). Reports from Norwegian regulators, compiled by Greenpeace have revealed that Equinor has had more than 50 safety breaches, including 10 oil leaks, in the last three-and-a-half years (Duffy 2019).

The threats that are posed by allowing oil exploration in the Bight are unacceptable. There is a great potential for catastrophic oil spills and additionally, the potential to fundamentally disrupt this unique marine environment comes from effects of seismic testing, strike risk and noise pollution (Alliance 2017).

If an oil spill was to occur in summer, the oil would have an extremely high chance of impacting the shores of Western Australia. The simulation shown below details the oil contamination that could reach as for as Albany. Under these conditions, the model predicts that within a time span of only four months, the oil would cover an area of approximately 213,000km2 and would have an 80& chance of triggering the closure of fisheries (Alliance 2017). The long-lasting effects from a spill like this will take a massive toll on Australia’s tourism, fishing industries, surfing reserves and its overall appeal worldwide.

Coastal Community Action

The extent in which coastal and surfing communities along the Great Australian Bight engage in useful forms of ecological action include a number of protests, paddle outs, support from the World Surf League and Australian world surfing champions and a wide spread campaign to express the surfing communities’ concerns regarding this issue.

Protesters have been gathering regularly at beaches across the country in a campaign that is backed by some of the greatest names in world surfing. Mick Fanning, Layne Beachley, Steph Gilmore and Sally Fitzgibbons have all put their weight behind the campaign along with the World Surf League and even Australian musicians (Hamblin 2019). Mass demonstrations have seen thousands of protesters paddle out to sea in many different events across Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales and Western Australia in an attempt to spread awareness of the current drilling issue and to express the negative effects these actions will have on the Great Australian Bight and the wider Australia (Hamblin 2019).

A major protest was conducted where hundreds of people gathered on an Adelaide Beach to protect their ocean.

The main concerns of the drilling include the lack of economic benefits for local communities, more fossil fuel investment, weak regulation and the potential for an oil spill causing devastating impacting on the Great Southern Reef.. (reference).

Patagonia have stepped up their ‘Fight For The Bight’ with their latest campaign ‘Big Oil Don’t Surf’. Earlier this year the company lead a petition of surf brands and the SBIA opposing drilling in the Great Australian Bight

References

1. Alliance, T. G. A. B., 2017. The Oil Spill Modelling. [Online] Available at: https://www.fightforthebight.org.au/oil-spill-modellingAccessed 28 09 2019].
2. Cork, S., 2011. Coastal Land. [Online] Available at: https://soe.environment.gov.au/science/soe/2011-report/11-coasts/2-major-issues/2-3-coastal-land
3. Council, T. E. L., 2015. Coastal Areas. [Online] Available at: https://enviroliteracy.org/water/coastal-areas/
4. Duffy, C. W., 2019. Drilling for oil in the Great Australian Bight would be disastrous for marine life and the local community. [Online] Available at: https://theconversation.com/drilling-for-oil-in-the-great-australian-bight-would-be-disastrous-for-marine-life-and-the-local-community-116288
5. Duffy, S., 2019. Drilling for oil in the Great Australian Bight would be disastrous for marine life and the local community. [Online] Available at: https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/newscentre/news_centre/more_news_stories/drilling_for_oil_in_the_great_australian_bight_would_be_disastrous_for_marine_life_and_the_local_community
6. Evers, C., 2009. ‘The Point’: surfing, geography and a sensual life of men and masculinity on the Gold Coast, Australia. [Online] Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14649360903305783
7. Greenleft, 2017. Risks of Oil Drilling in Great Australian Bight. [Online] Available at: https://search.informit.com.au/fullText;dn=792141950859792;res=IELHSS
8. Hamblin, A., 2019. Drilling the Great Australian Bight: Government says ‘no way’ Equinor – for now. [Online] Available at: https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/national/2019/06/27/equinor-bight-drill/
9. OpenStax, 2015. The Scope of Ecology. [Online] Available at: https://cnx.org/contents/GFy_h8cu@9.85:ENnEbpkP@3/The-Scope-of-Ecology
10. Rodwell, G., 2009. The sense of victorious struggle’: The eugenic dynamic in Australian popular surf‐culture, 1900‐50′. [Online] Available at: https://www-tandfonline-com.wwwproxy1.library.unsw.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1080/14443059909387500
11. Springer, D., 2010. Introduction. In: Green R.J. (eds) Coastal Towns in Transition: Local Perceptions of Landscape Change. [Online] Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6887-4_1
12. Surfer, 2010. AN OPINION: AUSTRALIAN SURF CULTURE RICHER, RIPER THAN US. [Online] Available at: https://www.surfer.com/features/ozzieculutreanopinoin/
13. http://theconversation.com/drilling-for-oil-in-the-great-australian-bight-would-be-disastrous-for-marine-life-and-the-local-community-116288
14. https://asbmag.com/surf-industry-rallies-in-the-fight-for-the-bight/
15. http://www.surfrider.org.au/endangered_waves_list_1
16. https://enviroliteracy.org/water/coastal-areas/
17. https://cnx.org/contents/GFy_h8cu@9.85:ENnEbpkP@3/The-Scope-of-Ecology
18. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/intro-to-ecology/a/what-is-ecology
19. https://www-tandfonline-com.wwwproxy1.library.unsw.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1080/14443059909387500
20. https://soe.environment.gov.au/science/soe/2011-report/11-coasts/2-major-issues/2-3-coastal-land
21. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6887-4_1
22. https://soe.environment.gov.au/science/soe/2011-report/11-coasts/2-major-issues/2-3-coastal-land
23. https://www.fightforthebight.org.au/oil-spill-modelling

Summary

This report is to identify the native versus exotic plant species that have visited by the most insect pollinators in the urban greenspace by the monitoring program which is conducted by the citizen scientists and discuss the management strategies that can enhance the pollinator diversity with the help from people in the world. Pollinators is suggested to be the success of all restoration efforts that is critical to the perpetuation of the plant species. The native insect pollinators are suggested to be more likely attracted by the native plants due to the native-native interactions are more common in the urban greenspace. However, due to the land-use, climate change and invasive alien species which also the factors that caused the interaction between native pollinators and exotic plant species become a common interaction that is parallel to the native-native interaction. The study of this monitoring program will help us to learn about the management strategies that protect and enhance pollinator diversity with the help of human which can increase the relationship between human and nature.

Introduction

Increasing evidence that pollinators and the plants they pollinate are negatively affected by environmental change. These pressure include climate change, diseases, pests and pathogens and invasive species (Vanbergen et al., 2018). Management strategies therefore need to focus not just on current issues but consider the response and resilience of these systems to future environmental shocks (Senapathi et al., 2015). Generalist pollinator species such as flies, bees and wasps are connected to a large range of other species. If the composition of the surrounding environment decreases, this will impact the diversity of pollinators and pollination. Decrease of plant species that produce the pollen and nectar resources, has been identified as the main driver for diversity decrease of the pollinator species and suggesting that more emphasis on providing foraging and nesting habitat resources for the pollinator species might protecting and enhancing the pollinator biodiversity (Senapathi et al., 2015). Low response diversity will cause the “whole functional groups to go extinct or make systems ecologically insignificant as a result of environmental change” (Senapathi et al., 2015). However, greater diversity of species will cause “functional redundancy where several species can contribute in a similar way to ecosystem function and loss of some dominant species can be ameliorated by the presence of other rare species” (Senapathi et al., 2015). Hence, it is important to keep the diversity of pollinator species in a balance condition. Native pollinators are extremely important because they maintain productive, diverse plant communities and help pollinate many of our agricultural crops.

This aim of this report is to identify the native versus exotic plant species that have visited by the most insect pollinators in the urban greenspace and discuss the management strategies that can protect and enhance the pollinator diversity with the help from people around the world.

Methods

Survey was conducted to identify the native versus exotic plant species that have visited by the most insect pollinators in the urban greenspace. 10 of the Australian native species of plants and insects and 10 of the exotic species of plants and insects were selected to be included in the survey. The resulting data were analyzed to determine the most common interactions and the impacts to the pollinator density. The study was conducted in the Melbourne Garden, Royal Botanical Garden Victoria. We selected 10 different sites according to 10 different species as each site is defined by a species of native or exotic flowering plants. The research was conducted between 1/9/2019 – 6/10/2019 in a day which have good weather. 68 applied ecology students of University of Melbourne who have underwent training on identifying native and exotic pollinator species. 10 observatories were chosen in the Royal Botanic Garden Victoria. Surveys was conducted using a measure window of a threshold of >2500mm2, ruler, recording sheet and a pen. At each observatory, observer would take down 3 set of the size of the flower in x and y within the measure window, the total number of flowers in the measure window and the area of the measure window. After that, the observers were required to do a 7 minutes of the observation on the measure plants of recording the presence and the absence of the pollinators landing on an open flower.

Considering the observations, p-value = 0.0002445 which is less than 0.5 consider a statically significant with the mean of 0.18328681 for the native flowerosity and mean of 0.08601541 for the exotic flowerosity. Which means that the distributions of native flowerosity is more than the exotic flowerosity. According to Ebeling, Klein, Schumacher, Weisser & Tscharntke (2008), the number of flowerosity will enhanced the pollinator insect species density. According from the result that we get, it shows that the number of flowerosity does not affect the number of pollinators species visit a plant. This may be caused by the climate change that affects these mutualistic interactions between the plants and pollinators. Climate change such as increases of rainfall will decrease the activity of the pollination by affect the floral resource availability and quality for pollinating insects and the patterns of pollen flow and pollination success for plants (Scaven & Rafferty, 2013). It also will affect the pollen degradation and nectar dilution (Lawson & Rands, 2019).

Plant-pollinator interactions

The differences in observed interactions among native versus exotic insects among native plants with the ratio of 3.410256 and the p-value of 0.00000000000000022 (p < 0.5) is statically significant. On the other hand, the differences in observed interactions among native versus exotic insects among exotic plants with the ratio of 1.572464 and p-value of 0.00003242 which is less statically significant than the differences of the interactions among pollinators and plants of native-native and exotic-native.

According to Figure 1, the plant-pollinator interactions of native-native are the most common interaction (38% of the visitations) and the exotic-native is the second most common interaction (31% of the visitations). There are no significant evidences that can support that exotic plants have negative or positive impact on the native pollinators (Stout & Tiedeken, 2017). This is the reason why exotic plants attracted native pollinators which is about the same as the native-native interactions. The reason why native-native interactions are the most common is because exotic plants may not provide enough nectar or pollen to the pollinators (Reel & Seiler, 2010).

Discussion

Pollinators provide numerous benefits including maintenance of biodiversity and the ecosystem stability (Potts et.al, 2016). However, pollinators are decreasing nowadays as they are facing multiple threats such as changes in land-use, climate change and invasive alien species. Land-use intensification primarily triggers losses in flower diversity, which could lead to nonrandom and resource mediated declines in certain pollinators (Weiner et al., 2014). The increases of temperature will reduce the floral resources (pollen and nectar) available for 17% – 50% of the pollinator species (Kjøhl, Nielsen & Stenseth, 2011). Invasive alien species pollen and nectar in pollinator diets may produce risks for pollinator health (Vanbergen et al., 2018). To maintain the diversity of pollinators or even increase the diversity of pollinators in the urban green space, here are some recommendations for the urban green space management to the City of Melbourne:

Plant native wildflowers

Native Wildflowers bloom at different times of the year which can provide food resources such as pollen and nectar to the pollinators throughout the year (Campbell, 2014). Many species of wildflowers are easy to grow and their variety of shapes and colors attract a multitude of different pollinators. This can ensure that the pollinators will not suffer from the pollen and nectar throughout the year. Native wildflowers are especially adapted to the climate, soil and conditions of a country, and suit the indigenous wildlife, without upsetting the balance of nature (Australia’s native vegetation framework, 2012). Wildflower plantings have been demonstrated as an effective practice for benefiting pollination (Feltham et al., 2015). This can be easily done by organizing a plant native wildflowers event which allow all the citizen in town to participate and get to know how pollinators affect the environment and how native plants help to enhance the diversity of the pollinators.

Provide nesting habitats

In order for the pollinators to survive and thrive, safe nesting habitats are required to provide the pollinators with shelter for protecting them from predators and allow pollinators to grow and develop by themselves (National Biodiversity Data Centre Series, 2016). All agroforestry plantings can provide excellent nesting opportunities for the pollinators (Agroforestry notes, 1996). Hollow bamboo sticks, drilled and untreated wood blocks, organic debris on the ground and dead vegetation or wood are the habitat for many beneficial native bees, wasps, flies and other pollinators (Campbell, 2014). By setting up this nesting habitat allow the pollinators to maintain and establish new nesting sites and remember, do not till the soil as this will disturb the habitat of the pollinators. Techniques for protecting and enhancing the pollinators nesting habitats will help to increase the diversity and abundance of the pollinators (Mace & Scott, 2008). With the help of citizen by just walking on the path that are provided in the park instead of stepping out of the path will definitely decrease the disturbance of the pollinators habitats. The management staff should have poster or sign that remind people of this act around the urban green space. So that all the citizens are participate in maintaining and increasing the diversity of pollinators to maintenance of biodiversity and the ecosystem stability.

Use pesticides wisely

Minimizing use of herbicides and pesticides is also essential to ensuring pollinators survival (Mace & Scott, 2008). Good nursery practices together with best management practices for herbicide and pesticide use can help to reduce the unwanted side effects of pesticides and provide a refuge for native pollinators (Mace & Scott, 2008). Whenever feasible, consider non-pesticide solutions first. If the pest level has reached an economic threshold and pesticides must be used, best management practices can help minimize their risk to pollinators (Mace & Scott, 2008). When pesticides are used, application should occur during early morning, late afternoon, or at night, when pollinator activity is low because this can limit the pesticide use that have impacts of the pollinators (Mace & Scott, 2008).

The diverse community of pollinators will increase by providing pollen and nectar sources, nesting sites and protection from pesticides (Mace & Scott, 2008). With the solution of increasing the diversity of native flower species which will help to provide pollen and nectar sources that have no risks to the pollinators. Moreover, providing nesting habitats as the shelters to the pollinators will help to protect the pollinators from the predators and also climate change. The another solution is to have protection from pesticides since pesticides have negative impacts to the pollinators by minimizing the use of pesticides to ensure the survival of the pollinators.

Bibliography

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Do you know choosing to eat few animals or no animals at all or even their products don’t make a difference neither for the animal kingdom nor for the world? Does being a vegetarian help or contribute to the animal world? While others say that it’s a supply and demand issue meaning that, letting domestic animals into the wild thus, less demand would bring about less supply, the others insist that cutting back on meat consumption wouldn’t make a global impact on animals given the fact that so many unprivileged homes depend on animal protein.

To begin with, many arguments are brought up that eating of factory meat tend to cause animal suffering than eating industrialized vegetable farming. That animals have to undergo severe pain from when they are born and separated from their mothers to how they are isolated in dark room later on killed. With it seems we should rely majorly on vegetables. For us to eat meat from these animals, consider the amount of plant protein that is used to produce a pound of meat. How many animals die in this process to produce the vegetables? As DeGrazia D., (2002), nine kilograms of plant protein yields around 0.4 kilograms of beef while three kilograms of plant protein yield around 0.4 kilograms of pork. Along these lines, it is ethically critical that animals die in crop production, however this is important with the end goal for us to survive and is allowed in ideals of the way that the other option ‘eating plant cultivated meat’ brings about more results in animal suffering. As Cahoone L., (2009) argues that there is less animal suffering in a diet of plants and hunted meat than a strictly vegetarian diet. It would be difficult to distinguish which diet cause more harm to the animal world, but we do realize that animals are hurt in industrialized vegetable cultivating. For vegetarians who see that eating of meat causes animal suffering they should embark and start eating oysters as it is believed that they never endure any pain (Bobier C., 2019). Factory meat doesn’t cause harm more than eating a vegetarian diet. Farmers tend to kill animals such as the rodents, birds by setting up traps and spraying of pesticides to protect their crop yield which doesn’t sound right in the current context. Farmers do it intentionally by bringing the animals to existence and intentionally killing them (DeGrazia L., 2019:177). Finally, no diet is free from animal suffering, animals have to die for humans to eat vegetables, fruits or even meat.

Pursuing this further, animal world can be helped through different strategies that pose to have a significant impact than relying on excuses such as vegetarianism. As Piper K. (2019) states that corporate campaigns in organizations such as Humane league have had a high rate in concession with from an organization, they focus with a welfare campaign. Such as demanding restaurants that they should not buy chicken from farms that confine them in cages. They tend to follow them up protests that may last few months. She later stated that with the timeframe given, most of them end up with positive results. Passing on pamphlets and leaflets to individuals and conducting of surveys about vegetarianism doesn’t help the animal world, as more people will tend to give out false information just to please the researcher and that most people won’t change their diet just because of a leaflet (Piper K., 2019). For vegetarians to help the animal world, they should have welfare campaigns that bring concessions to the companies, or political change rather than basing their arguments more on vegetarianism.

Yet another reason as to why vegetarianism doesn’t help the animal world is that vegetarianism basically fills the social personality need and has little to do with helping the creature world. Social identity is how people tend to define themselves in terms of the groups the ought to feel or associate with (Nezlek J.B & Forestell C.A, 2020). The way that vegetarianism regularly emerges in social circumstances is significant in light of the fact that character isn’t made distinctly by oneself, but at the same time is also informed by the actions and perceptions of others or belonging to certain religious groups such as Seventh Day Adventists, Hindus Muslims and Buddhists (De, Backer, Charlotte (2019). Vegetarianism is mainly under several classes thus, not in the position to classify them as ambassadors of saving the animal world. The vegetarianism is under two classes; the vegetarian of choice and necessity. Where vegetarian of choice; you choose not to eat meat even though they are readily available while vegetarian of necessity are ones that choose not to eat meat because the are not readily available like for instance one can’t eat meat because they are expensive. Regarding understanding vegetarianism as a social personality, we recommend that vegetarianism is best idea of as a continuum (Forestell, C.A., Spaeth, A.M. Kane, S.A., 2012) whereby there are vegans that don’t consume all animal products, some consume fish, others consume eggs while others don’t use any animal related products such as leather. Thus, not minding much about the whole animal kingdom.

Also, another reason as to why vegetarianism doesn’t help the animal world is mainly based on a person’s reason of being vegetarian is mainly because of dietary issues rather than being one because of trying to protect the animal world. Most of the vegetarians have shifted to changing their diet to vegetarian because of medical conditions and due to their dietary choices, they are classified as vegetarians in the society thus, changing their social lives. Vegetarianism under this point hasn’t helped the animal world because there are people who have medical conditions and are advised my medical professionals to take a specific meat such as fish to gain some important nutrients. One has to think if these vegans or vegetarians have pets at home, are they fed meat or not? If not, then this would lead to trauma if not stress to the pet such as dogs. Thus, not fostering animal welfare. Some dietary is influenced by social groups such as churches, where for instance The Seventh day Adventist church, Muslims teach their members to have vegetarian diet based on their teachings but no reason is based on the fact that they should be vegans to protect the animal world and its welfare.

Lastly, vegans’ or vegetarians’ nutrition according to Leitzmann, C., (2014) has trends as they evolve from the past years to the future. In the past food was mainly plant-based and most of the religious groups still embrace this to this day. Prejudices in the past were that vegetarianism leads to malnutrition and with that, scientific evidence stated that being vegan reduces chances of contracting contemporary diseases. He later stated that the reasons why this trend has been increasing over the years are they want to prevent diseases, securing a livable future for one’s generation to come and lastly, they don’t want climate change or animals to suffer. Most of the vegetarians think this one way of maintaining animal welfare whereby there is no direct link of being under this vegan nutrition to help the animal world, mainly it’s about maintaining their health.

To sum it all up, there are no ways that vegetarianism help the animal world as most of them are either to fit in a certain society, religion, dietary issues or preventing themselves from contemporary diseases. Most of these actions involve killing of other animals and using of pesticides intentionally to protect your crop fields. There are no adequate ways that I know off that aims to promote animal welfare, for instance, a vegan not feeding their pets meat. With this it causes emotional discomfort and leading to trauma at some point. In my own opinion vegetarianism isn’t cruelty-free as some of the products tend to harm other animals. For instance, some vegans classify honey as vegetarian product but they don’t mind that the bees are the ones who produce thus with this it might to extinction. In production of this crops, many habitats and animals are destroyed and killed. Poison is used in the maintenance of these produce in stores and granaries. There are many other ways to help the animal world such as having a natural grazing whereby the animals can wander freely without being put in cages, thus conservational grazing with this it tends to promote the animal welfare. As opposed to being allured by admonishments to eat more items produced using soya, maize and grains that are grown industrially, we should be empowering reasonable types of conservation grazing and dependent on conventional rotational frameworks for dairy and meat production (The guardian, 2018).

Works Cited

1. Bobier, Christopher (2019). Should Moral Vegetarians Avoid Eating Vegetables? Food Ethics (2020) 5:1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s41055-019-00062-4
2. Cahoone, Lawrence. (2009). Hunting as a moral good. Environmental Values 18: 67–89
3. DeGrazia, David. (2002). Animal rights: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———. 2009. Moral Vegetarianism from a very broad basis. Journal of Moral Philosophy 6 (2): 143–165.
4. De, Backer, Charlotte (2019). To Eat or Not to Eat Meat: How Vegetarian Dietary Choices Influence Our Social Lives. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
5. Forestell, C.A., Spaeth, A.M. Kane, S.A. (2012). To eat or not to eat red meat. A closer look at the relationship between restrained eating and vegetarianism in college females Appetite, 58, pp. 319-325
6. Leitzmann, C. (2014). “Vegetarian nutrition: past, present, future.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 100, no. 1, 2014, pp 496-502.
7. Nezlek, John and Forestell, Catherine. (2020) “Vegetarianism as a social identity.” Current Opinion in Food Science, vol. 33, 2020, pp. 45-51.
8. Piper, Kelsey. (2019). “Want to help animals? Focus on corporate decisions, not people’s plates.” Vox, Jan 29. Available at: https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2018/10/31/18026418/vegan-vegetarian-animal-welfare-corporate-advocacy
9. The Guardian (2018). If you want to save the world, veganism isn’t the answer. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/aug/25/veganism-intensively-farmed-meat-dairy-soya-maize

Global warming is a great threat to our entire planet and is a condition that was created by man as far back as the Industrialization Era. Unless we begin to make changes to benefit our environment and the Earth now, there will be devastating consequences later.

Humans are the most dangerous animals on the planet. Who else can destroy our oceans and land? Who else can cause pollution and destroy our forests? Who else can use other animals for experiments and cause pain and suffering? Who else can exploit other organisms and cause global warming and affect climate change? Humans. We are the most intelligent species on the planet yet we are destroying Earth, OUR Earth- OUR HOME. This is the place where we live and breathe. This is our home yet every day all over the world people are doing things that are contributing to global destruction. While there is a global awareness of this problem, not enough change is taking place in order to even begin to reverse the damage that humans are causing. In order to save our Earth on the community level there are programs like recycling, conservation, using energy-saving technologies, cleaning up the environment, cleaning the oceans, etc. On a widespread level, more needs to be done— much more.

Global warming is increasing and is a serious threat to the surface air temperatures that show up in the climate record. The term global warming is usually attributed to human activities, such as increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases from automobiles and industrial processes (Ahrens, G6). Observations on and above the Earth’s surface reveal that global warming has actually been around at least, since the time of the Industrial Revolution. During the 1800s when people began to move into the cities, the development and production of new and innovative products started off greenhouse gas emissions, and every year since then the temperature of the Earth has risen. Since the Industrial Revolution, the global annual temperature has increased in total by a little more than 1 degree Celsius, or about 2 degrees Fahrenheit, caused by human activity, primarily the burning of fossil fuels that is caused by humans. Between 1880—the year that accurate record keeping began—and 1980, the temperature has risen on average by 0.07 degrees Celsius (0.13 degrees Fahrenheit) every 10 years. Since 1981, however, the rate of increase has more than doubled. For the last 40 years, we’ve seen the global annual temperature rise by 0.18 degrees Celsius, or 0.32 degrees Fahrenheit, per decade (MacMillan and Turrentine, 2021). Global warming is not just the warming of the Earth’s surface- it is the steady warming of the atmosphere and the oceans, as well. Nowhere is exempt. The term ‘greenhouse effect’ came from the comparison of when the Earth’s atmosphere traps heat making the surface air temperature much warmer than it should be; with the excess of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the outgoing heat, and energy of the Earth is what is trapped. According to Ahrens, carbon dioxide is entering the atmosphere at a greater rate than it is being removed besides gases like methane, nitrous oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons. When they become trapped, the destruction of the environment occurs. We have all heard stories of the glaciers melting and Polar bears being stranded and the Earth will undergo a series of many other unfortunate changes if global warming continues: ocean levels and temperature will rise, more heatwaves will form, warm winters will occur, and precipitation will worsen, just to name a few. In the future, some species may even become extinct. Not only would oceans be affected in this way, but “rising ocean temperatures will cause an increase in evaporation rates decrease in condensation rates, and roughly double the temperature feedback on the climate system” (Ahrens, 92). Humidity and vapor will undergo changes for the worst and “an increase in global cloudiness may offset some of the global warmings depending on which clouds are present and which are more reflective and cooling” (Ahrens 92). If we do not lower our emissions within the next 7-17 years, the death toll will also rise and more people than ever could be living on the poverty line. People’s health can also suffer as a response to global warming. According to the Annals of Internal Medicine, potential effects of climate change on human health include higher rates of respiratory and heat-related illnesses, increased prevalence of vector-borne and waterborne diseases, food and water insecurity, and malnutrition. People who are elderly and sick or poor are especially vulnerable to these potential consequences.

No one can deny that global warming exists (or can they?) but there are several beliefs that people have when it comes to this debate: 1. Global warming is occurring naturally; 2. Humans are the cause of global warming; 3. Some people believe global warming is nonexistent. With all of the scientific data available, it is not clear why anyone would not believe global warming is happening. Groups attempting to instill seeds of doubt, though, seem like a reach when real, scientific facts exist. The debate over global warming and climate change is a popular one concerning if there is one, how it started, who is at fault, what the remedies are, and if those remedies should even be put into motion. No particular scientific group supposedly denies any of this but there are organizations worldwide that fall into the category of being noncommittal and do not see global warming nearly as seriously as others. Studies have found wide political divides in views of the potential for devastation to the Earth’s ecosystems and what might be done to address any climate impacts. When it comes to party divides, the biggest gaps in climate policy and climate science are between those at the ends of the political spectrum. (The Politics of Climate, 2021). It is certainly interesting that politics plays a role in this topic because no matter how you look at it, It is. Is. Happening. Our Earth is warming. Earth-orbiting satellites and other technological advances have enabled scientists to see the big picture, collecting many different types of information about our planet and its climate on a global scale. This body of data, collected over many years, reveals the signals of a changing climate (Global Climate Change, 2021).

I believe that global warming exists and it is at the hands of humans. Scientific data proves it to be so- why wouldn’t I believe it? These men and women who are researchers do this for a living. I believe their facts are real. However, there are other sides. The first involves people who think this is part of what the Earth does, and we should not be naming it; they believe that science and instruments are unreliable; last but not least some believe that global warming is a conspiracy theory. Another group involves Republicans and Democrats. Originally the debate was about whether climate change was occurring at all. Now it more relates to the cause and continuation of it. Nearly half of all United States adults say there is climate change due to human activity and a similar share says either that the Earth’s warming stems from natural causes or that there is no evidence of warming at all (Politics of Climate, 2021). The debate, however, has turned political. Democrats tend to support actions they believe can and will reduce greenhouse gases and emissions, whereas Republicans reject actions due to the fact that they are not tried and true and tested, nor do they see it as a crisis. The correlation between the two groups debating is that global warming is a fact that can be mostly agreed on. The average global surface temperature has been rising; gases like CO2 have increased and so on. Republicans just do not believe in developing and accepting policies and efforts to assist in the global warming effects.

Ramifications of global warming include the following:

1. Loss of snow cover and ice- snow and ice can easily change to water and this will not only create a devastating impact on cold weather wildlife but can cause erosion and flooding and sea levels, even ocean currents. It is literally like a snowball effect- not just one thing changes- many things will. Currently, in the Arctic, the ice is melting and what is left is thin and unstable Orcas are now able to travel farther north due to the melting ice- ice that is no longer there. This has consequences of course. It can affect the food chain and the ecosystem and the human race.
2. Increasing average temperatures- it is not nicer to have hotter summers and warmer winters- is a clear indication that something is very wrong. Extreme weather events can and will continue as well like having more frequent and worse storms and hurricanes than usual.
3. Our farms and agriculture will disappear- plants and crops grow poorly during too many changes and the imbalance will cause these crops to perhaps fully disappear. Currently in Brazil, a country known for its green, lush land, global warming is taking hold. Many parts of this country are turning into a desert, or ‘desertification’. There are warmer temperatures, less rain, poor soil, no crops can grow, livestock is dying and farmers are now living in poverty.
4. Hurricane formations can change and become more frequent, and lightning strikes could become more prevalent creating stronger and more dangerous weather events.
5. High levels of greenhouse gases could stay and last in the atmosphere for prolonged periods causing sea levels to rise and ocean water to become warmer.
6. The effects of global warming on the Earth’s ecosystems are expected to be profound and widespread. This could contribute to the disappearance of over one-half of the Earth’s plants and one-third of animals from their current range by 2080 (Bradford and Pappas, 2017).

Unless changes are made, the Earth as we know it will cease to exist.

There are ways to take part and for people to have a voice when it comes to climate change mitigation. Finding ways to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases is of the utmost priority. Some strategies include making buildings more energy efficient, adopting renewable energy sources like solar and wind, and water; helping cities develop more sustainable transportation like bus rapid transit, using electric vehicles and bicycles and biofuels, and promoting more sustainable uses for land and forests. People can reuse and recycle often, use energy-saving appliances in the home, be educated about the topic of global warming and what it means for them and their kids and grandkids- and become a volunteer. To this date, there is no real evidence or facts to support any drawbacks to pursuing any prescriptions in regard to global warming except that it will take time. But if plans are in place and are enacted the planet may be on the right track. “It’s a stretch,” is the general consensus on many of the sites I visited. They provided some positive outcomes such as – If the ice were to melt more passageways would open for the passage of ships; warmer winters mean not as many people would die from the cold; vegetation would flourish. Of course, the negative impacts of global warming completely overshadow any of these weak positive outcomes. Any ‘positive’ outcomes even presented were for the immediate here and now- the real devastation due to global warming would occur after we are all gone.

Global warming is a problem that affects the entire planet. As we are seeing the effects of it today, we know that the effects will be worse in 5, 10, or 50 years unless more is done to control the burning of fossil fuels and decrease these greenhouse gases that are wreaking havoc on our planet. Many changes are being developed and made today and it is a start.

Background

Botswana is inhabited by approximately 130,451 wild African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) (Chase et al., 2016) playing significant role in the country’s ecology and wildlife tourism industry (Lamarque et al, 2009; DWNP 2012). However, the range of these elephants have increased significantly in Botswana as they roam around for water; hence they are breaching the protected areas and coming in contact with the human territory (Bale, 2019). Encounter with elephants have caused several deaths and serious injuries each year (Mckenzie et al., 2019). Botswana’s Government claim 8000 elephant-human conflict have occurred with 45 people being killed recently (eNCA, 2019). Moreover, elephants have also affected the livelihood of farmers raiding crops and destroying their farms (eNCA, 2019; Solly, 2019).As a result, recently Botswana government has come to a decision of lifting the 5-year prohibition on elephant hunting (Solly, 2019).

This decision was taken by the new government of Dr Mokgweetsi Masisi overturning the ban imposed by previous government of Ian Khama in 2014 (de Greef and Specia, 2019). This has outraged the conservationists as well as international community, whereas positive feedback of the affected locals was seen (Solly, 2019). Botswana’s low impact tourism was a conservation success story which inspired many countries (Magole and Mogle, 2011); but now the International community has threatened the government that it would boycott Botswana’s tourism if the ban lifting decision is not cancelled (Travel Weekly, 2019). Tourism Operators have also reacted negatively regarding this decision and announced it would destroy the ecotourism and conservation reputation of the country which took 20 years to build up (Travel weekly, 2019). The government stated that hunting would resume in a controlled and ethical way (Frace24, 2019) with only 400 hunting license granted on an annual basis (Travel Weekly, 2019). The government stated that Community based organizations and trusts would be provided with over 50% quota for hunting and it will be operated in only some designated areas (Travel Weekly, 2019).

The following analysis aims to give an overview of the stakeholders so as to help in understanding various complexities that will affect the decision whether the government’s decision to lift ban on elephant hunting remains intact or not.

Creative alternatives and possible win/win solutions

Affected people

• supporting decision of government to lift ban on elephant hunting
• elephants are their enemies threatening their life and livelihood
• Live a secure life
• Maintain their livelihood
• Farming without fear of animals destroying their farm and raiding crops
• Culling the elephant to reduce its number which will reduce the conflict
• Building the electric fencing in their area to stop the animals from entering their area
• Getting other employment opportunities to decrease their reliance on agriculture for their livelihood
• Getting education on measures to implement during elephant-human encounter

Botswana Government

• To protect rights of Botswana citizens to live their life fearlessly
• safety of the Botswana citizen (France24, 2019)
• Reducing the human- wildlife conflict incidents (France24, 2019)
• trophy hunting would provide revenue which would help to fund conservation programmes (Los Angeles Times, 2019) and compensate affected local community (Solly, 2019)
• To increase number of rural voters (de Greef and Specia, 2019) Controlled and ethical hunting to reduce number of elephants such that the number of elephant doesn’t reach too low, without international community protesting it
• Declare a buffer area around the elephant habitat and building electric fencing around the area to stop elephants from conflicting with humans
• Reinstating the ban and involving people in affected area in eco- tourism to solve their financial problems
• Getting fund from international community to compensate affected people and educating them on measures to take during a direct encounter in return of the agreement to ban the hunting

Conservationists

• To protest against decision of government to lift ban on elephant hunting
• Hunting is an out-dated Practice (Burke, 2019)
• protecting rights of elephants to live their life
• hunting would result in the increment of the illegal poaching activities to supply ivory trade with elephant tusks (France24, 2019) Reinstating of the ban on elephant hunting and government finding other solutions like electric fencing to prevent conflict
• setting standard elephant population below which it may not be hunted
• to walk away from negotiation and keep protesting

International community

• To go against Botswana government’s decision to lift ban on elephant hunting
• To protect elephant population residing in Botswana government taking back the decision to lift ban
• Walking away from negotiation and boycotting Botswana from tourism
• Providing funds to the Botswana government to compensate affected communities and educating the communities on measures to take during encounter with elephant so Elephant • Live their life freely • having a habitat with a larger range
• To be provided with ample amount of food and water resources required for them to survive

Reinstall ban on elephant hunting

• Educating affected public on measures to take during encounter with elephant
• Involving affected people in ecotourism so that people would perceive them as a friend rather than an enemy

Tourism Operator

• Lifting ban on hunting is senseless (Reinstein, 2019)
• International community threatened Botswana to boycott its tourism (Solly, 2019)
• it affects ecotourism reputation of Botswana which would jeopardize livelihood of tourism operators government reinstating hunting ban
• Government provide them other alternatives for their livelihood
• Government make agreement with international community to keep tourism in Botswana unaffected

Media

• To get an interesting headline for their news channel
• to increase value and popularity of their channel conflict lasting longer so that the agreement gets delayed
• provide certain amount to channel so they focus on broadcasting educational content for measures to take during encounter

References

1. Bale, R. (2019). Botswana lifts ban on elephant hunting. [online] Nationalgeographic.com. Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/05/botswana-lifts-ban-on-elephant-hunting/ [Accessed 18 Aug. 2019].
2. Burke, J. (2019). Botswana condemned for lifting ban on hunting elephants. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/23/botswana-lifts-ban-on-hunting-elephants [Accessed 18 Aug. 2019].
3. Chase, M., S. Schlossberg, C. Griffin, P. Bouche, S. Djene, P. Elkan, S. Ferrreira, et al. 2016. Continent-wide survey reveals massive decline in African savannah elephants. PeerJ 4: 2354
4. de Greef, K. and Specia, M., 2019, Botswana Ends Ban on Elephant Hunting. [online] The Newyork Times. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/23/world/africa/botswana-elephant-hunting.html [Accessed 17 Aug. 2019].
5. DWNP (Department of Wildlife and National Parks). 2012. Aerial census of animals in Botswana. Gabarone: Botswana.
6. France 24. (2019). Outrage after Botswana lifts ban on elephant hunting. [online] Available at: https://www.france24.com/en/20190523-botswana-lifts-ban-elephant-hunting-ivory-president-Mokgweeti-Masisi [Accessed 17 Aug. 2019].
7. Lamarque, F., J. Anderson, R. Fergusson, M. Lagrange, Y. Osei-Owusu, and L. Bakker. 2009. Human–wildlife conflict in Africa: causes, consequences and management strategies. FAO Forestry Paper 157.http://www.fao. org/docrep/012/i1048e/i1048e00.pdf. Accessed on June 22, 2015.
8. Los Angeles Times. (2019). Botswana lifts ban on elephant hunting, raising poaching fears. [online] Available at: https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-botswana-elephants-hunting-20190523-story.html [Accessed 18 Aug. 2019].
9. Magole, L.I. and Magole, L., 2011. Revisiting Botswana’s high-value, low-volume tourism. Tourism Analysis, 16(2), pp.203-210.
10. McKenzie, D., Formanek, I. and Hollingsworth, J. (2019). Botswana lifts ban on elephant hunting. [online] CNN. Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/2019/05/23/africa/botswana-elephant-intl/index.html [Accessed 17 Aug. 2019].
11. Reinstein, D. (2019). Will lifting of hunting ban be a self-inflicted wound for Botswana?: Travel Weekly. [online] Travel Weekly. Available at: https://www.travelweekly.com/Middle-East-Africa-Travel/Insights/Will-lifting-of-hunting-ban-be-a-self-inflicted-wound-for-Botswana [Accessed 18 Aug. 2019].
12. Solly, M. (2019). Five Things to Know About Botswana’s Decision to Lift Ban on Hunting Elephants. [online] Smithsonian. Available at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/five-things-know-about-botswanas-decision-lift-ban-hunting-elephants-180972281/ [Accessed 18 Aug. 2019].
13. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/05/botswana-lifts-ban-on-elephant-hunting/
14. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/23/botswana-lifts-ban-on-hunting-elephants
15. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/23/world/africa/botswana-elephant-hunting.html
16. https://www.france24.com/en/20190523-botswana-lifts-ban-elephant-hunting-ivory-president-Mokgweeti-Masisi
17. https://www.france24.com/en/20190523-botswana-lifts-ban-elephant-hunting-ivory-president-Mokgweeti-Masisi
18. https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-botswana-elephants-hunting-20190523-story.html
19. https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-botswana-elephants-hunting-20190523-story.html
20. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/05/23/africa/botswana-elephant-intl/index.html
21. https://www.travelweekly.com/Middle-East-Africa-Travel/Insights/Will-lifting-of-hunting-ban-be-a-self-inflicted-wound-for-Botswana
22. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/five-things-know-about-botswanas-decision-lift-ban-hunting-elephants-180972281/

Conservation, noun, con·ser·va·tionˌkän(t)-sər-ˈvā-shən : a careful preservation and protection of something, especially : planned management of a natural resource to prevent exploitation, destruction, or neglect (Merriam-Webster). This definition embodies the wildlife conservation efforts of America. When many people think of wildlife conservation, it does not immediately come to mind how much money and efforts are needed to sustain wildlife conservation. Conservation efforts are largely funded by hunters and most recently, hunter numbers have been on the decline for the past 20 or so years. Our 26th president, Theodore Roosevelt, went great lengths to combine hunting and conservation which resulted in scientific game management and conservation (Dray). Roosevelt was a long-time sportsman hunter, and, in his lifetime, he first-hand experienced the decimation of the American Bison along with the eradication of Elk, bighorn sheep, deer, and other game species (US NPS). This is what ultimately led Roosevelt to “establish a precedent at an important time in our nation’s history” states the NPS. Roosevelt truly rallied for the conservation of America’s wildlife, habitats, and natural monuments.

Roosevelt was an avid hunter himself, conquering game big and small, from a 1,200 pound grizzly bear to numerous quantities of birds. After publishing his book Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, Roosevelt formed a connection with the then editor of Forest and Stream, George Bird Grinnell (Dray). The pair had an idea of founding the 1887 Boone and Crockett Club which main purposes was to bring together hunter-naturalists, promote the sport, create an exchange of information in regards to game and where it could be found, and “to spread the ideals of ethical hunting and an interest in natural science and advocate for wildlife preservation and related legislation,” (Dray). At this time in history there was a plethora of sportsmen’s associations that shared these common purposes. As time went on, species continued to dwindle, and large game continued to disappear. Grinnell states “it became apparent that large game was disappearing so rapidly that unless measures were taken…there was danger many specimens would be exterminated.” Grinnell continues to state this is what pushed the club to grow, “to be a club more interested in conservation than killing.”

With Teddy Roosevelt taking office in 1901, he took this turbulence to create the United States Forest Service, establish 150 national forests, 5 national parks, numerous preserves and monuments. Largely, protecting approximately 230 million acres of public land. But why is all of this so important? Teddy saw the importance of the natural world around us and a need to protect the animals, the land, the plants, and wonderful national monuments. With licenses already in existence Roosevelt helped spread the practice that licensing fees would become a source of revenue also. He knew that hunters were a great proponent of protecting all wildlife and recreation areas.

If you look at the numbers on what hunters really bring to the table, it is quite surprising. The following numbers are supplied by the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation: “Through state licenses and fees, hunters pay $796 million a year for conservation programs…Through donations to groups like RMEF, hunters graciously add $440 million a year to conservation efforts…In 1937, hunters actually requested an 11% tax on guns, ammo, bows and arrows to help fund conservation…That tax generates $371 million a year for conservation. So far, the tax has raised more than $8 billion for wildlife conservation. All-together, hunters pay more than $1.6 billion a year for conservation programs.”

So, what does this mean? It means that wildlife agencies, both statewide and nationwide, rely heavily on funding supported by hunting sportsmen. “Money generated from license fees and excise taxes on guns, ammunition, and angling equipment provide about 60 percent of the funding for state wildlife agencies, which manage most of the wildlife in the U.S.” (Rott). The recent cause for concern is that the number of people hunting seems to continue to decrease each year, thus meaning, the monies directly available for conservation are also dwindling.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife services conducts a national survey every 5 years to asses how many adults are hunting. Per this survey, from 1991-2016 there has been a decrease of 2.6 million hunters. The current percentage of adults that hunt is about 5%, just half of what it was 50 years ago. The number of hunters is expected to get even smaller as baby boomers age out of the sport. Baby boomers make up the largest percentage of hunters and are expected to discontinue buying licenses within the next 15 years (Krebs). Nathan Rott, from National Public Radio, states the following: “A panel on sustaining America’s fish and wildlife resources recently warned: ‘Without a change in the way we finance fish and wildlife conservation, we can expect the list of federally threatened and endangered species to grow from nearly 1,600 species today to perhaps thousands more in the future.”

This is causing hunters and conservationists to rethink what can be done to increase funding and to regain traction to get people hunting again. Some are even questioning if there needs to be a plan in place to get canoers, hikers, bird watchers, and the like to begin contributing as well. If hunters and non-hunters can unite and ally together wildlife conservation can continue to stay strong.

According to the Pew Research Center, “nationally, 74 percent of Americans believe the country should ‘do whatever it takes to protect the environment.’” At the end of the day this isn’t adding up when it comes to contributing monies to conservation. Sure, there are plenty of non-profit groups that are contributing, and different states that are increasing their licensure fees for out of state residents, along with some other band aid attempts, but that won’t fix the problem at hand. The problem is that there are no new hunters, and recruiting new hunters takes time (Krebs)! According to the US F&W’s national survey from 2016, the ratio of hunters age 16 to 44 diminished from 71% in 1991 to 45%. Natalie Krebs suggests that to combat this that hunters dedicate time to mentoring and teaching a newbie, approximately 2 to 4 years specifically. Krebs also suggests that when recruiting another hunter, to pick someone that does not look like you. This might mean to recruit a person of color if you are Caucasian, or to recruit someone younger than you if you are older, maybe if you are a man that you recruit a woman. The people that are hunting are mostly the people that have grown up around hunting. The ones that are hunting have family members or close friends that hunt. Matt Dunfee, the director of special programs at the Wildlife Management Institute states the following: “Hipsters wants to hunt. But they don’t want to hunt the way a rural farm boy from Illinois wants to hunt. They don’t want to dress the same way, the don’t like focusing on antlers, they don’t like taking pictures of their animals. But they want local, sustainable, ecologically conscious meat. And within our efforts, there are few places to realize those values.”

In order to keep conservation alive, it is up to all of us to contribute. It is up to the current hunters to share their love of the sport with other non-hunters. If we do not restructure the way that the programs are currently funded or increase our hunter numbers, funding will continue to dwindle, and conservation could continue to take a huge hit. As Theodore Roosevelt once said, “We have fallen heirs to the most glorious heritage a people ever received, and each one must do his part if we wish to show that the nation is worthy of its good fortune.”

Works Cited

1. “Conservation.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, 29 Sept. 2019, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservation#synonyms.
2. Dray, Philip. “How Theodore Roosevelt Combined Hunting and Conservation.” Time, Time, 1 May 2018, time.com/5259995/theodore-roosevelt-portrait-conservation-hunting/.
3. Krebs, Natalie. “Why We’re Losing Hunters.” Outdoor Life, 19 Jan. 2018, www.outdoorlife.com/why-we-are-losing-hunters-and-how-to-fix-it/.
4. Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. “Hunting IS Conservation – Paid for by Hunters.” Elk Network, 16 Oct. 2018, elknetwork.com/hunting-conservation-paid-hunters/.
5. Rott, Nathan. “Decline In Hunters Threatens How U.S. Pays For Conservation.” NPR, NPR, 20 Mar. 2018, www.npr.org/2018/03/20/593001800/decline-in-hunters-threatens-how-u-s-pays-for-conservation.
6. “Theodore Roosevelt and Conservation.” National Parks Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 16 Nov. 2017, www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-and-conservation.htm.

Abstract

In the context of climate change, the conservation and management of tropical forests are the main priorities worldwide. Or climate change and anthropogenic pressures lead to changes in biodiversity and to the resilience of certain species in the face of extreme climatic and anthropogenic events. However, quantifying the resilience of species and their ecosystems is an important challenge for biodiversity conservationists and managers. The resilience of a species being the capacity of plants to persist or maintain their function in the face of disturbances, understanding the processes that determine the structure and dynamics of the population, the community and the entire forest is a challenge under the tropics. Meeting this great challenge requires a thorough knowledge of the functioning of individuals and species.

Measurement of functional diversity are often used to represent phenotypic differences across the spatial, temporal, taxonomic and size scales of tropical forests. This link between functional traits and plant demography is fundamental for many areas of plant ecology, including climate change, ecosystem services, conservation and genomic ecology of plants.

Background

Forests and trees importance to the health and prosperity of the planet is universally recognized. This prompted the integration of species and ecosystems conservation as a priority of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in its point 15 (FAO 2018). Tropical gallery forests ecosystems are one teeming with many resources over-exploited by the local community. Although they also play an important role in the species migration, landscape stability and genetic exchange between geographically isolated populations, several threats disrupt these ecological functions. The disruption of ecological functions affects the supply of ecosystem services, the physiology of species which can in turn be influenced by demography, phenotypic and genetic traits. In this sense it is widely recognized that natural and anthropogenic disturbances contribute to forest species extinction.

Nowadays, functional traits evaluation is often used to understand demographic factors and their implications for tropical trees diversity and dynamics (Poorter et al. 2008, Paine et al. 2011, Iida et al. 2014, Liu et al. 2016). Understanding the mechanism between functional traits and demography is essential to highlight the ecological variability of trees, ecosystem services,communities’ dynamics, populations, genotypic and phenotypic of trees (Garnier et al. 2018). Despite the great advances made in each of the zones to understand the tropical trees dynamics, the understanding of the link between plant function, demography and dynamics is limited.

In addition, compared to taxa prevalent in ecosystems, many rare and endangered speciesmay become genetically depressed and unsustainable due to the small size of their population (Bauert et al. 1998) and the habitats fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation exacerbates these problems and represents one of the greatest threats to the survival of many species in small and / or isolated populations (Yao et al. 2007). Forests disturbance contributes to species diversity erosion as well as the species life traits and the functions resulting (Marie Caroline et al. 2018). Studying the genetic and demographic variability of the rare plant population not only improves our understanding of population dynamics, adaptation and evolution, but also provides useful information for biological conservation (Schaal et al. 1991, Luan et al. 2006).

In the tropical zone several species are subject to variable use including pruning, debarking to meet the medicinal and economic requirements of the local population (Ouédraogo-Koné et al. 2006). These forms of exploitation affect the Eco-physiological process, the demography and the species performance (Gaoue et al. 2011, OG et al. 2013). Khaya grandifoliola, one of commonly species found along galleries forest, is in danger of extinction due to anthropogenic pressures on its habitat and the forms of use it undergoes. For this fact, understanding the genetic, demographic and populations functional traits is extremely important in the evolutionary species adaptation. The evaluation of how anthropogenic pressures and ecological conditions can drive the demography, morphological and genetic traits of tropical threatened species remain a crucial research question in population ecology.

Research Objectives

The main objective of the study is to evaluate the impact of anthropogenic pressures on habitat and forms of use on the functional traits and demography of Khaya grandifoliola populations in connection with climate change in Benin.

Specifically, it is to:

• OS1: Evaluate the impact of Khaya grandifoliola adaptation strategies in face of anthropogenic pressures follow the rainfall gradient;
• OS2: Assess the impact of anthropogenic pressures on the genetic variability of Khaya grandifoliola resilience along an ecological gradient;
• OS3: Evaluate the impact of anthropogenic pressures and climatic variability on the demography of Khaya grandifoliola;
• OS4: Model the distribution of Khaya grandifoliola in the context of climate change;

Scientific Hypotheses

• H1: Khaya grandifoliola adaptation strategies vary in relation to anthropogenic pressures follow the rainfall gradient.
• H2: There are morphological and genetic variabilities in Khaya grandifoliola from a climatic zone to another in Benin.
• H3: Quantity of Khaya grandifoliola ‘s survival and growth are corelated with anthropogenic pressures and global change.
• H4: Ecological parameters (soil, climate) of Khaya grandifoliola stands vary according to climatic zones.

Material and method

This study will be conducted in West Africa with a focus on two ecological regions of Benin (6- 12 ° 50 N and 1-3 ° 40 E). The Sudanian zone (9 ° 30’-12 N) and the Sudan-Guinean zone (7 ° 30’ -9 ° 30 ’N). The Sudanian region is dominated by woodland and savannahs on ferruginous soils. Its rainfall is unimodal with an average of 1000 mm and a variant temperature between 24 and 31°C. The Sudano-Guinean region is a transition zone with such a unimodal rainfall regime and whose annual averages vary between 1100 and 1300 mm. The temperature in this region ranges from 25°C to 29°C (Adomou 2005).

Species studied

Khaya grandifoliola is a species of the family Meliaceae which extends from Guinea to Sudan and Uganda. It is on the IUCN Red List as a vulnerable species due to the loss and degradation of its habitat, as well as its selective culling. Like other Khaya spp., Stands have been depleted in many areas following centuries of commercial and traditional use. K. grandifoliola occurs in semi-deciduous forest, especially of the dry type, and in the savannah, but in this case generally along streams. It is present in lowland forests, especially gallery forests. It prefers moist but well-drained soils and is common in places on the alluvial soils of the valleys. It is used as timber and traditionally as fuelwood and for the production of charcoal. It is widely used in traditional medicine throughout its range and is pruned by livestock farmers in the dry season for livestock. It is a species that multiplies by seed, but these seeds are often already prey to insects when they are still on the tree; a selection of intact seeds must therefore be made before sowing. This slows the natural spread of the species.

Methodology

SO1: One plot of 1 ha will be established in each population. Each plot will be installed in the direction of the river and according to the width of the gallery forest to remain in the physiognomic uniformity of the gallery forest. The diameter of K. grandifoliola will be measured for all individuals of Dbh ≥ 2 cm. the adaptation of K. grandifoliola populations will be tested using anthropogenic factors in forests (demography, proximity of fields, logging, transhumance, proximity to roads) according to two ecological regions.

SO2: In each plot of 1ha, the morphological differences (leaf, fruit, seed and leaf area density of wood) will be collected. genetics analysis will be do at laboratory of K. grandifoliola will be evaluated according to the degrees of anthropization (low, medium, strong) of the forests in the two ecological zones.

0S3: In each population, we will be established 10 quadrats of 100 m² each within 1 ha. In each quadrat, we monitored all K.grandifoliola individuals with dbh ≤ 2 cm for their density, survival and growth and for new individual recruitment. The presence or not of fire within the quadrats will be noted at each census. the survival and growth of K. grandifoliola populations will be tested according to the degrees of pressure along the ecological gradient.

0S4: The geographical coordinates of K. grandifoliola will be automatically recorded. Also, existing data from the West Africa will be extracted from the global Biodiversity Information Facility online (http://www.gbif.org). Current and future climate data will be uploaded from the WorldClim database (http://www.worldclim.org) to predict favourable conditions for K. grandifoliola. The maximum entropy approach (Maxent) one of the most powerful modelling approaches will be used to model suitable habitat for this species (Phillips and Anderson 2006).

Expected results

1. Khaya grandifoliola’s adaptation strategies will be evaluate under anthropogenic pressures follow the rainfall gradient;
2. Morphological variation will be studied by the means of morphometric and Genetic variability of Khaya grandifoliola along an ecological gradient will be assesses under anthropogenic pressures;
3. Demography of Khaya grandifoliola will be described and analyzed according to nthropogenic pressures across the climatic gradient.
4. Ecological data will be assessed through distribution and mapping of the species in the country, habitats characterization (climatic and edaphic conditions) and relative abundance determination.

References

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Definition of Nature in Western Perspective and Islamic Perspective

Nature in Cambridge Dictionary is defined all the animals, plants, rocks, etc. in the world and all the features, forces, and processes that happen or exist independently of people, such as the weather, the sea, mountains, the production of young animals or plants, and growth. Generally, nature defines all the creatures in this world that processes system in its unit. On Saturday, October 22, in the year 4004 BC at six o’clock in the evening God created heaven and earth, and in the days that followed, He created plants, animals, and human beings. This was the opinion of Archbishop Ussher, memorable seventeenth-century Irish church historian . The Islamic view of nature has its roots in the Quran, the very word of God and the basis of Islam. The following passages from the Quran illustrate the relationship between nature and man and how this relationship inspires Muslim scholars to study natural phenomenon, in order to understand God (Wersal, 1995). The following verses also show the way the Quran presents the whole universe: 464 Islamic view of nature and values We created not the heavens, the earth, and all between them, merely in (idle) sport; we created them not except for just ends. But most of them do not understand (Surah Al-Dukhan 44: 38-39, [Ali, 1989, p. 1289]). Nature is in fact so well-knit and works with such regularity that it is the prime miracle of God, cited untiringly in the Quran. No being short of God could have built this vast and stable edifice.

Relationship Between Man and Nature Based on Holy Quran

Nature is the physical world, that is, the world with which we come into contact through our senses. In the Holy Quran, there are more than 750 verses in reference to natural phenomena. In the most of these verses, the study of the book creation and the meditation upon its contents has been recommended. As confirmed by many outstanding Islamic scholars, the Quran is not a book of natural science, but rather one of guidance and enlightenment. The Quranic reference to the natural phenomena is meant to call man’s attention to the might and glory of the Wise Creator of the universe through quest and meditation upon natural beings and to courage man to be close to Him. From the Quranic viewpoint, natural phenomena are signs of the Almighty, and through the understanding of sins we attain cognition of the Lord of signs: “And one of the signs is that He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest in them, and He put between you love and compassion, most surely there are signs in this for a people who reflect. And one of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the diversity of your tongues and colour; most surely there are signs in this for the learned.” (30:21-22) . From the Quranic viewpoint, the cognition of nature is not a fruitful undertaking except when it helps us to understand the Wise Creator of this world and to attain close proximity to Him. Understanding nature can promote man’s insight towards the cognition of Allah and enables him to better utilize the gifts of Allah for his own eternal felicity and well-being. IMP

Nature is One of the Blessings of Allah to Human Being

Nature belongs to the group of beings because it was created by Allah s.w.t. The creation of the universe is for human convenience and pleasure. The Word of God s.w.t. which means: “Do you not see that Allah has provided you with all the contents of heaven and earth?” (Surah Luqman: 20). Humans are commanded to utilize and prosper the universe created by Allah s.w.t. Therefore, prospering the universe by taking care of it and utilizing it well is also a worship rewarded by Allah s.w.t. Allah s.w.t. said in the Holy Quran that means: “And He has no ally in His government and He created everything, so He sets for him a certain (certain) rule.” (Surah al-Furqan: 2). Every creation of Allah s.w.t. that has a purpose. God’s purpose in making the earth is to make man think of the creation of the earth as perfect and trust in His power. Besides for the convenience of human life in this world and to enable them to learn the knowledge of Allah s.w.t. In addition for humans to use the creation of Allah s.w.t. as a source of sustenance and science to build civilization. Next, to show the power, majesty and wisdom of Allah s.w.t. As a home for mankind and a place where they perform acts of worship to Allah s.w.t.

Nature’s Role in the Ecosystem of Life in the World

Nature plays an importance part in the ecosystem of living in this world. Many of the verses in the Quran mention the existence of order, coordination, and purpose in nature as evidences confirming the existence of the Wise, Omniscient Creator. These verses can be classified into several groups and one of them is that about the purpose itself. Verses that specify that the creation of the heavens and the earth was not in vain but had indeed some purpose behind it. For example; “And He it is Who has created heavens and the earth in truth…” (Surah 6:73). “What! Did you then think that We had created you in vain and that you shall not returned to Us?” (Surah 21:16) . As a human we are making legitimate uses of the means provided by God (for human beings). As in Quran said “And He it is who made the stars for you, that you might follow the right way hereby in the darkness of the land and the sea, truly We have made plain the signs for a people who know” (Surah 6:97) . On the other hand, nature provides many things in our life that help us to survive. Plus, in the current context, the term ecology is also associated with environmental discussions that refer to the interaction of living beings in the natural ecosystem . Humans really need fresh air in life. The Arab community of Mecca used to send their new born children to a quiet, clean and fresh environment. The Messenger of Allah himself is no exception where His Majesty grew up in the village of Bani Saad which has a much better air environment than the city of Mecca. As a result, he grew up as a healthy and well-adjusted teenager . In addition, the wind also plays a role in establishing a natural balance in the air by lowering the heat level and purifying the polluted air with foul odours .

Ways of Understanding Nature on Daily Basis

Nature are also living creature, created by Allah just like human. Therefore, we must try our best to understand nature as how we understand human being. Some Quranic verses tell us about the ways of understanding nature. We begin our discussion with glorious verse “ And God has brought you forth from the wombs of your mothers -you did know anything – and He gave you the hearing and the sight and the heart…” (Surah 16:78). It says that understanding is attained through eyes, ears and intellect. Here, from amongst external senses, only sight and hearing have been mentioned, because they are the main tools with the help of which one acquires knowledge of the physical world. However, one can deduce from the Holy Quran that the senses of taste, smell, and touch are also useful in giving us valuable information about the external world. Here I quote two verses: “So when they tasted of the tree, their shameful parts became manifest to them, and they both began to cover themselves with the leaves of the garden…” (Al-A’raf: 22). “And when the caravan had departed, their father said: Most surely I smell the scent of Yusuf, unless you pronounce me to be weak in judgement” (Surah 12:94). The word Fuw’ad has been interpreted as a means of perception and reasoning . Heart also been mentioned as means of understanding and perception.

Human Behaviour That Causes the Destruction of Nature

Man’s hands lately cause many destructions to our world. Disasters that plague the world today are the result of irresponsible human acts. The Word of Allah SWT means: ‘And whatever causes you to suffer from a distress (or disaster), it is because of what you do (from wrongdoing and sin) and (in that case) Allah forgives most of your sins, your sins.” (Surah As-Shuara; 30) . Allah Almighty created the earth with great rules. The flowing water benefits people, animals and plants. If the system is disrupted, then there will be natural disasters that affect the Sunnatullah’s ruling on this life. When natural resources are used in life, there are people who care and care about the ecosystem. Mountains, hills and forests are touted for profit . The chemical waste thrown into the river results in the loss of aquatic life. Environmental air is exposed to various forms of pollution. The word of Allah Almighty in the Quran means: ‘There has been a great deal of damage and disasters on land and at sea with what has been done by human hands,’ because Allah wants them to feel part of the reward of evils deeds they do it so that they may return (repent and repent).” (Surah ar-Rum: 41). The verse also states that all the damage done to land or to the oceans is due to human actions.

Man’s Ignorance Lead to Unsolved Problem

It is proved that humans are greedy just by looking at the nature nowadays. They belittle or ignore or even rebel against God, because they view the process of nature having self-sufficient causes, normally regarded by them as ultimate. They do not realize that the universe is a sign pointing to something “beyond” itself, something without which the universe, with all its natural causes, would be and could be nothing. The first problem is that people do not take the ordered universe to be a sign or a miracle at all, but rather look fir the interruption or suppression of natural processes in order to find miracles in God. Secondly, the far more importantly, the universe as a sign vanishes into nothing when “put aside” God, for beside God nothing at all has any inherent warrant to exist. That the earth supports people and does not sink, the heavens holding this immense space do not shred is itself miracle. Indeed, there could have been just empty nothingness instead of this plenitude of being, pure inanity instead of this richness of existence, but for the primordial act of God’s mercy. This plenitude of natural being is therefore itself “supernaturally” miraculous and the greatest of all miracles “for those who sincerely ponder and surrender their ears to listen.”. Therefore, it is very important that we make the best use of the resources available to enable future generations to live in a quality environment. However, the question arises as to how responsible we are in preserving this environment. Habits such as dumping garbage everywhere, dumping waste including chemicals directly into the sea and river, releasing factory smoke, filtering through forests, carrying out uncontrolled development activities, doing open burning and a variety of other activities will provide long-term effects on the environment such as rising temperatures, water source pollution, air pollution, floods, landslides, deforestation, flora and fauna extinction and unpredictable climatic changes that are affecting human life .

Man’s Responsibility to Protect Nature from Destroyed

“And (remember) when your Lord spoke to the Angels; Verily I will make you a caliph on the earth. They asked (the wisdom of the decree of the Lord): ‘Do You (our Lord) desire to make the earth a calamity and a shedding of blood? God said: Verily I know that which ye know not.”. Allah say: “And (remember) when your Lord spoke to the angels.” (Surah 2:30) . Based on this verse it clearly stated that it is our responsibility to take care on our nature’s condition otherwise who else going to make sure that our Earth’s health? Verse above telling that Allah create human to be the leader that lead the ecosystem in the earth and make sure it is functioning as it is. Allah has given us the trust to be the khalifah on the Earth, yet we are not working as He wanted to. This is the main reasons why natural disaster are occurring everywhere, because of Allah’s wrath. Supposedly, we as the trustee must do a good job looking after the Earth which is dying nowadays, results from human activity. Plus, Allah has guide us by giving us the Al-Quran as manual to follow. In the Quran, Allah told us on how to take good care on nature which has given us many benefits in all perspectives whether health, incomes, shelter, protection etc. Men and nature need each other in order both to survive so why don’t we keep and maintain these huge blessings from the Wise Creator.

Methods on How to Take Care of Nature

Based on the results of study by the scientists, Earth is in a critical state and continue dying day by day. By that, we must act fast to endure this crisis before it reached the climax, which is a nightmare and a big loss to our as humans. First and foremost, most simple step, that is Do not throw garbage on the street, or in the park or natural areas. This preliminary step can prevent the pollution to the river and as a result we can have a clean water source without spending any money to build a filter or whatsoever that cleans the water. Besides, plant native trees and shrubs. By planting trees and shrubs that are native to your area, you’ll be working with the local ecosystem rather than against it . Check with your local nursery, or with your state’s cooperative extension agency, to learn more about the particular varieties of native plants that might thrive on your property. Planting native plants helps with water conservation. Once established, little or no irrigation should be needed for most well-placed native plants. You’ll be increasing the local biodiversity, establishing native pollinator and songbird habitats in your yard . Consider your transportation options. Before you fly, consider the option of driving. If you can drive, consider carpooling, or taking a train or public transportation. If you’re in the habit of driving or flying, you may be using unnecessary fossil fuels and negatively impacting the environment. If you’re going to fly, try to fly non-stop, as this will use less fuel. Consider walking anyplace less than a mile away. Try biking to nearby destinations. Look into telecommuting into work occasionally to conserve energy .

Introduction

Renewable and non-renewable natural resources and ecosystem amenities are part of the real capital of the countries. They are natural wealth from which other forms of wealth are made. If these natural resources use ideal they contribute towards fiscal revenue, income, and poverty reduction. Sectors related to natural resources use provide jobs and are often the basis of livelihoods in poorer communities. Owing to this fundamental importance of natural resources, they must be managed sustainably. To manage these natural resources in sustainable ways the role of government was fundamental. Government plays an essential role in putting into place policies that ensure that resources contribute to the long-term economic development of nations, and not only to short-term revenue generation (OECD, 2011).

According to Uddin et al 2022, “Natural resources such air, land, water, wildlife, plants, and soil provide us with our basic needs i.e. food, energy, healthy and enjoyment. When these natural resources are in a proper way, they provide us with the benefits of reducing flooding, improving air quality, and supplying materials for the construction of shelter and improving food security.” As Uddin et al 2022 discussion “the pandemic’s impact on food security has been induced primarily by reducing income. The World Bank estimates that the global economy shrank by 5% in 2020, with the most significant burden borne by poor people. Although impacts varied along the value chains, food supply chains were disrupted by labor restrictions and falling demands.” (Uddin et al, 2022).

Africa is well capable of land and natural resources, including farmland, rangelands, forests, wildlife, minerals, and others, yet its people remain among the poorest in the world because most African natural resource-related policies failed to integrate environmental and social concerns, thereby exacerbating inequalities, poverty and environmental degradation (UNECA, 2017). Though Africa has been a ground for experimentation on land reforms since the colonial period, the changes in land use patterns have, in turn, resulted in increased soil erosion, land degradation, overgrazing, and deteriorating rangelands, deforestation, as well as land and resource-related conflicts (UNECA, 2017).

To have meaningful and sustainable development policies not only take into account economic concerns, but social and environmental concerns as well, furthermore, policies should embody holistic, broad-based, and participatory approaches, to promote ownership and engender action by all, and for all (UNECA, 2017).

According to Dejene A. 2003, “In Ethiopia’s natural resources, such as land, water, forests, and trees are the foundation of any economic development, food security and other basic necessities of its people but unwise uses of natural resources and policy neglect over a long period have created an increasing stress on our natural and environmental resources and decline in human welfare.” (Dejene A, 2003). Understanding the dynamics associated with different types of land rights is crucial to any land reform efforts, particularly in identifying the most suitable types of reform processes for the undertaken natural resource conservation activities [4]. In many developing countries including Ethiopia, land has been measured as an important economic and social asset where the status and regard of people are determined also land is one form of property that is a subject of ownership or another form of use rights determine by policy (UNECA, 2017).

Materials and Methods

The methodology used for this work involves a review of significant reliable journals and research papers on the benefits of the optimum use of natural resources. Secondary data sources such as published and unpublished articles, different written materials, such as the MSC thesis, developmental research, and educational documents were used to write this review.

Discussion

The Benefits of Optimum Use of Water Resources

Water resource utilization benefits refer to the economic and social benefits that accrue from using unit water resources [10,11] and reflect the input-output relationship of those resources [12,13]. Improvements in AWUE mean greater economic output from fewer water resources and less pollution to the water environment through increased economic growth [14,15]. Improving AWUE helps to increase agricultural economic benefits and use water resources more effectively, thereby reducing pollution to the water environment by agricultural production. AWUE is an important topic in academic research and a practical problem that should concern many government departments and social organizations. Analyzing the spatial differences between different cities and regions as well as the factors affecting AWUE will provide a reference for the efficient management of agricultural water resources and the formulation and implementation of appropriate management policies.

The Benefits of Optimum use of Forest Resources

Forests are environmental goods that provide many other goods and services to human beings and natural systems, such as wood, food, feed, fiber, and aesthetic value and regulate the hydrologically and carbon dioxide cycle (Zerga, 2015). Different benefits obtained from the optimum uses of forests are discussed in different research and articles listed below.

Forests provide multiple benefits to us. They contribute shade, block the wind, prevent soil erosion attract birds, and make the air clean. Forest clean water and make our surroundings more beautiful with their greenery.

In the winter, we look for ways to avoid the cold wind from bellowing, and in summer, we enjoy the shade under the trees. The shade from the foliage of leaves from the forest protects the ground rays of the sun.

The Benefits of Optimum Use of Wildlife

Now a day in Ethiopia, the economic benefit of wildlife is focused on animal use as a source of food and income. Individuals and groups of people fished and sold meat to feed people. They trapped fish and processed the food and harvested trees for shelter. As the economic benefits of wildlife move away from natural harvest, one shift is to outdoor recreational activities. Visiting and fishing are two major sources of economic revenues generating a cash flow in the wildlife. Different national parks and lakes of Ethiopia provide, individuals spend money on hunting and fishing activities that include the sales of licenses, leases, supplies, and guide services. Any activity involving the taking of animal wildlife is in a state’s published regulations, such as the Bale National parks, Semen mountains national parks, Arsi Mountains National parks, and Wildlife Outdoor Annual Official Hunting and Fishing Regulations.

The advantages of wildlife species are not limited to the monetary value generated. Plants and wildlife extracts are sources of medicine for an estimated 80% of the world’s population. Understanding the role a species plays in the environment helps scientists understand the evolution and function of life.

The diversity of plant and animal life is responsible for detoxifying poisonous substances and breaking down organic wastes. They have the potential to control crop pests and disease carriers. More importantly, they make up the vast gene pool for future evolutionary processes. It must be understood that the diversity of plant and animal life includes all bacteria, fungi, and insects that dominate and aid in the functioning of natural ecosystems.

Something with aesthetic value is pleasing to the eye, such as watching different animals in the park or zoo and enjoying. Wild plants and animals have this aesthetic value. They are a source of admiration, happiness, curiosity, and pleasure for many people. People enjoy watching plants and animals in their natural habitats. Aesthetic and recreation value of wildlife overlap. Often the aesthetic value is the motivation for recreational activities. A person sees an aesthetically pleasing landscape or experiences the joy of seeing wild animals in their natural habitat. There is a desire to capture the moment on film. Photography becomes a recreational activity that results from the aesthetic value of the landscape. Ecotourism is capable of generating larger revenues for Third World countries, such as Africa, than hunting.

Ecology is the relationship of all living things with their environment. All organisms that live in the same area make up a biotic community. A biotic community is a collection of plants and animals that live in the same environment. Each organism in a community is dependent on the other organisms. The management of one type of wildlife is therefore important for the maintenance of the others. Small fish, frogs, and birds eat the insects. Large fish then eat the frogs and small fish. Plants such as cattails and water lilies provide food, shelter, and nesting sites for various animals and insects. Each type of wildlife is ecologically important. Many of the insects and animals will disappear if there were no cattails or water lilies. If the insects disappear, there is a severe drop in the food supply for the frogs and fish. The use of one resource in an ecosystem affects all the other resources in that area. The removal of trees from a forest will affect the lives of the forest animals. With fewer trees, the animals would have less shelter and food which could easily cause the animal population to decrease. It is also necessary to examine the importance of an insect population. The destruction of insect populations with insecticides can decrease or prevent the pollination of plants. Without pollination, plants are unable to reproduce. The result would be a shortage of food for the animals in the community. Failure to properly manage a deer population could result in overgrazing. This problem would affect the regeneration of shrubs and trees and reduce the growth rate of the forest. This example illustrates the dependency each form of wildlife, plant, and animal has on the others. Each form of wildlife is important to the others in its community. Each is also important to the organisms in other communities. Each biotic community is relatively self-sustaining, yet linked to other communities. What takes place on a farm will affect the farm pond, the forest, and even the ocean. Whenever a farmer uses harmful pesticides on crops, rainfall can wash the chemicals into streams and damage aquatic life. In a similar manner, the processes of one community affect the processes of another. In order to maintain a balanced wildlife system, it is important to manage and maintain each part of the system.

In general, the optimum utilization of wildlife provides the following benefits.

• Wildlife maintains balance ecosystems
• Provides healthier ecosystems-health ecosystems have a lot of diversity.
• Wildlife provides nutrients to humans- everything we eat comes from either animals or plants originally. Without a variety of food sources, our nutrition suffers. Protecting wildlife and natural habitats strengthens food security around the world. We can also improve nutrition by returning to more wild food sources and diversifying our diets.
• Provides medicine for peoples-human being had always turned to nature for medicine. Protecting wildlife and their habitats mean fewer disease that affects humans-The preservation of wildlife and where they live is important for human health.
• People depend on wildlife for their livelihoods-For many people, wildlife is their main source of income.
• Wildlife has cultural significance- The impact wildlife has on culture can’t be ignored. The presence of animals and plants has always influenced things like religious beliefs and food. In many indigenous groups, sage is a vital herb for religious ceremonies. For followers of Hinduism, elephants and cows are sacred symbols.
• Wildlife is important for the economy Wildlife conservation areas and preserved natural habitats attract visitors from all over the world and play a great role in GDP contribution.
• Protecting wildlife creates more jobs- Speaking of the economy; wildlife preservation also creates more jobs. Being around wildlife and nature is good for mental health- People who live close to natural environments and wildlife are found to be more active, emotionally strong, and physically healthier.

References

1. OECD (2011). The Economic Significance of Natural Resources: Key Points for Reformers in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia.
2. Dejene A. Integrated natural resources management to enhance food security, environment, and natural resources: the case for community-based approaches in Ethiopia (Working Paper No. 16). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2003; p: 58.
3. Zerga B.(2015). The land resource uses, and ownership in Ethiopia: past, present, and future. Int J Sci Res Eng Technol. 2016; 2:17-24.
4. UNECA. Sustainable development report on Africa managing land-based resources for sustainable development. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. 2017; p: 172.
5. Liu, K.; Xue, Y.; Lan, Y.; Fu, Y. Agricultural Water Utilization Efficiency in China Evaluation, Spatial Differences, and Related Factors. Water. 2022.
6. Abadiko H. 2018. Land, Forest, Wild Life, Biodiversity, Water and Soil Resources of Ethiopia and Their Problems
7. “Economic Benefits of Wildlife Habitat.” [Online]. Available: http:www.conservationfund.org conservationgreenwaywildecon.html (2001) Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. Living in the Environment. Belmont, CA: Wad
8. Emmaline H. (2022). 10 Reasons Why Wildlife Is Important

Introduction:

The exploitation of natural resources has always been a factor that has affected many developing countries. Natural resources are air, water, soil, minerals, fuels, plants, and animals (National Geographic Society, 2012). Countries that experience abuse of their natural resources are those that are already suffering underdevelopment, which incentivizes them to give away their resources in order for them to economically grow. Many nations found in the African continent are fairly new with plenty of resources, which is a weakness that they have against global superpowers who will take advantage of them. They let their resources get exploited in hopes of urbanizing, but do not recognize the price that urbanization holds for them. Sometimes certain areas of underdeveloped countries get left behind. Middle Eastern countries also face abuse in order for bigger powers to obtain natural resources from them. These countries are sought because they have about 32% of the world’s natural gas (What role have natural, n.d.). These underdeveloped countries became targets for vast amounts of resources, and they face political unrest, suffer from environmental issues, and the division of their people. There are also many historical and political factors that have led to the diminishment of natural resources which has ultimately led to the creation of poverty.

Historical and Political Lenses:

A large reason why developing countries become so susceptible to larger powers is because of historical situations that they have undergone. A continent like Africa has faced long wars against countries trying to control and take over for imperialist reasons. In the late nineteenth century, imperialism formed major conflicts in Africa since there were a lot of European countries like Britain, France, Italy, and Germany that wanted to take over their land for political power and resources for industrial purposes (Iweriebor, 2011). Countries that realized the importance of the continent met up and held a conference to discuss how the continent would be colonized. The “Berlin Conference” was how these countries decided how they were going to divide the continent, each took a portion of it and the seizing of Africa would continue for 20 years (Leander, 2017). Later named, “The Scramble for Africa”, this was an event that began the destruction of the natural resources of the continent. This atrocious occurrence began the destruction of Africa’s environment and society. Leaving Africa weakened this would become a major consequence that would continue to affect and destroy society for many years, and it is still affecting it in the present day. This has left many African countries without proper governments and that has made them vulnerable. This vulnerability has placed many countries in poverty. Other areas of the world like the Middle East also have had to face the consequences of imperialism. In the time period after World War I, the Ottoman empire collapsed and instead of independence they became controlled by two very powerful winners of the war: France and Great Britain (Kieh Jr., 1992). These made the territories that were taken over very nationalistic in the hope of independence. During World War II, intervention by Britain and the Soviet Union (USSR) further affected the Middle East, specifically Iran, by pressuring and changing their government in order to have oil for the war (Mclean, n.d.). This, once again, led to an extreme rise in nationalism and political unrest in Iran. Consequences from this, various other moments of intervention, and lack of government regulation are still seen today affecting the entire Middle Eastern area. As a result, of all this intervention and pillaging for Natural resources, it is now seen that most of these countries in the Middle East and Africa are facing detrimental consequences seen through poverty and radicalism.

Social and Cultural Lenses:

The historical and political elements of these countries have paved the way for social unrest, nationalistic idealism, and corruption. In African countries that have a lot of natural resources, there tends to be an unfair advantage towards the people that live in it because most of the revenue never reaches the people; an example is seen in Equatorial Guinea since there are high mortality rates for infants and low life expectancies (Bekele, 2017). The injustice that countries face because of corruption due to natural resources is what keeps them in poverty. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, there are rich industrial companies that produce lithium and diamonds for the rest of the world, which makes them a very rich country (Global Witness, 2017). However, due to the corruption that they are facing they also barely see any of the revenue produced from it and are still very much suffering in poverty. Naturally, many things are not fair, but the circumstances that are brought upon by some of the societies that live on this continent are something that depends on where the people are born, which is something they cannot control. There are people in poverty that cannot get out of it because of where they live, and many of the people that live in these countries have no way of making their financial situation better or the privilege of having food security. Many African countries that have a widespread amount of natural resources also face a lot of civil conflicts and separation which has resulted in the spread of militia groups and terrorism. In other African countries like Angola, the use of oil is very necessary for economic success, but just like in Equatorial Guinea, many people do not see any of the benefits from the revenue (Ojakorotu, 2011). This causes these radical economic groups to threaten the safety of the people by kidnapping and stealing, adding to the poverty that people are already facing in some African countries. In the Middle East, some countries are now controlled by radical groups. In a country like Syria, which produced about four-hundred thousand barrels of oil, some groups have taken over that area and are now selling that oil. The money they are making is used for their own personal benefit leaving the people who live there to look for other ways to survive in poverty (Klare, 2014). Other Middle Eastern countries have shown a trend of militant groups taking over the territory of seemingly stable areas. One of the primary reasons that these extremist groups take control of the area is due to the natural resources that are found in the region. In Iraq, there is prosperity known regarding the amount of oil produced, and this attracts unwanted attention from neighboring areas that are taken over by groups. Baghdad is an area that is always threatening the national safety of the people in Iran causing the area to tighten up on security (Black, 2014). This makes the people around the area feel unsafe as they never know when a violent event can happen. When war occurs in Iraq because of resources, families end up living in poverty because they can lose many vital parts of their societies like hospitals and markets. Recently, after the war that Iraq had with the Islamic State, there are one in four children in Iraq suffering from poverty, and millions of families struggling to make a living (Aboulenein, 2018). This further proves that the desire for natural resources brings conflict to countries and when these disagreements escalate into warfare it brings bigger consequences for the civilians that occupy the area, and in severe cases, it can leave them suffering because of the lack of food and shelter. Many countries in Africa and the Middle East that suffer from the exploitation of natural resources also hurt their societies due to the amount of corruption and the amount of radical nationalism.

Environmental Lens:

A significant area that is affected by the amount of natural resource exploitation is the actual environment that is getting exploited. The environment is something that we need to protect; the number of trees that are getting cut down and burned, the mountainsides that lay bare, the fossil fuels that are being burned, and the river and the seas that are being polluted (Thatcher, 1989). This is something that affects the environment and the people that are left in poverty because of the exploitation of the land that used to benefit them. This is not fair to the civilians in the area that have to deal with the repercussions of the choices that they did not even have a voice in. The environmental rights of the African people are constantly get abused by the number of companies that leave their land with soil pollution, deforestation, and toxic gasses due to industrialization in the area (Ngachoko & Nowlin, 2016). Environmental rights are rights that a human being should have because there are ways that people take advantage of the environment around them in order to survive. People in some African countries are hindered from these rights because they have no control over what happens on their land. Once the environment that they live in goes through degradation, they have no other choice but to learn to live with what they are left with which is usually the remnants of the once prosperous land that they had. The Middle East also faces similar problems to the countries in Africa. In a speech made by the Queen of Jordan, Noor Al Hussein, she recognizes the issues linked with natural resources and one of these issues includes how the environment is affected and how it ends up hurting society itself (Hussein, 2018). The natural disasters brought upon in the Middle East by the amount of natural resource exploitation affect the security of people around the area since many of these countries do not have the correct ways of safely handling situations caused by the environment. The way that these people are affected by their environment is due to a large amount of natural resource exploitation in their areas.

Solutions

In essence, the exploitation of natural resources in countries in Africa and the Middle East is linked to the poverty that their civilians face. The number of historical aspects, social and cultural situations and the way their environment is left barren is a key factor in increasing the areas left in destitution. There are ways that people in these areas could be helped and their poverty levels could slowly start to decrease. The first proposed solution is a long-term solution that can limit the amount of natural resource drilling and safely allow for the correct amounts of resources to get taken from territories. The United States has a similar law that prevents the amount of oil from being drilled and allows natural resources to be effectively protected in American territory (HG, n.d.). However, this long-term solution faces multiple implications because many countries that drill from these impoverished countries and the wealthy leaders of the countries themselves would not want the extensive amount of money that they are making to be reduced just to protect the environment and society. A short-term solution that can be introduced by, starting funds that spread awareness about how natural resource exploitation leaves people suffering from poverty. This can be done by setting up events and fundraisers that will educate people on the tragic events that are happening in Africa and the Middle East. The money given in the fundraisers will be used to send food and necessary items for survival to the people suffering from natural resource exploitation. The limitation of this solution is that not everyone will be interested in learning about events happening outside of their country and would rather remain ignorant of the rest of the world. A final solution proposed can be as simple as setting up a simple online account on social media sites like Twitter and Instagram that will keep people informed about the unfairness that other countries face in the world which will engage them in helping the distressed countries. A limitation of this is that people may follow the account, but they will not actually do anything in order to help the countries. We need to make sure that we recognize the importance of natural resources and rights that people in countries have because if we do not, then the exploitation of natural resources that are currently keeping Africa and the Middle East, and other underdeveloped territories in poverty will soon reach other countries in the world.

Bibliography

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