Category: Conservation of Forest

The sustainability of global economies and the survival of all living species primarily depends on how clean their surrounding environments are. Clean ecosystems ensure that all living organisms thrive well within their ecosystems, something rare in present times due to increased environmental pollution and degradation.

When comparing the past and present world, it is not wrong for one to argue that there are likelihoods of extinction of all living species if pollution continues with the present rate. This is because considering the rate at which human practices are destroying the environment, soon or later, there may be nothing that can sustain life, which may eventually lead to extinction. Although nature has tried to replace destroyed habitats and decomposes pollutants, the rate of disposal and environmental destruction outweighs its efforts.

The un-decomposability of some wastes and their destructive nature compounds this, hence making environmental preservation harder. This is because these un-decomposable wastes remain embedded in the environment leading to dire harm to the peaceful balance in world ecosystems.

One funny thing that has always amazed individuals fighting to preserve the environment is that, although human beings have experienced calamities resulting from environmental pollution, they still propagate the practice. This has greatly jeopardized protection efforts, hence resulted in many calamities that have caused immense destruction of property and lives.

It is possible humans may blame nature for is the inability to decompose wastes; assuming that is its main function. However, one fundamental question that all individuals should ask themselves is; environmental protection is whose duty? After a critical examination of this question, again all individuals should ask themselves this; what is the ere contribution to environmental pollution?

Also, which efforts have they put in place to control the practice? Although technologically one may lack an advanced mechanism of curbing pollution, there is a simple methodology that all can embrace; Recycling. This paper will discuss concepts of recycling problems and their solutions as pertains to environmental preservation.

Recycling

Environmental conservation encompasses the little efforts that all individuals do to ensure the environment remain safe and sound for the sustainability of life. Having complex systems of waste handling do not guarantee that the environment will always remain clean but rather, the achievement of a clean environment depends on waste disposal practices adopted by individuals. Almost all sources of environmental pollution originate from human practices; something individuals can reverse if they are willing.

Primarily, most products used by human beings originate from forests, mines, and farms. Also, one important thing that individuals have failed to recognize is that even the most complicated embed systems and computer technologies come from the ecosystem. This is because components of these systems originate from nature.

In this regard, it is not wrong for one to argue that, after their use, these materials can be recycled to avoid them accumulating in the environment considering complexities associated with them. In this sense, it is important to note that recycling just needs simple common sense use owing to the simplicity associated with it (Shimada p.1).

The whole recycling process involves the re-processing of used products into a form that is reusable or modification of waste products to forms that have fewer impacts on the environment in terms of degradation. One best thing with recycling is that some of its measures require little efforts; hence, any individual can participate in the practice, owing to its importance to reversing currently existing environmental problems.

Correct implementation of recycling measure can help to reduce the accumulation of waste materials in landfills or incinerator. Apart from conserving the environment, recycling has other benefits, which include saving of funds and energy.

For example, considering the volumes of thrash or wastes that industries emit, it is very hard for the environment to contain all of them because some are very toxic and harmful. Therefore, this makes it necessary for industries to adopt recycling mechanisms, which will not only ensure that industries reduce expenses associated with buying new products, but also reduce the toxicity of their waste products (Admeg p.1).

Problems of Recycling

Although recycling is an important process of reducing environmental pollution, like any other process it has associated problems. This problems either result during pre-processing or after the re-processing process is over. Primarily recycling should progress in three main steps, namely: collection and separation of waste products, re-processing of new products, and the re-use of such products. A simple analysis of these three steps can make one say that the whole recycling process is simple, something which is ever the case.

For example, consider a process like recycling of solid wastes primarily plastics. Their collection and sorting out is a very simple exercise that any individual can undertake. However, things become complicated when it comes to recycling.

From research findings presently, there is no appropriate mechanism of conducting their melting and re-processing owing to the complexity of the process involved. Also, although their recycling process can help to ensure they are reusable, many negative effects result from it, hence making it equally worse as their presence in the environment (Heimlich p.1).

One main problem associated with recycling is the complexity of the entire process. Recycling of product s such as garden wastes is a simple process owing to the fact that they are easily decomposable, hence needs simple damping measures. Contrary to this most solid wasted require the complicated process to decompose or make them reusable, something that most individuals or communities cannot afford.

It is important also to note that some solid wastes are not easily modifiable or even if they are modifiable, it takes a series of complicated steps to obtain their final re-usable product. In this regard, considering costs incurred in the entire process it is better one had purchased new ones, which again posses one important question; where will the obsolete one go?

Another problem that makes recycling a complicated process is the nature of costs incurred in re-processing some wastes. For example, the recycling of curbside is very expensive to levels that many communities have opted to buy unsullied curbside than use re-processed curbside. This case is not different with industries dealing with the re-processing and re-selling of curbside.

Most of these industries have opted to stop the re-processing of curbside products because of more costs incurred during re-processing as compared to proceeds from sales of the re-processed products. For example, during the fiscal year, 1995 Washington D.C municipality spent approximately $ 3.7 million to re-process curbside, a figure that was far much below what it gained ($ 1 million) from sales proceeds of the same (Grindel, Snover and Hopkins p.1).

Noting this variation therefore, it is one thing to collect and sort wastes but another complicated thing to re-process the same wastes. The New York City municipal council proved the same, hence banning the recycling of glass and plastic materials because it could incur more costs than to buy new glass materials.

Other common products that require many funds in their recycling are pressure-sensitive adhesives. Individuals use adhesives to stick together papers; hence, in the reprocessing of papers getting them off is a major problem considering that most pulp industries use water as the main dissolving medium.

Stickies (resultant products after dissolving paper), may cause weakness on paper; hence, making the recycling process useless and invaluable; this translates to increased expenses incurred by industries, a low outcome or poor quality outcomes (Cal Recycle p.1).

Recycling also has energy wastage problems. Considering the three processes involved in the recycling process, collection and sorting processes are simple. However, the entire re-processing procedure that will ensure the re-formulation of usable products requires a lot of energy; which is costly as compared to benefits that result from such recycled products. It is important to note here that, primary sources of energy are fossil fuels, which primarily are non-renewable and major pollutants.

Consider, for example, the decomposition of plastic requires a lot of energy, whose main form can be nuclear or fossil fuel energy. The same applies in during aluminum’s recycling because for smelting and casting to occur the entire process needs a lot of energy, which is usually in the form of heat.

In this regard, although recycling plastic will reduce pollution due to the un-decomposability of plastic, on the other hand, the recycling process will result to more environmental damages depending on the source of energy used (Center for sustainability: Aquinas College p.1). Also, to wastage of energy during processing, garbage collecting companies use a lot of energy in the form of fuel used by lorries; hence resulting to increased pollution, a problem the companies aim to alleviate.

Chemical discharges are other main and most harmful pollutants to the environment. This is because their effects take long periods to leave the environment; hence, adverse owing to the fact that most of them are untreatable and are irreversible. In this regard, chemicals used during recycling jeopardize environmental conservation efforts, hence contradicting the main goals of recycling.

Take, for example, for a paper recycling company to be able to recycle waste papers; it requires chlorine as one of the basic chemicals for bleaching. Chlorine in its aqueous compound form is one of the most dangerous pollutants due to its corrosive and bleaching action on any material it contacts.

Another common problem with the recycling of some products is the nature of emissions released from recycling plants. For example, research findings have proved that most steel recycling industries produce dioxin, a very dangerous gas to living organisms’ survival. Also, the entire steel recycling process results in products, which are less durable; hence wear out easily.

This translates to the increased cost of production, and fewer returns from sales; hence, economical the process is wasteful and not profitable. In addition to emissions resulting from steel processing, plastic re-cycling industries also produce a lot of fumes because plastic is a product of petroleum; a product of fossil fuels that are very harmful to the environment when burnt or decomposed.

Solutions to Recycling Problems

Although all the above problems exist, individuals or organizations can alleviate them by employing correct precautionary measures, which should not only reduce their economic needs but also reduce their impact on the environment.

Organizations dealing with the issue of curbside recycling can alleviate its related economic problems by employing practices such as a collective collection of recyclables, whereby the collection center should have compartments for different types of wastes. This entire process can ease the process of garbage collection; hence, making sorting easier. Also, this will enhance the recycling process by making all individuals responsible for their acts.

The second major solution to recycling is responsibility. Poor handling of thrash is one of the main contributors to increasing pollution. This results from poor or no recycling efforts, a practice embraced by most individuals. Most industries use plastic containers to pack their foods, something, which has contributed greatly to increasing pollution because individuals dispose of these papers poorly after use.

However, individuals have the potential of reversing this, because instead of throwing away the plastic containers, individuals can use them for other house purposes, for example, gardening. With continuous re-use of them, gradually as time advances the resultant pollution will reduce; hence, a cleaner environment.

This strategy has worked with big organizations such as McDonald’s; whereby it uses recycled material to not only to renovate old food stores but also to build new ones. Examples of materials it uses include old worn out tires, furniture, and drinking bottles, which it collects from its surrounding environments when dumped by its customers (Grindel, Snover and Hopkins p.1).

Individuals or organizations also can alleviate the problem of plastic recycling by embracing the use of bioplastics (packing plastic products manufactured from vegetable oil or cornstarch), which are easily biodegradable.

Considering the non-biodegradable nature of plastics obtained from petroleum products, this technology can help to alleviate problems that may result from poor plastic disposal methods, because bioplastics can breakdown regardless of their position; either in composite pits or landfills (Problems of plastic recycling p.1).

In addition to reducing problems resulting due to plastic recycling, industries can alleviate or reduce problems caused by high-energy consumption by using radiations in the incineration process (mixing of waste products, with other polymers whose combustion produces enough heating or recycling energy). This is because radiations have potentials of going through most solid materials, hence easily decompose them using minimal energy.

This technology not only reduces the energy required for decomposition of materials but also aids the process of chemical recycling, hence reducing associated adverse effects of chemical treatment. For example, organizations that deal with aluminum and plastic recycling can use gamma rays, whose action on many solid wastes results to biodegradable materials, which are of more importance and use (Clough pp. 4-6)

Conclusion

In conclusion, although recycling seems one of the major environmental conservation mechanisms, it has very many associated dilemmas. This, therefore, calls for the need for formulation of correct measures or adoption of recycling processes that minimize pollution, while maximizing profits from any recycling effort taken by either individuals or organizations.

On the other hand, due to the failure of some recycling efforts, there is a need for all individuals to adopt measures that will ensure they reduce the use of non-biodegradable materials. This is because their reduction at least guarantees environmental safety because all individual at one time handles non-biodegradable materials.

Biodiversity (biological diversity) is the range of species within an ecosystem. It encompasses three different levels which include ecosystem, species and genetic diversity.

Ecosystem diversity is used to refer to a variation of ecosystems. It describes all living organisms in their physical surroundings. They have both a biotic (living organisms) and an abiotic (non-living) component. On the Sunshine Coast there is 84 different types of native ecosystems (Hinterland Bushlinks, 2019).

Species diversity is the number and variety of organisms found in an area. A greater species diversity results in a more productive ecosystem which provides more natural services and resources for other species. A diversity of species improves the quality of an ecosystem.

Genetic diversity is the variety of genes within a species. It is important that a species has a variety of genes to ensure a greater chance of the species long term survival. When there is a small gene pool it can lead to defects and makes the species more susceptible to diseases. It is therefore important that a species has genetic diversity.

The Amazon Rainforest is a tropical rainforest in Brazil. The region is home to high rainfall, humidity and temperatures. The rainforest has an area of 6, 000, 000km2 and comprises about 40 percent of Brazil’s total area (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018). It is home to many rivers and the Amazon basin. It has a large variety of species and is extremely biodiverse.

The Amazon Rainforest is the world’s richest and most-varied biological reservoir, containing several million species of insects, plants, birds, and other forms of life, many still unrecorded by science.

Many local communities also depend on the dense rainforest. There is more than 30 million people that live in the Amazon, including indigenous and ethnic groups. These people depend on the Amazon as a natural resource to provide for their traditional medicines, agriculture and other similar purposes.

However, the Amazon forest is threatened by habitat destruction. Brazil’s population is rapidly increasing which has resulted in development occurring in major parts of the rainforest. The biodiverse forest is being turned into lumber, pastures and farmland. It has decreased to 81% of its former size as it was in 1970 over a 46 year period (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018). In the 1990s the Brazilian government began to implement methods for the forest conservation. The percentage of habitat loss per year has decreased from 0.4 percent in the 1980s-90s to 0.1-0.2 percent after 2008 (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018). There is still a decline in forest cover though.

In Ecuador, the oil company, Petroecuador, began to extract petroleum in 2016. This region was one of the world’s most biodiverse and the destruction of this environment will lead to the diminish of more species.

Evaluate different approaches to protecting biodiversity in the area used for part B. Attempt to provide a novel solution, one that you have thought of and justify your opinion.

A common approach to protecting biodiversity is the inclusion of protected areas such as national parks where an area of land cannot be developed, and the environment is protected. Similar methods have been implemented in the amazon forest before. In the 1990s, efforts were began to protect the forest from destruction by the Brazilian government and other international bodies. This allowed for the rate of loss to decline.

There was also an attempt to preserve a part of the forest in Ecuador. The government agreed to not extract oil deposits at a estimated value of 7.2 billion on the basis that other countries and private donors would contribute half the value of the oil to a UN trust fund. This plan was unsuccessful with Ecuador extracting oil in 2016 after not enough money was raised.

In only a handful of years, we have lost over half the world’s forests, half the world’s grasslands and half the world’s wetlands. We are consistently eliminating all that makes up our world’s ecosystems. Eventually, they will collapse. It’s hard to accurately predict the rate extinction we face, but say there are 100 000 000 different species on earth. At an extinction rate of only 0.01% a year, that would mean that we are losing at least 10,000 species every year. To put that into perspective, that’s over 1 species an hour, or 10 times the population of the Vatican City. But perhaps, first of all, we should ask yourselves just how much it will matter to us if earth’s remaining wilderness is lost. Part of the answer is wilderness speaks to us. In a way, it tells us we are not alone. We are only a small part of a bigger picture, one we cannot yet see, but one we must respect. Another part of the answer, is that in 1997, a value of $30 trillion dollars was giving to assistance offered to humanity by all the world’s biodiversity. Maybe instead of asking people how much losing earth’s wilderness will matter, we should ask how much losing $30 trillion will matter. For the sake of species preservation, if biodiversity has an economic value, it suddenly becomes worth a lot more.

Perhaps sustainable development is the answer to conserving biodiversity. But as pointed out by many environmentalists, the term ‘sustainable development’ is a contradiction. As they put it, we either have development, or we don’t. Ideally, we should withdraw from the situation we have created. But as long as there are humans, there will be development. No one can expect there to be a world with no development. A world without evolution.

How do we Conserve Species?

In the early days, conservation very austere. People were seen as the enemy. National Parks were fenced in, and people were kept out. Even native tribes, like the Maasai, were driven away from their ancestral lands. Armies of rangers trained in combat are deployed to keep humans out. These strictly guarded parks became havens for wildlife, and only an elite few could enter them. And this military still approach worked. Without it, elephants in the wild may have gone extinct. But it had many critics all around the world. Was it wrong to displace so many communities, and reserve wildlife for the upper class? That all depends on when, and for how long. Sometimes, fortress conservation is the only option. When a habit is almost destroyed and its residents on the brink of extinction, fortress conservation guarantees results. But will never be a long term solution. Where there are military borders, there will always be conflict. Fortress conservation can only last for a decade at most. Once the populations inside the park are stable again, then it can once more be opened up to the world.

These days, the approach is include local communities. This shows, that unlike some critics say, conservation does not keep rural people poor or perpetuate inequality. Instead of armies of rangers, locals are being trained and educated on how to conserve wildlife. Ultimately, before we can tackle conservation, we have to tackle poverty. How can we, as privileged Westerners, ask a man to protect lions, if cannot afford to put food on his family’s table. The key to this is education. Maybe in order to prevent extinction, Western nation have of duty to develop education in developing countries.

Which Species do we Save

Decisions over which species we choose to save and those we let go are inevitable. In the end, we must invest in the projects that prove to be the most successful for conservation. All plants and animals, in human perspective, can be divided into 2 groups. The ones that keep the planet alive, and the ones that keep our imaginations alive. Sadly, it is the creatures that people dismiss, such as bugs, that predominantly make up life on earth. To most humans, bugs are insignificant. Probably because they are so small. To many people, they all look the same. But nobody would ever say that about an elephant for example. What we must do, is see this forms of life as highly complex, unique individuals. As rivals to any mammal, no matter how small they are. But which species do we really need to preserve? Fundamentally, we need every species. We need a variety of biodiversity. But if we must choose, then for the sake of the planet, we must conserve those that keep it alive.

Despite the valiant efforts of environmentalists and conservationists from around the world, we are still seeing a decline in a large number of species. Why is this? Do people simply not care?

Poaching is one reason. If poaching does indeed become a serious problem is an area, then it can be only a matter of time before entire populations are wiped out. In some cases whoever, poaching is the least a population’s worries. In fact, it is quite the opposite that makes that population vulnerable. The wild Bactrian camel is one of the most endangered creatures on the planet, and at least 90% of people, especially Westerners, have never heard of it. Is this a case of being too well hidden from humanity? Maybe a certain amount of human contact is required to save a population. Another reason, is the challenges we face are far greater than those we have solved. We now must deal with climate change, increased pressure on land, overpopulation… All this leads to a loss of habitat, whether it is because global warming and desertification or human development of the land.

Has the Focus of the Conservation Movement been Wrong?

The conservation movement never got its focus wrong. It was just too restricted. A half a century ago, when conservation first kicked of, the message was “save to whale” or “save the elephant”. The conservation movement never really matured after that. Perhaps what we ought to do, is save the habitat. If we restore a species habitat, then numbers of that particular species will increase, as well as the others that make up that ecosystem. However, the reason for conservations narrow focus, is that the general public respond well to the preservation of charismatic species. To an extent, this is an ingenious approach. It is the concept of hotspot conservation. The logic being, if we focus on the conservation of one species, many other species get protection as a result. Put simply, if one species is saved, all species in that habitat are saved. But most importantly, where the conservation movement went wrong, is it has not been relevant to local communities.

In conclusion, any extinction before it’s time matters. But is extinction our greatest concern? Arguably no, it is not. We can save species. In the past, albeit through tremendous efforts, we have saved the last remaining individuals of many species. Perhaps of greater concern, should be the decline in population numbers that brings about extinction. That is a threat we will not be able to cope with.

Policy briefs are an essential tool utilized by policymakers to consolidate and condense vast amounts of information into an easily digestible form such that lawmakers may learn more about the issues on which they are legislating prior to drafting legislation and/or voting. As such, it is important to note that this policy brief is less a brief and more an overview of the history, formulation, implementation, and performance of a specific policy (the Endangered Species Act) that has already been implemented. This work an educational exercise to trace the formulation of a policy from inception to implementation and performance review.

On December 28, 1973, President Richard Nixon signed the Endangered Species Act into law. Regarded by some as the United States’ controversial and misunderstood environmental law, the ESA was enacted with the objective to address the issue of endangered and threatened species through the conservation of the ecosystems on which these species depend, to conserve the species themselves, and to enact any and all treaties necessary to facilitate these measures. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under the ESA, species are listed either as endangered or threatened, the former referring to danger of extinction throughout the species range, the latter referring to those species that may become endangered in the foreseeable future. The Endangered Species Act came on the heels of other environmental policies and was a key part of the environmental era. Since its inception, the law has been amended four times, and more recently, the rules that dictate how the law will be enforced have been changed. Before delving into the implementation and history of the policy itself, it is important to consider the issues it was created to address.

The Endangered Species Act was created to address the issue of species endangerment, termed “species imperilment” by Czech and Krausman. There was a concern in Congress at the “various species of fish, wildlife, and plants in the U.S.” that have gone extinct as a result of “economic growth and development untampered by adequate concern and conservation.” The origin of the species extinction/endangerment issue can be traced back to the frontier economy of the 1800s North America. The first signs of the issue of species endangerment (and the first signs of public concern) truly emerged when bison were heavily hunted for their hide, to clear grasslands for cattle, and to starve Indian tribes into obedience. Bison were extirpated (locally extinct) east of the Mississippi River by 1800, and by 1880 had been eliminated from the majority of their range. According to Dunlap (1988), the demolition of bison populations brought the issue of wildlife protection into the public eye. Other ungulates like white tail deer and elk were also heavily hunted, and in 1872 Yellowstone National Park was created to preserve these species. The heaviest losses (in terms of extinctions and extirpations) were in the East, although species suffered across the nation. The extirpation of eastern ungulates led to mirrored declines in large predators like the mountain lion and wolf in the same region due to the loss of their significant prey species. Those that switched to other large mammals made the mistake of selecting livestock, thus incurring the wrath of farmers in the form of predator-control. This trend of human domination and destruction of animal (and plant) populations continued into the passage of the ESA in 1973, at which point 500 species had gone extinct since the arrival of the British. This historical example of the damages of market hunting in the latter half of the 1800s has been replaced by habitat degradation, loss of habitat quantity, and fragmentation have been the key players in species endangerment in the 20th (and 21st) centuries. Indeed, the modification, destruction and fragmentation of habitat plays a part in 95% of listed species. According to Noss and Cutti (1994), habitat fragmentation is currently the largest concern when it comes to endangering animals. Many animals require a certain quantity of habitat, and indeed a species-area relationship does exist, but even if a set quantity does exist, the odds today are that it is increasingly fragmented, broken up over larger areas that make it so it is really more a collection of sparsely located small habitats. The key drivers of this issue, and of species endangerment more generally, currently include agriculture, urbanization, road building, logging, industrial activities, environmental tourism, hunting, pollution and atmospheric change, and more. All of these activities contribute to the transformation or destruction of useable animal/plant habitat to varying degrees, but all endanger species. Even the existence of roads in known to endanger 94 species in the U.S. alone. Thus, while there has been a shift in the major threats to species endangerment and extinction, the issue of human-caused species endangerment/extinction remains unresolved–and worse–continues to intensify.

The impact of humans on disappearance of species is so immense that it is argued that we have entered an era of the “Sixth Mass Extinction”, comparable to major extinction events such as those on the edge of the Permian Triassic (245 million years ago) and the Cretaceous-Tertiary (65 million years ago [i.e. when the dinosaurs were extinguished]). The background extinction rate always exists, but can is currently difficult to calculate, but some place it at 100 to 1000 times pre-human levels. There is also scholarly debate on whether the era we are in may be characterized as the Sixth Great Extinction, and some suggest there has been an overall diminishment of background extinction since the Cambrian Period 550 million years ago. Despite these discrepancies, it has generally remained clear to policymakers that the extinction issue should not be taken lightly, and it was even listed above oil spills, toxic waste, pesticides, and groundwater pollution in 1991 by the Chairman of the House Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife Conservation, and the Environment, Rep. Gerry E. Studds (D). Thus, regardless of the distinction of the species extinction/endangerment issue as a Sixth Mass Extinction, it remains that this is a crisis resulting in immense levels of biodiversity loss.

Loss of biodiversity has economic, ecological, direct and indirect importance to human life. For example, many medicines are derived from certain plants and animals, and some animals can provide scientific models, potentially possessing traits that can allow humans to learn to deal with medical issues. Biodiversity provides genetic diversity, which is necessary for protecting and improving the food supply. Other reasons to protect animals are just that people like them, or believe them to have intrinsic moral or even spiritual value. For the sake of policy, the more salient issues are the ecological benefits of protecting species. Ironically, these reasons are arguably more important because they impact more people, but these impacts may be more difficult to see. Biodiversity is essential to ecosystem functionality and plays a role in maintaining flows of energy and natural resources. Plant photosynthesis provides oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, forests decrease evaporation, soil erosion, and help with the maintenance of clean water supplies. Fungi, bacteria, and worms decompose organic matter, replenishing the soil with nutrients. Loss of species can “erode the ecological foundation” of the ecosystems, and lead to a loss of human life. The extension of this argument is that if too many species are lost, ecosystems will collapse and all life will die. Thus, the protection of biodiversity by the identification of endangered and threatened species allows for the protection of these specific species, but also of the ecosystem as a whole.

The 20th century started an age of conservation, for which President Theodore Roosevelt is credited with starting. People in the U.S. began to pay attention to the needs of animals, and the endangerment of them by human society. In 1903, President Roosevelt saw the Wildlife Refuge at Pelican Island, FL to protect a few species of water birds whose population had begun to dwindle. The passenger pigeon went extinct in 1914, a shocking development due to its status at one time as the most populous bird in the U.S. and possibly the world. In 1918, the U.S. codified a 1916 treaty with Britain (on behalf of Canada) with the passage of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, designed to protect migratory birds who travelled between the U.S. and Canada. Jumping ahead a couple of decades, in 1962 Rachel Carson published her groundbreaking book, Silent Spring, and set off a wave of environmentalism that would last throughout the 1960s and into the 1970s before slowing in the 1980s. In 1966, Congress passed the Endangered Species Preservation Act (ESPA) in response to increased concerns over the rate of species disappearance. This was the United States’ first endangered species law, but was rapidly followed by others. In 1969, the Endangered Species Conservation Act expanded the ESPA, allowing for the creation of a list of animals “threatened with worldwide extinction” as well as prohibiting their import without permits. In spring of 1973, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) created a plan that would protect plants/animals via regulation or prohibition on international trade (in the absence of certain permits). It was signed by 80 nations, including the U.S. Then, in 1973, Congress passed the Endangered Species Act, which would be amended in 1978, 1982, 1988, and 2004. For the purpose of this brief, the main focus will be on the core components of the 1973 ESA, although significant changes brought by the amendments will be discussed. The Endangered Species Act (1973) built upon its predecessors and was designed to address the issues of species extinction and endangerment. At the time of implementation, the ESA noted that 109 domestic species were endangered, and worldwide the number of species jumped to 300 (See Figure 1.1 for recent numbers).

Being passed in 1973, the ESA emerged from the midst of the environmental era of the U.S. virtually unopposed. According to the landmark 1978 court case Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill, the ESA is written in plain language that reveals how important Congress viewed the issue of species endangerment as vital and seriously desired to halt and reverse the trend of species extinction, no matter the cost. Indeed, the bill was passed by Richard Nixon, a staunch republican, and the bill was passed unanimously in the Senate and 390-12 in the House, demonstrating immense bipartisan concern for this issue when it was originally passed. Nixon had called for stricter legislation protecting “endangered species of wildlife” and suggested that the Senate ratify the CITES treaty. Two bills, nearly identical, emerged on endangered species; one from Rep. John Dingell in the House, the other from Senator Harrison Williams. There was little debate in Congress over these bills, and there was widespread public support. No interest groups came forward to contest the ESA. In the conference committee, the only matter debated was how to divide the duties between the Departments of Commerce and Interior.

Joint administration of the ESA shared by the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior. Each department has an agency charged with the administration of the ESA. The Department of Commerce utilizes the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and the Department of the Interior utilizes the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), respectively. The former applies the ESA to anadromous fish, while the latter uses the ESA in regard to terrestrial species, sea otters, specific marine species like sea turtles while on land, and nonmarine aquatic species. The agencies work together to implement the Endangered Species Act in their respective jurisdictions.

The Endangered Species Act has four particularly significant components, Sections 4, 7, 9, and 10. Generally speaking, together these sections require the identification of endangered species, that their essential habitat be specified, that federal agencies will not harm these species nor their environments, that any potentially harmful action be exempted only on rare occasion, that plans be developed and utilized to assist in species recovery, and that private parties/interests may not harm species without doing remedial planning. Each of these four sections will be discussed in further detail.

The ESA only protects listed species, and Section 4 is responsible for laying out the standards for listing. There are five major criteria used to determine whether the species is endangered or threatened; (1) the present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (2) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (3) disease or predation; (4) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (5) other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence. When a species is listed, it is also granted a “critical habitat”, which adds a layer of protection (See Figure 1.2 for additional information). Critical habitat (per section 3(5), was redefined with the 1978 amendments) is defined as the geographical area that the species was found in when it was listed that has physical and biological components that are “essential to the conservation of that species…and which may require special management considerations or protection”. Further, areas outside of this original range may be added by the secretary if they are considered to also be important to their continuation as a species. Habitats must provide adequate space, cover or shelter, food/water/air/light, sites for breeding, and be similar to those historically occupied by the species–in other words, the habitat must provide all things that the species needs to be able to live. In practice, critical habitat becomes more concerned with the minimum area that a species needs to survive. Section 4(f) also necessitates the development and implementation of recovery plans for the listed species, which do not have the force of regulations, but rather provide a framework for management.

Section 7 is concerned with the preservation if species as a whole. There are three main components; 1) under Section 7(a)(1), it is required that all federal agencies work toward the conservation of listed species pro-actively; 2) under Section 7(a)(1), as of 1978, it is required that federal agencies consult with the Service to insure that a proposed project will not harm the continued existence of a listed species at risk or destroy/degrade its habitat; and 3) under Section 7(a)(2), federal agencies are outright forbidden to damage a listed species or their critical habitat. Section 7(a)(1) has a theme of “recovery”, while Section 7(a)(2) has a theme of “no jeopardy”. Section 7(a)(2) makes it seem like a command and control type of policy, prohibitive and declaratory. Other parts of the law that are important to remember are that species are protected by any project done by a federal agency even when not on federal land. This is significant because it basically expands the jurisdiction of the ESA dramatically, a sort of “anywhere you go, the ESA is sure to follow” for federal agencies. Section 7 is also important in that it allows for the protection of endangered species on federal land, which is important in light of the fact that the government manages about ⅓ of the land, 700 million acres.

Section 9 compliments Section 7, in that it is focused on protections of individual members of listed species. In general, this section prevents harm to members of protected species, through direct killing, indirect methods like habitat destruction, and activities that interfere with or “flowing” from harm to organisms, like transport, possession, or selling individuals. There are two major components that distinguish Section 9 from Section 7; 1) Section 9 applies to “persons”, loosely defined as individuals, government bodies, and businesses, rather than just government agencies; and 2) Section 9 protects fish and wildlife more than plants, and is more effective at protecting endangered rather than threatened species. This section of the law contains a general prohibition of “taking” endangered species, a term defined as “to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or attempt to engage in any such conduct”. The definition of harm within this includes the direct killing or injury of an organism as well as significant damages to its habitat such that it could struggle to breed, feed, or find shelter. A famous series of court cases, known as the palila court cases, held that harm to species can be seen with habitat destruction because while no corpses are produced, the population diminishes.

Tiger is the most majestic animal of the jungle. With their signature orange fur and black stripe tigers have become icons of beauty, power and importance of conservation. It is a charismatic mega fauna featured prominently in ancient mythology and folklore. It can be found in modern films and literature, appearing on coats of arms as mascots for sports team and many flags. Thus it is the national animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia and South Korea. Tiger taxonomy is a little complicated for long time. It was thought that there are 8 subspecies of tiger but recent studies has concluded that are really only two:

1. panthera tigris tigris (Mainland Asian tiger) and
2. panthera tigris sondaica (sunda island tiger)

The study found that there wasn’t enough information to prove that the variance population of tiger were different enough to be classified as distinct subspecies and the level were just used as convenience on basis of morphology .Now what we have is only two species of tiger that contain several different population of tiger described by name like Siberian tiger or amur ,Indochinese tiger ,Malayan tiger ,Bengal tiger ,Sumatran tiger and so on.

Tigers are the largest species of cat in the world and the mainland Asian tigers which include Siberian tiger are truly king of kings. These male measures up to 3.9m/ 13ft long including their tail , weights up to 300kg /661ib and much bigger then female (70% on average). Mainland Asian tigers are much larger than their island dwelling cousins, the Sumatrian tiger for eg weights 140 kg half the weight of Siberian tiger 300 kg. This size disparity is partly explained by Berkmanns law which says that animals that live in colder climate tentegral larger than animals live in warmer climates.

This is part due to thermal regulation. The bigger cats are able to retain more heat than smaller one due to the larger cat smaller surface to weight ratio which radiates more heat slowly. In their prime tiger could be found across Asia from pacific to black sea, but their current range is just 7% of their historic range .Comparing last decades tiger range has decreased by 41% and now they can now be found in small patches of forest .they are endangered but this isn’t 1st time they are facing extinction .about 73 thousand years ago the massive volcanic eruption almost pushed them to the age of extinction .the eruption eliminated several mammals in Asia. But the group of tiger survived to re populate continent .but due to population bottle neck they lost lots of genetic diversity.

Tigers are the member of panthera genus .despite of similarities to size with lions they are actually close related to snow leopard and jaguars they are ambush hunter and primarily eat ungulates like deer, wild boars but will eat anything that they can catch including fellow predators like sloth bear, snakes and crocodiles. Unlike many other species of cat tigers are pretty good endurance allying them to chase the prey lot longer than their sprinting cousins .king of jungle is title often associated with lions but lion hunts on plains indeed tiger rules the jungle .their territory is made up of dense vegetation tall grasses and trees making orange with black stripe the perfect camouflage when stocking preys habitat of vertical lines .As their territory shrinks their prey disappears .tiger need to take any opportunity available to eat. They can go up to two weeks without food and when they do eat they will consume around one fifth of their body weight .When fresh prey is not available they will mussel their way in from stealing catches from smaller predator. They have huge fans the longest of any big cat. Their preferred method of killing prey is to clip the powerful jaws around their prey’s throat as fixating them. This strategy allow them kill the prey weighing up to 1 tons including water buffaloes. Unfortunately the diet of some tigers is made up of us .human eating tigers are mostly older tigers who can’t catch other prey so they go after humans .There is an expectation on this role however and it’s the sundarbans a vast coastal forests located mostly on the southern greaches of Bangladesh along its border with India in this unique habitat young healthy tigers prey on humans –kills approximately 50 people every year.

In order to combat this conservation group called world conservation union started distributing and wearing masks whose face is on the back of their heads. This to a tiger makes a look like they are always watching them preventing them from being able to sneak them upon humans. This hilarious technique has been incredibly successful and reduces the number of attacks on wearing masks to zero. This idea come from nature and tiger coincidentally use the same strategy .If you look the back of the tigers ears you will notice two white spots somewhat resembling of your eyes making you look like they are always looking behind them. A lot of other species do this as well many butterfly and birds have markings that looks like eye in order to detour predators to sneak on them.

Unlike lion tigers are solitary usually only meeting to mate. Mating can happen year around with gestation lasting 3-4 months .Cubs weight around 1kg when born and feed on mother’s milk for around 6 months. Adult tigers provide a lot of nourishment to their cubs even letting them eat before they eat. They need lots of care and protection from other predators even from their father. It is said that male will kill their cubs in order to make their mother interested in mating again. When juvenile male are older ready to settle their own then initially will setup near their mum .Then later they move out and find territory unclaimed by other tigers or they challenge other male for their territory. This is the most dangerous point in tiger’s life. Tigers territory is huge some male have territory of 290sqkm and they mark it with scent using their urine and anal gland, so let other tiger notice stay out. The female tiger territory is much smaller with some female have territory of about 80 sq km. Tigers have webbed toes of tem living near bodies of water. Tigers have adapted for a semi aquatic lifestyle and they are excellent swimmers. They can swim up to 7km in a single go and 29km in a day .They appears to enjoy being on water, they push back greater volume of water on each stroke with webbed paws to propel on water.

Tigers occasionally will mate with lions they only have made on zoos. If male is lion and female is tiger its called liger. And if female is lion and male is tiger its called tigon. Other way the hybrids are infertile. Some Bengal tigers have a recessive gene that makes them white tiger, the most gorgeous animal that ever walked on earth. The classic coloration of most tigers is caused by the pigments Eumelanin which turns fur black and pheomelanin which turns the fur orange. The production of pheomelanin is triggered by the gene SLC45A2. White tigers carry the mutated version of this gene which prevents them from production of orange pigmentation.

The tiger count has dramatically fallen in 100 years by 96%. Fewer than 4000 tigers remain in wild now. At the turn of 21 centuries approximately 100000 ruled the wild year 1900, living as far as turkey and far north as Russia.

Tiger trade as complex problem poaching as a royal game, medicine, human animal conflicts so on. Horrific reality of tiger poaching has challenged conservation .Dozens of confiscated snares, traps, automatic rifles has made many innocent tigers as well as wild animals its victim. Some loss their limbs toes ,lucky one are rescued but death to some is slow an unbearably painful to innocent ones including cubs .Since, the world is busy making money and earning luxury the poor people have been engaged to fulfill the demand of high-class society out there .Making medicines ,wines ,clothing ,carpet materials as showoff and so on.

Over the past few decades programs have been put for protection of tigers and their habitat with the help of global community. And still there is a hope, lots of things can be done but it has to be now. As Leonardo DiCaprio (UN messenger of peace) at the opening of climate summit 2014 told on UN assembly “you are the last best hope of earth we ask you protect it or we and all living things we cherish are history.”

Background extinctions are a naturally occuring (and important) development within the economy of nature. There are a number of reasons for a species’ population to come to an end organically. A lack of genetic diversity following a vicariance event makes them vulnerable as they may not be able to evolve in accordance to the changing environments around them. An influx of inbreeding will have greater effect on genetic variation. Perhaps habitat deterioration makes an environment no longer livable, reducing and fragmenting populations that have difficulty with far dispersal. Environmental conditions are subject to change and may do so too quickly, working against certain organisms. Epidemics spread, competition is inevitable. If too many of these variables come into effect at once, it could be detrimental for the survival of entire ecosystems. Background extinction is somewhat regulated by the environment to keep ecosystems at an equilibrium.

A mass extinction, on the other hand, is characterized as a geologically short interval of time in which at least three quarters of all life on Earth is lost. These mass extinctions are not commonplace, having only occured five times since the beginning of complex life on Earth, but it has been stipulated that the planet’s sixth mass extinction is underway. The ecosystem works similarly to a power grid; the worst damage rarely comes from the initial shock, but, rather, through a trickle down effect that ignites a number of failures down the line as a result of the loss of power. The effectively leads to a system collapse. The problem may be a the disappearance of a few species, but the interactions that others are designed to have with this one species is felt all over that particular ecosystem. All parts are somehow interconnected and therefore impacted in a way. This can happen through relationships like prey/predator or possibly through a symbiotic partnership that formed through direct co-evolution.

Contrary to the workings of background extinction, mass extinctions have too many of these smaller extinctions with drives system failures, resulting in life or death scenarios for many others down the chain. A good example of this would be the dependance that many species have on bees. Anthropogenic impact on the environment becomes more extensive and injurious each year, outcompeting the natural ecological processes and causing severe damage to the habitats and resources that were once supportive of a mosaic collection of plants and animals. As the basic survival tools once depended on by an array of species becomes unavailable, the longevity of many forms of biota is compromised. This hurt is felt all over the globe, a force so strong that it causes an irreversible fracture in the evolutionary line.

A sweeping extinction of majority of terrestrial biodiversity takes place. As a result of this, many scientists have taken up the term “Anthropocene” and have presented it to be the newest epoch. It is predicted that during this new epoch, Earth will experience a grand fall of biodiversity at the hand of humankind, the most dominant geological force. Until now, no known species has ever significantly decreased the biological diversity across the planet (Cafaro, 2015). The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity estimates that within the next one or two hundred years, humanity could eliminate one out of every three species. In an article by Philip Cafaro, professor of philosophy at Colorado State University, he discusses the three plausible ways in which to view the sixth mass extinction; as a loss of important resources, as an interspecies genocide, as a form of evidence confirming that the human species is a cancer on the biosphere (Cafaro, 2015).

These three approaches bring meaning to the idea of a new mass extinction and points in the direction of how Cafaro believes this situation should be responded to. The Holocene is the last great geological epoch the world has seen. During this time, the influence of man on his surroundings developed into a great morphological and geological power. Humans have been modifying natural landscapes ever since the beginning of this epoch, which started around 11,500 years ago following the last ice age. People developed the ability to change their local environments, but this power was limited to their immediate spaces. Agriculture and animal domestication was utilized, forests were converted into farmers’ fields, the concentration of people in certain territories led to the construction and rise of cities.

As a result of some of the technological advancements made at the start of the industrial period, humans were able to extend this reach much further. The steam engine was invented in 1748, and it was not long after that the great Industrial Revolution was in full swing. People all over the map now had new access to goods and wealth by newly booming economics, and commodity production and consumption was revered. The profound, systematic effect humans were having upon the planet rapidly grew stronger and became truly global following the end of World War II. Human-wrought impact steered away from exclusively local alterations and it is argued that currently this impact resembles that of significant past geological transformations, such as the retirement of one epoch as a contemporary one takes its place.

This new epoch is commonly known as the Anthropocene. The term “Anthropocene” was coined by a Nobel laureate named Paul Crutzen. Crutzen is a Dutch atmospheric chemist renowned for the work he has done on the science of climate change. In 2002, he wrote an article that was published in Nature arguing that the level of anthropogenically induced changes that have been made to the planet thus far have effectively moved Earth out of the Holocene stage. The epoch that is to follow has much less climate stability due to human activity. His approach quickly took hold, and the term has been taken up by scientists around the world. The phrase has also been used to potentially signify the start of the sixth mass extinction, but whether or not this mass extinction has yet come into effect is currently in debate. Those who believe that the sixth mass extinction has not yet started may claim that viewing the vast array of conservation concerns through the lense of extinction is simplistic.

The idea that earth has already entered the sixth mass extinction would imply that the entire field of conservation biology is useless, simply an effort to save our house as it is already in the process of imploding. Many who disagree with a current mass extinction are at a disagreeance about what point it should be declared at. Critics believe that in the midst of a mass extinction, conservation focal points would not be placed on animals like elephants or tigers, as they generally are now, but on more core species like rats or fungus that are modernly abundant. For a mass extinction to be underway, mankind must have already passed the point of no return, which is a line that is perhaps unremarkable and difficult to pinpoint. As impending doom is still reversible when looking at the current status of global biodiversity, this alone would be the reasoning behind why a mass extinction is not yet in play. The negative consequences of human impact are hardly contested.

Strong concentrations of chemicals have been used for human use, crop aids like nitrogen have been harnessed and heavily synthesized, applied more as agricultural fertilizers than fixed naturally within all natural soils on Earth. The abundance of nitrogen in the environment, through application onto crops as well as concentrated in the manure of livestock, has led to the increase of eutrophication after it travels into the water system (PAUL C). The spike in fossil fuel emissions through activities like animal and crop agriculture and deforestation have led to the release of a number of greenhouse gases. They become substantially more and more concentrated in the atmosphere, particularly throughout the past two centuries. Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels have risen by more than 30% and methane (CH4) by more than 100%. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reported in 1995 that “The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate” and followed up in 2001 stating that “There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities”.

All of these factors contribute to ecosystem alterations, and the quick changes that organisms must adapt to are coming in too rapidly for them to keep up. A study was conducted looking at and comparing a compilation of statistics regarding a range of contemporary conservation concerns between 1890 and 1990. The results of this study indicated that the world population has increased by a factor of four, urban population by 13, industrial outputs by 40, energy use by 16, CO2 emissions by 17. During this time, conservation efforts struggled. Blue whale populations decreased by 99.7% and forest area by 20%. The numbers regarding the increase of activities associated with human population growth directly correspond with the decrease of things like the biodiversity and old growth forested areas. The spike in human populations come hand in hand with a variety of environmental stressors, with a significant emphasis on biodiversity loss.

Whenever I thought of service-learning, I would usually only connect it to just volunteering. Going out into the community to lend a hand, and help out with no expectation for financial gain whatsoever. Hearing about the service-learning requirement for this biology class, I thought I just had to go out and just get hours for cleaning up somewhere with an organization. However, upon reading the rubric for this project I came to gain a better understanding of what was required of me. I realized that service-learning isn’t just about volunteering to do something, but to learn from the experience, and gain more understanding about topics and see a bigger picture of previously acquired knowledge. With that in mind, I performed my service-learning with the Mecklenberg county park and recreation department.

The Mecklenberg county park and recreation preserves and maintains over 200+ parks and facilities covering almost 20,000 acres of parkland. They have various units, one of which is the Division of Nature Preserves and Natural Resources. The Division of Nature Preserves and Natural Resources established in 1993, aims for the protection and conservation of the parks designated as Nature Preserves and the overall biodiversity of the county. Their goal is to protect the county’s biological resources and natural areas while providing opportunities for environmental education, nature-based programs, and outdoor recreation. They also restore habitats for endangered and threatened plant species, monitor diverse wildlife populations, and conserve natural communities such as bottomland hardwood forests and native grasslands.

They are funded by grants, donations, fees from environmental education and outdoor recreation programs and services, and the Mecklenburg County property taxes.

I initially reached out to them after seeing a flier for a project called “weed warriors”, which was intended as an opportunity to connect with people and nature, all while helping to remove invasive species. However, they needed help at a garden and so I agreed and ended up working at the Ezell Farms Community Gardens. I had initially pictured a small garden but upon arriving at the location, it was more like an actual farm. It was sectioned into plots, each one allocated to a different person who planted crops and altogether they all tend to the farm as a whole. The task assigned to myself and other volunteers was to weed and clear out 3 particularly overgrown plots. The owner of the plots had been unable to visit the garden in a while and so the plots had become overgrown with sprawling tomato-like plants, pigweeds, and other kinds of weed.

It is a known fact that when a garden is not properly tended to, unwanted plants such as weeds would begin to grow and compete with the other plants for mush needed resources. Being able to frequently remove these weeds, would create a much more conducive environment with less competition for the useful plants. Weeding is important not just to maximize nutrients but also growth space for intended plants. It is also important because when there is an abundance of weed on a garden or farm, there is a possibility of camouflaged pests and diseases that would affect the crops. On the garden, the other plots had various thriving plants, with fewer weeds in comparison to the unattended plot. The unattended plot became a breeding ground for not just weeds but rodents. These rodents would go on to be a threat to the other plots, making it a need to clear out the plot. There were also different kinds of pests that were uncovered in the soil as we cleared the plot. To clear out the plot, we had to dig out the root of the plants, uproot them and load them onto a wheelbarrow. We did this for each of the plots we were assigned to clean up. While clearing, we were told by the other adults on the farm, that it is very important to pay attention to the roots of the unwanted plant. This was because merely cutting off the stem of a plant and leaving behind the root is not effective to get rid of the weed. A weed would have less chance to grow back or take more time to grow back when the roots are completely uprooted compared to just cutting off the stem.

An important part of the plants I was able to relate to a topic in class, was the different roots and stems I saw on the farm. The tomato-like plant we cleared out, grew in stolons, and the pigweeds had erect stems and had thorns on them which stung quite a lot. Most of the roots were adventitious and spread out, with the pigweeds having very branched reddish taproots. The adventitious rooted stolons were particularly hard to uproot because they grew in a group-like manner. We had to use shovels to dig up a shared major root, then with shears, we cut up the stolons into separate pieces. The pigweeds were easier to uproot as they grew as individual plants and just required more care due to their thorny stem. After learning about roots in class, it was even more interesting to see the different plants on the same plots, having very different root types and stems and being able to thrive together. I was able to conclude that this difference in growth, was their way of maximizing the nutrients they shared. The pigweeds grew upright and had direct access to the sun, therefore their alternating oval-shaped leaves, while the tomato-like plants had leaves that were slightly larger since they were on the ground and had other plants towering above them.

Weeds are known for their notorious tendency to grow wherever and whenever they wish, and this habit almost always proves to be disadvantageous to crops. In agriculture, weeds are a major pest and pain to farmers as they compete with crops for sunlight, water, and other nutrients. These weeds even serve as breeding grounds for other pests that threaten the growth of the other plants around them, leading to the death of these plants and in turn loss of money for the farmers. Beyond being threats to crops, environmental weeds, undesirable as they are even invading our beaches, bushlands, waterways, and threatening our natural environment as a whole. Their invasion also leads to the death of native plants and often the animals, birds, insects and other creatures that depend upon them. This loss would then result in further declines in local biodiversity.

Every country has plants that are native to itself, and sometimes when there is a change or introduction of a new species, there is the possibility of a tilt in the ecological balance and overall biodiversity as a result. In a country like Australia, environmental weeds are pegged to be one of the major threats to the natural environment, most especially invasive species which are more than always, exotic plants. Almost all of Australia’s native vegetation communities have been invaded, or are vulnerable to invasion by exotic species that could result in changes to the structure, species composition, fire frequency and abundance of native communities. The exotic species would begin to outcompete the native species, and since the growth of weeds is usually hard to control, they would take over the area. In turn, the composition and ecosystem of the area would be subjected to change. These invasive plants would be almost impossible to control as they are also very excellent at surviving and dominate wherever they find themselves in. Just like the overgrown plots, I helped clear, which had been left unattended for only about 4-5 months, weeds have a strong ability to grow in abundance over a short period. This is partly due to them being able to adapt to any condition.

The most commonly known used method of combatting these invasive species are; the use of herbicides and manually weeding them out. In small gardens, weeding is much more common, while in larger-scale areas, spraying herbicides is the easiest way to get rid of the unwanted plants. Using stem injections is also a way to combat weeds. However, these chemical control approaches tend to affect the soil by lowering the pH and tainting the crops grown on them. This, in turn, affects the consumers of these crops. For this reason, the safest way to remove weeds is by clearing out the land by hand removing or crowning.

The growth of weeds in our environment is one that cannot be stopped. Weeds just as bad as they are, also have some benefits to them. Weeds are nature’s way of covering bare soil. An exposed soil surface is at risk of losing organic nutrients and `erosion. The growth of native weeds helps replenish organic matter, restore soil life, absorb, conserve, and recycle soluble nutrients that would otherwise leach away, absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and also provide habitat for insects and animals. Weeds are also a source of food for grazing animals.

However, since weeds cannot be completely eradicated, their damage can be reduced. At the Ezell farm, the people make sure to frequently remove weeds as they grow, and along the bare paths that are susceptible to their growth, they would pour stones. It is also important to take into consideration, the roots of these weeds, as any plant has a high chance of re-growth if its root is left unpulled from the soil. Mulching is also an effective way to keep weeds from growing as it also prevents exposure of the soil surface. As for invading species, it is important to know that humans’ movement, is the most associated cause of introducing new plant species into an environment where they ultimately take over. Being careful not to plant something foreign, which could later become problematic to native plants is a way to reduce the chances for the occurrence of invasive species.

When I was younger, my grandparents had a farm, and I remember my grandpa frequently going to the farm and picking out little plants which turned out to be weeds. With this service-learning experiment, I am able to better understand weeds as plants, that are as undesirable and toxic, as they are useful. Weeds are always going to continue to grow and if better care is not taken, it could become quite burdensome. This is why as a society it is important to understand the different plants around us, the ones that are beneficial, and the ones that are harmful. Paying close attention to our gardens and farms and spending time to plant beneficial trees as we aim to make a greener planet, and leaving less room for unwanted weeds.

Leather back turtle information

The leatherback was named this due to a layer of hard rubbery skin along its back, this is supported by many bone plates. The scientific name of the turtle is a Dermochelys Coriacea. The type of species is the only one in the world, which doesn’t have a hard-shell. This can comes as a disadvantage for protection and defence. The Turtle has many distinguished features compared to other species of turtles; this includes its flexible carapace which is the fleshy shell of the turtle. The turtle has 7 ridges which run along its back. The turtle doesn’t have scales except when it is born. The leatherback turtle has large flippers which boost the turtle’s speeds in the water and help it to swim, however the turtle doesn’t have claws. The Carpace is grey or black has various white spots, the animal ranges from 4 – 6 feet and weighs from 300 – 400 kg, the turtle can live up to 45 yrs old. The habitat of the turtle is found in coastal areas in central eastern Australia this extends from the sunshine coast, New south Wales, South East Australia, Tasmania eastern South Australia and in western parts on the coast of western parts of south west Australia. The turtle has the widest distribution of all of the species of marine turtles. Most of the turtle’s habitat however is mostly focused off the Queensland and New South wales coast. The turtles are usually found in larger bays as a group, they nest on the sand of the beach from February to march., they can also be found seen in estuaries and rivers It is harder to see them out at sea as they can go up to a depth of 1280. Metres. And can stay under for up to 85minutes. The habitat has had been stable however the turtles have to re locate sometimes due to coastal developments which are implemented. This is the only pressure that they suffer or pressure.

Threats to the species

Leatherback turtles’ numbers are declining due to various pressures. The species haven’t been recorded since 1996 which shows that not enough is being done to create a stable population for the animals. Main threats that have raised is due to pollution and debris indigestion, international fisheries by catch. Climate change is also recorded to take part in the decline of the animals. Illegal egg harvesting also contributes to the decline of the species. Coastal developments also intrude and reduce the breeding grounds for the animals

Conservation measures for the turtle

Actions that are being implemented however due to nests eggs not being recorded since 1996 I believe more could be done. A recovery plan was implemented in July in 2013 the document has strategies and plans which aim to recover and save six different species of turtles, in which the Leatherback registers under.

The Leadbeater Possum Inherited its name in 1867 which was named after the Taxidermist at the Museum of Victoria, john Leadbeater. The Common name for the animal is a fairy possum. The Leadbeater is also resembled on the Australia faunal emblem. The possum spends most of its time in ash and snow gum forests and, it leaps from branch to branch, they are almost impossible to see due to this factor. The Leadbeater’s food source is provided by wattles within these forests. They take their food back to there hole within the tree. Even though they spring from tree to tree they cannot fly, The Leadbeater’s also could cover up to 204,400 hectares if they were far more highly populated. They are small in size around

The Leadbeater possum is threatened due to various pressures including habitat loss which decreases where there habitat they are in and also potential habitat, categorises that come under this which reduce there habitat include wildfires, Industrial logging forest clearing for access roads and salvage logging, if procurations aren’t embedded the possums future could be very short, this is due to their numbers estimated around 1200. There is so little left that in the 1990s They started bringing them in captivity at zoos, for example the Haysville sanctuary and the Melbourne zoo.

Conservation measures for the Leadbeater possum

Many animals suffer from habitat loss due to timber logging however the possum consumes the pulps on and within the tree, they slowly get confined more and more so Zoos in Australia such as the heasville sanctuary have begun a captive breeding program during 2012 to hopefully boost the numbers of the animal, this was made under a department of sustainability and Environment permit, however the program wasn’t entirely successful as one of the possums died from a supposedly pre – existing condition, 3 more animals were brought to the Sanctuary. However, some of the breeding was also unsuccessful as one of the males was found to have various tumours throughout his body. The program continued to bring in possums but there were more and more deaths since 2015 there still importunely has been recorded to be zero successful breeding.

The Australian Sea lion can weigh up to 300kg when it is a large adult and grows up to 2.5 metres and 1.8 metres for females. The Sea lion has specific colours of dark brown have a light yellow main and a lighter underbody, females are usually a silver. The seals are easily differed from other seals due to their dog like snouts and small ears. The seals are located on the offshore islands such as kangaroo island, pages island etc. They feed on crab’s birds rock lobsters, small sharks fish squid octopuses and sometime birds. Minor changes in their habitat can be due to them being hunted by great white sharks. There breeding season is from January to June.

Threats to the species

As the species inhabits in water pressures such as marine debris which is the largest threat to the sea lion, other Secondary threats include habitat degration. And also aquaculture such as pollution, oil spills, and gill nets which kill many seals as they get caught in them. In 2010 a report was published which found that up to 374 Australian seals were killed. Another threat to the species which occurred in the 18th and 19th century was the sea lion being hunted for its hide and oil. However, this eventually subsided overtime.

Conservation for the seals

The sea lions have been placed in the endangered species act and the marine mammal protection act. The species is also protected under other legislations such as the Great Australian Bight marine park, the species is also protected under the National Australian legislation, these are to name a few protection measures which have been implemented. The legislations and protection aim to recover the seals population to bring them to a stable or increasing population. These protection acts assist fishing , agriculture, and tourism to advise and guide them so the species threats are reduced.

The pink Pamila is a plant that reaches 1- 2 metres. The scientific name is the Pimelea ferruginea and the common name is a rice flower. The plant is a shrub which ha s large green leaves and groups of magenta pink flowers during spring. The location of where they live can be controlled by demand for people wanting them in their gardens and new urban areas which are located near these coastal areas. The climate they grow in is warm temperate, cool temperature, and Mediterranean climates. There lifespan is Perennial, which is a plant which lives over two years. They are found in woodlands of Grey box, Eucaliptus iron bark, moluc cana. These areas where the plant is located are in the located in coastal areas in south western Australia, for example from the Nullarbor to Geraldton, which is a distance of 1,600km. The plant is also in many Australian gardens.

Threats

There are various threats that the plant faces which decrease the plants numbers. Threats to the species of plant include habitat loss, rubbish dumping and uncontrolled access through to where they are located, soil erosion, and weeds which take over the area of the plants. wildfires also have a large impact and effect the species of plant.

Conservation measures for the Pink Pamila

“An agreement has been made by the Australian National Parks and Wildlife service to protect remaining pants at the Camden Golf club are being protected and to share knowledge and advise people about being aware and protecting the Pink Pimelea Habitat so t can increase the numbers in population of the shrub.”

Abstract

The Amur tiger (Tigris altaicia) and the cougar (puma concolor) both belong to the Felidae family. While they belong to the same family, they have very different histories. The amur tiger is always on the brink of extinction and facing multiple threats to its population. While the cougar has only recently seen its population decrease. The amur tiger is the subject of many conservation projects while the cougar does not have any protection and is currently in a human-animal conflict.

Species Background

The amur tiger (Tigris altaicia)(family: Felidae) is one of the most endangered species in the world with population numbers fall and rise dramatically over the last century, falling as low as just 20-30 animals in the 1930’s. Native to primarily far east Russia and the northeast of China in the Boreal Forest ecosystem (Tian et al. 2011) the population in China is typically dependant on movement from the Russian population. The Tigris altaicia had its ICUN red list status changed to endangered in 2007 an improvement from 1996 when they were listed as critically endangered. The boreal forest allows a large forested area for the Tigris altaicia to hunt species like wild boar, red deer and sika deer (Kerley et al. 2015)

The Cougar (puma concolor) (family: Felidae) is native to the Americas, with its main habitat of choice being grasslands, shrublands, dessert and rainforest. The variety of habitat allows the puma concolor to be widespread across a vast number of countries. The Puma concolor is been listed as least concerned on the ICUNs red list, however their population is also decreasing particularly in mature individuals (Nielsen et al. 2015).

Population and Threats

ICUN red list has listed the tigers altaicia population as stable, with the population increasing over the last 5 years the Tigris altaicia has a wild population of 500. However, while the population numbers are increasing, due to the previously declining population and geographic fragmentation there is a concern over the genetic diversity of the remaining Tigris altaicia. A lack of genetic variability may soon emerge as an extinction threat due to the reduction of the gene flow. Although the population of 500 wild Tigris altaicia, genetically there is around 20-30 individuals. (Russello at al. 2004), this is the lowest of all species of wild tigers. ICUN red list has listed the tigers altaicia population as stable, with the population increasing over the last 5 years the Tigris altacia has a wild population of 500. However, while the population numbers are increasing, due to the previously declining population and geographic fragmentation there is a concern over the genetic diversity of the remaining Tigris altaicia. A lack of genetic variability may soon emerge as an extinction threat due to the reduction of the gene flow. Although the population of 500 wild Tigris altaicia, genetically there is around 20-30 individuals. (Russello at al. 2004) A lack of genetic variability means that the species may not be able to evolve changing environments, making them more susceptible to extinction. Deforestation, population fragmentation and poaching have been the main extinction threats to the Tigris alticaia. It is estimated that around 20-30 Tigris altaicia are killed each year, they are mainly killed for their coats as well as anatomical parts such as their bones. These are in high demand due to their use in Traditional Chinese medicine (Wildlife Conservation Society 2008).

Although the puma concolor population has not faced the dwindling numbers that the Tigris altaicia has, the population has in recent years begun to decline. The main area of decline is amongst mature individuals. The western US population is estimated to be around 10,000 and it is unclear how dense the population is within the Amazon Basin (Nielsen et al. 2015). The population has seen a decline in recent years, this is due to the many threats facing the puma concolor. A loss of habitat is the main extinction threat facing the puma concolor. Residential and commercial development encroaching onto the puma concolor habitats is resulting in more and more human interaction. The destruction of the puma concolor habitat requires them to travel into more urban areas looking for resources Urban areas destroying the habitats is also resulting in a lack of genetic diversity due to population fragmentation (Vickers et al. 2015) The introduction of highways is decreasing the density of the puma concolor in an area. There has been an increase in human caused death amongst puma concolor in recent years, this may be due to increased number of humans and puma concolor sharing the shame space. The largest cause of death from human contact is through hunting, which is legal in most countries, but recently there has been an increase in the amount of puma concolor killed by cars on highways. (Ernest et al. 2014)

Mitigation Strategies

Tigris altaicia is one of the most identifiable mammals in the world, as a result there has been a large conservation effort to counter the extinction threats that the Tigris altaicia may face. These include tougher poaching restrictions placed in Russia. These restrictions made it harder for poachers to hunt but also tougher to transport, trade or store any product relating to the Tigris altaicia along with tougher punishments.

Due to their high population there are no laws in place to protect the puma concolor from being hunted. However, there are many nature reserves that exist in order to preserve a habitat big enough for the local population of puma concolor to survive. Recent studies have highlighted the issue of urbanising the habitat of the puma concolor, it is hoped by conservationists that these studies and the increase of human-puma concolor contact, that there may be new protections for the habitats in the future. (Vickers et al. 2015)

Future viability

While there are many conservation efforts in place to protect the Tigris altaicia from extinction I believe it may be too late to protect them in the long run. The affects previous population declines have had on the genetic variability has left the Tigris altaicia constantly on the brink of extinction. As with the Tigris altaicia, I believe that the future viability of the puma concolor is not very promising. The continued spread of human environments may eventually destroy the habitat of the puma concolor, leading to more human related puma concolor deaths. This could be halted if mitigation strategies were put into place.

Costa Rica can provide insight into how, despite the common practice, it is possible to have sustainable practices that do not harm the environment and still experience economic growth. The focus of this essay will be on tourism as it is Costa Rica’s main source of income and because tourism itself accounts for around 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions (Lenzen et al., 2018). It is important to identify cases of current practice that go against common practice as it can provide an example for others to follow and proves that it is possible for a country to have a green economy. Lenzen et al. (2018) make the point that tourism is often seen as a low-impact way of developing an economy and warn that it is actually more carbon intensive than other forms of economic development.

The Blue Flag Ecology Program is one of many programs that incentivize sustainable practices in Costa Rican communities. This program identifies ten different aspects of the environment and society such as education, health, beaches etc. and rewards the community should they see that people are practicing healthy and sustainable ways of living (Parker, 2017). Receiving a Blue Flag for a tourist area in Costa Rica is seen as an achievement and incentivizes the local community to work together to ensure the environment is being looked after, that the people live in a healthy way and that tourists do not damage but rather enrich the area when they visit (Parker, 2017). The Blue Flag Ecology Program is part of the culture in Costa Rican society, as well as other ecology programs, and so it promotes the development of sustainable tourism practices, such as the Maquenque Eco Lodge. This eco lodge is just one of many like it that ensures sustainable tourism. Visitors can offset their carbon footprint by donating $12 to programs for environmental education and conservation projects, or by planting a native tree in the area (Costa Rica Real Sustainable Tourism – Maquenque Eco Lodge, n.d.).

Costa Rica’s sustainable practices are found all over the economy, proven by the fact that the country was powered almost exclusively by renewable energy in 2018 (Simms, 2019). Also, Costa Rica and South Korea are the only two countries in the world to reverse the trend of deforestation, with the Central American country increasing forest cover by 30% in the past 30 years (Simms, 2019). The country also announced that by 2021 it would be the first country in the world to ban single-use plastics (Simms, 2019). This shows that the government is not just focusing on tourism, but is practicing sustainability for all aspects of the economy and environment, ensuring the problem is genuinely dealt with.

Costa Rica’s economy is still growing despite their move to what can be called a green economy, as from 2015 to 2019 the country’s economy grew at an average of 3.3% each year (GDP) (Focus Economics, 2020). Costa Rica’s geographical neighbors, Mexico and the United States, saw average growth each year in the same period of 1.98% and 2.42% respectively (Focus Economics, 2020), showing that Costa Rica’s economy is growing at a rate that is comparable to, if not better than, economies that are centered on fossil fuels and unsustainable practices. It can be said that Costa Rica has managed to decouple economic growth from environmental pressure. However, whilst this is a great achievement for a country that is small and still developing, it does not reflect global practices. It is unlikely that other countries will follow suit.