Category: Conservation

Water conservation is the careful use and preservation of water supply, and it includes both the quantity and quality of water utilized. Water is an essential asset for the nourishment of all life. The fundamental demand for all activities appropriates local use to the agricultural industry.

With the regular expanding weight of the human population, there has been serious tension on water resources. Negligence of customary water bodies like tanks and lakes, unpredictable abuse of groundwater, and incorrect preservation of surface water systems have bothered the issue. Still further and is no doubt going to grow in the years to come.

There are various approaches to making your water last nowadays. One simple yet often disregarded strategy to cut your water bill is to use your water twice. Unlike electricity, you can reuse water again and again. That’s the idea of water conservation.

To point out, even more, Water Conservation is the practice of efficiently preserving, controlling, and managing water resources.

Water conservation has become an essential practice in every part of the world, even in regions where water appears to be enough. It is the most practical and environment-friendly approach to lessen our need for water. Likewise, using less water puts less weight on our sewage treatment facilities, which use an ample amount of energy for heating water.

For the past 50 years, freshwater extraction from icebergs has expanded by three folds. Because of progression in life, a more significant amount of water is a need. This likewise implies a growth in the interest for the power supply with water.

Conserving water can likewise make the life of your septic system longer. This is by lessening soil immersion and reducing any contamination because of leaks. Overloading municipal sewer systems can also flow untreated sewage to lakes and rivers. The smaller the amount of water coursing through these systems, the lower the probability of contamination. Even the few groups like the community-wide domestic water preservation avoided the expensive sewage system development.

What are the Water-Related Problems?

The main problems with water are water shortage, shortages of clean water, and waterborne diseases. A lack of access to safe water caused 80% of all deaths worldwide. More than 5 million people die each year from water-related diseases such as hepatitis A, dysentery, and severe diarrhea.

Approximately 900 million to 1.1 billion people worldwide lack clean drinking water, and 2.4 billion lack basic sanitation. Water demand is increasing at a rate faster than population growth. Over the past 70 years, while the world’s population has tripled, water demand has increased sixfold. The United Nations estimates that in 2025 that 5 billion of the world’s 8 billion people will live in areas where water is scarce. Many of these people will have difficulty accessing enough water to meet their basic needs.

Increasing populations, growing agriculture, industrialization, and high living standards have boosted water demand. All this while drought, overuse, and pollution have decreased the supplies. To make up for this shortfall, water is often taken from lakes, rivers, and wetlands, causing serious environmental damage. According to a 2003 United Nations report, ‘Across the globe, groundwater is being depleted by the demands of megacities and agriculture, while fertilizer runoff and pollution are threatening water quality and public health.’

It seems there are alarming predictions every week related to water, such as disease, crop disasters, starvation, famines, and war. Safe drinking water and sanitation are major challenges in many developing countries, from shanty towns and areas to urban poor cities. At least in rural areas, the poor can dig wells and take care of the sanitation in their fields.

Water Pollution

The causes of much of the pollution in rural areas are untreated sewage resulting from a lack of toilets and sewers. Salts, fertilizers, and pesticides from irrigated land contaminate the flowing water and groundwater supplies and the saltwater entering overused aquifers. Places with sewers often have no wastewater treatment facilities while the sewage becomes dumped right into the water supplies, a source from which people draw.

Agriculture-related pollution such as fertilizer, pesticides, animal wastes, herbicides, salts from evaporated irrigation water, and silt from deforestation washes into the streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and the sea. This agricultural runoff sometimes severs creating ‘dead zones’ in coastal water zones.

Industry-related water pollution comes from mining and manufacturing toxic chemicals and heavy metals. Power plant emissions then create acid rain that contaminates the surface water.

People often bathe, wash their clothes, and swim in disgusting water. They also drink the water of uncertain quality from ponds and streams used by animals.

The water and air around the cities are polluted, and the water shortages and quality in rural areas are still rampant.

Water Shortages

Many countries worldwide face serious water shortages with its root not really about the shortage of water but of overpopulation. The worse one to know is knowing people living in places where it is unfit for human habitation. Often, water shortages are local problems rather than national ones. Water shortages are worse in areas with little rain or water and lots of people.

Repeated drilling and well building caused the water table to drop in some places as much as six feet a year. This is the reason water tables are falling almost everywhere. Rich countries can compensate for these shortages in some areas by building dams, tapping deep water aquifers, importing food, recycling wastewater, or desalinating seawater. Unfortunately, developing countries are vulnerable to doing these things.

Water shortage is also a big problem in many cities. Water is only turned on a couple of times a day for about half an hour each time. People with money can have special storage tanks to collect water during those times. This can allow them to have water around the clock. People without storage tanks collect water in jugs and buckets and often take bucket baths when water is not turned on.

Global warming can worsen these water shortages in some places and create water shortages in other places.

Solutions to Water Problems

There are major disagreements between environmentalists and agriculturists on managing available water. But, water experts say that progress made in cleaning water and making it cheap has only encouraged people to waste it.

However, the goal of planners in solving water problems is to keep water cheap so poor people can get it but at the same time keep it expensive, so people don’t waste it. In places where water is subsidized, people tend to waste it due to the low prices. The obvious solution was to end the subsidies.

The most practical solution is reusing and recycling water. Some cities can meet a fifth of their water needs by recycling water. Worldwide, two-thirds of urban water don’t get treated. Systems that treat and reuse water are often the least costly. The most efficient way to clean water but have difficulty overcoming the aversion is to have drinking water derived from sewage.

Ultraviolet radiation is a popular means of disinfecting water but is less effective when the water contains sediments and sludge. For places where water is collected from dirty ponds and lakes, people have to clean it by folding clean clothes several times before placing them over a jug as the water pours through it. The cloth acts as a filter from all sorts of disease-causing organisms.

Women in Bangladesh have done the said process, not out of necessity but out of tradition. But instead of using cloth, they used cotton to remove the course debris. The best way to employ this method is to fold the cloth to four or eight thicknesses, wash, then sun dry the cloth after each filtering. At least in this method, it can remove the zooplankton that carries diseases such as cholera.

Water Conservation As A Solution

These old and tried and true methods are being brought back to conserve water through harvesting, transporting, and storing rainwater. These methods are brought back because modern technology can’t solve problems in small communities. Systems that use catchments, gutters and other channels, storage tanks, and gravity or pump-driven delivery systems. These are cheaper or at least equal in cost to drilling and building a well.

Raised ridges to 10 meters wide alternate with shallow canals to channel water. They are either harvested rain or deviated river water. This helps water crops, stores heat, and keeps the fields warm on cold nights.

The US and Canada are known as one of the areas which lead the wildlife conservation action in the world. In Canada, there are governmental associations such as Canadian Wildlife Service (CWA). There are also some NGOs including Canadian Wildlife Federation, Nature Canada and WWF Canada are known as the national level and playing a significant role with government conservation agencies. In the US, there are also many governmental scientific institutions for research, laws and associations. There are also non governmental associations such as sportsman clubs. They both lead the international wildlife conservation. How wildlife conservation changed over time from European settlement until now in the US and Canada is an important historical questions of the investigation. Understanding of their history of wildlife conservation will provide good examples for the other countries or areas where currently working to develop their system and for the future. The US and Canada went through similar situations and solved in similar ways. The government first tried to protect wildlife and nongovernment organizations were founded to support protecting them. Finally, they started leading worldwide wildlife conservation by founding international organizations such as WWF.

Before the wildlife conservation started in the US, Native Americans lived with wild animals. Most of Native Americans such as Sioux, Arapaho and Blackfoot were hunting mainly small mammals with small amount of large animals. They also gathered nuts, berries and fruits, but the majority was planted crops. It is believed that there were about 3-5 million Native Americans in the area where now the US at that time. Many kinds of diseases from Europe caused depopulation of wildlife especially in dense populations of animals or humans because of lack of antibodies. Additionally, many indigenous people were forced to move like trail of tears which we learned in history class. This movement led to lose their ancient knowledge about wildlife and habitat in each specific areas and ecosystems were destroyed in some cases. After European arrived in the US, there were many issues such as diseases, furbearers, and market hunting. The exploitation of the furbearers in the northeast and Canada was mainly by the Hudson’s Bay Company. In the Pacific Northwest, the Russian-American Fur Company took seals and sea otters, and as the result, Steller’s sea cow went extinct by 1768. In 1748, South Carolina shipped about 160,000 deer pelts to England. Also in 1833, the American Fur Company shipped about 43,000 buffalo hides. Buffalo meat was used for camp towns and crews building railroads to the west. Because of that, there was a significant decline in buffalo numbers by the mid 1840s. When wildlife populations declined significantly, Europeans blamed it on its predators at first.

The situation for wildlife changed a lot in Canada as well after European settlement. Wapiti, great auk and bison were the main three species that got impact badly from Europeans. Wapiti is the second largest deer. Before 1492, wapities were not popular species in the fossil record. However, after a while, their population rapidly grew as the result of depreciation of indigenous people’s populations due to Eurasian diseases and genocide. They reached their maximum geographic range before 1800. By 1835, however, wapities disappeared from their eastern areas which is now Ontario and Québec because of hunting. They also went extinct in Alberta before 1913, but they were reintroduced from Yellowstone National Park in 1917. Another species, great auk is the largest and flightless auk which is already extinct. The great auk was destroyed by human activities. As they are flightless and colonial during breeding season, it was easy to hunt them. Therefore, they were hunted heavily, for food by explorers, for bait by fishermen, and in the late 1700s, for feathers by commercial hunters. The last known breeding pair was at Eldey Rock off southwestern Iceland in 1844. Lastly, the depopulation of bison occured due to the European invasion of North America. The population decline in Canada began with the need for meat to the fur traders of the Hudson’s Bay Company and North West Company. Several significant developments from the North America slaughter was also the big reason for their depopulation. First, the development of a new hide-tanning process in Britain and Germany during the second industrial revolution which is from 1870 to 1914 resulted in an insatiable need for cow hides for leather. The development of new rifles made hunters to be able to kill large numbers of bison easily. Before their huge depopulation, bison were the most popular large mammal on the continent, it is estimated that there were about 30 million plains bison. However, when the North America slaughter was finished in the mid-1880s, there were only about 116 wild plains bison left in North America. This means that nearly all of the plains bison alive today are descendants of those 116 wild bison. Plains bison were extirpated from Canada by 1888.

The first step of wildlife conservation in the US occurred in Portsmouth, Rhode Island where enacted the first closed season on deer hunting in 1646 when the deer did not rebound from their depopulation. Sportsman clubs were also formed to encourage comradeship for ethical hunting practices. The first sportsman’s club in the US was the Carroll’s Island Club in 1832, for waterfowl hunting. Eventually, a lot of local sportsmen’s clubs were formed across the country and game laws were passed as well to protect wildlife. In addition, some states banned the use of dogs and traps for hunting and they also limit hunting by making illegal to hunt at night. During the 1870s and later, many additional hunting and conservation organizations were formed, such as the League of American Sportsmen, the American Ornithologists Union, the Camp Fire Club, the New York Zoological Society, the Audubon Society, and the American Bison Society. These groups campaigned for stricter laws to stop market hunting for meat and the millinery trade, and to ban unethical sport hunting. The Constitution Act in 1867 was the beginning of wildlife conservation in Canada. This is a move which was made to develop wildlife conservation and protected areas. It was provided for the union of three colonies, the Province of Canada which is Ontario and Québec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into a federal state with a parliamentary system modelled from Britain. This Act shows the distribution of powers between the central Parliament and the provincial legislatures.

Wildlife conservation became towards success around 1900 both in the US and Canada. There are many famous US presidents who worked on wildlife conservation. US 16th president, Abraham Lincoln signed the Land Grant Act in 1862. This act was to educate young people about the environment by establishing agricultural and technical colleges in all states in the US. In the US history, President Theodore Roosevelt was one of the most active presidents for wildlife conservation. Roosevelt established the Agriculture Department’s Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, which became the Bureau of Biological Survey, and worked on surveying its biota. It was also given powers with the passage of the Lacey Act. In 1900, Lacy Game and Wild Birds Preservation and Disposition Act was passed which is the first national legislation for wildlife conservation. This law banned to transport wild game across the state borders for animals that were taken illegally. This law also controlled the importation of exotic species. President Franklin Roosevelt also worked for wildlife conservation. During the Great Depression, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was formed to solve unemployment. It employed lots of of factory workers and farmers, and they helped to develop huge waterfowl breeding grounds. In 1934, he also established the Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Program, the American Wildlife Institute, the North American Wildlife Federation, and the North American Wildlife Institute. In addition, Endangered Species Act (ESA) was made to provide a framework to protect endangered and threatened species and their habitats in 1973.

In Canada, wildlife conservation became more popular during 1900s as well. The first bird sanctuary was created in 1887 at Last Mountain Lake and 98 migratory bird sanctuaries are now administered. Migratory Birds Convention in 1916 and Canada Migratory Birds Convention Act in 1917 were made to implement the Convention by protecting and conserving migratory birds. The Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) is a directorate of Environment Canada. The CWS focuses on 3 key things which are migratory birds, endangered species and habitat. The CWS is responsible for Canada Wildlife Act, the Species at Risk Act, the Migratory Birds Convention Act and the Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act. There are also several non governmental associations in Canada. Canadian Wildlife Federation (CWF) was established in 1961 to spread an understanding of wildlife in Canada and ensure that all species would be preserved for the future. CWF now has over 500 000 members and supporters across Canada and has a wildlife affiliate in all provinces and territories. In addition, Nature Canada was created to protect wildlife and its habitats in Canada. This association was made to influence people on important issues such as bird conservation, wilderness protection, and endangered species.

Finally, from around 1970, international wildlife protection began and the US and Canada took huge part to lead theses conventions and associations. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was made in 1973 to control the trade of wild animals and plants especially for endangered species which are threatened by international trade. The Convention on Biological Diversity was created in 1992 for the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of biological diversity and equal share of the benefits from utilization of genetic resources. Another famous worldwide known association is World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF). This is the largest independent conservation organization in the world. Since 1967, WWF Canada has been working with business, government and the public to stop destroying natural environment, and to build a future which humans and nature live together. In conclusion, wildlife conservation in the US and Canada is closely related to their history and they went through similar situation. Conservation both began when European settlement and continue to industrialization. Europeans first thought that natural resources were unlimited and they used these sources not only for food source, but also for military purpose as well. After wildlife depopulated significantly, several people started thinking about wildlife conservation. They started from small associations and developed them to even for international associations over time.

Timeline is slightly different between the US and Canada, the US usually started little bit earlier and Canada follows after. Some acts and associations are closely related to huge historical events which we learned in history class. For example, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was created to solve unemployment during the Great Depression and it actually took a role for wildlife conservation by developing waterfowls breeding grounds. Additionally, extremely famous people in history such as President Lincoln, President Theodore Roosevelt and President Franklin Roosevelt actually took huge role in the history of wildlife conservation. They made the importance of wildlife conservation widely known by establishing many scientific research institutions and educated people, especially for young generation about wildlife conservation. Both Canada and the US are considered that they succeeded in wildlife conservation with good combination of non governmental associations and government acts and effort to preserve our environment are continuing to next generation.

In recent decades, human development by means of industrialisation and colonisation has acted as a catalyst for global environmental destruction. By recognising the undesirable effects produced by various human activities, questions surrounding conserving elements of the environment have arisen. The following essay will analyse the ways in which cultural assumptions held by differing societies are intertwined within conservation efforts and management plans. Through exploring ‘wilderness’, ‘nature’ and ‘the environment’, this essay will demonstrate that humans continue their efforts of attempting to conserve both species and landscapes based on the intrinsic value they provide. Focus will also be given to the ways in which cultural assumptions surrounding these terms are influencing regional and national practices, goals and future results. Reference will be made to various contemporary conservation goals and practices – including the Great Barrier Reef (https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/the-great-barrier-reef-a-beautiful-partof-the-world/) Marine Park Zoning project, Integrated conservation and development projects in the Philippines, and, Australia’s Environment protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999). Overall, this essay will argue that the cultural assumptions of specific societies are instrumental in affecting global conservation goals and practices, furthermore, will suggest that traditional Indigenous knowledge surrounding animism and totemism should be implemented within conservation efforts, to maximise the preservation of elements of the environment.

Efforts to conserve the environment have continually put emphasis on the need to protect wilderness areas, which conjures up meanings of remote natural areas, unbridled by humans. Neumann (1998) states that these wilderness areas are considered by society to represent true and pure nature, unharmed by colonisation and modernisation. Originally, these unbounded zones are utilised on a small-scale by Indigenous and traditional groups, providing natural and cultural resources to sustain their livelihood. However, the formation of the first Wilderness Act, prescribed in the United States, caused a shift in global wilderness conservation, whereby a separation was formed between nature and culture, in the aim to preserve native forests. Although, the cultural assumptions first associated with the conservation of wilderness sought to protect aesthetically pleasing and untouched landscapes from human extraction, wilderness conservation sites have been increasingly commodified and transformed into protected national parks, for human economic gain. Runte (1987) suggests that wilderness areas were previously categorised as economically unviable landscapes, conserved for their natural wonders and scenery, however, have recently been commodified through the tourism industry. Wilderness areas are universally valued for their aesthetics and are continuously seen as a source of pleasure, whilst nowadays, are valued by states and elite populations for the provision of economic capital, caused by tourism. For example, “geo-tourism” has been deployed to reconfigure the visitor experience at Yosemite National Park. Whilst the geo-tourism approach is argued to centre around environmental protection, reality highlights how environmental sustainability, biodiversity encouragement and wildlife management is not prioritised. Through visitor congestion and the destruction of land for the construction of tourist attractions, Yosemite’s geo-tourism initiative holds little promise of significantly encouraging environmental and wilderness protection. Overall, the assumptions affecting contemporary wilderness conservation plans, are heavily associated with the global tourism industry, who attempt to commodify the natural resources provided by wild natural environments for economic gain.

Although, the neoliberal conservation of wilderness imposed by postcolonial governments, transforms protected areas into areas of profit for society, its process of capital accumulation excludes vulnerable Indigenous communities; furthermore, neglects to recognise Indigenous cultural assumptions surrounding conservation practices. The failed recognition of Indigenous people can be traditionally linked to post-colonial theory whereby western discourses – still rooted within colonialism – speak for the subaltern, from a universal perspective. This postcolonial elitist action is noted to still exist, as governments express and conduct wilderness conservation efforts without recognising the views of vulnerable stakeholders. Martin, Akol and Gross-Camp, further exemplify this by claiming that the conservation of wilderness areas fails to address social injustices, and that “local cultural norms are forcefully displaced”. Through the analysis of the construction of Yosemite National Park, academics have been able to recognise this victimhood of vulnerable human communities. State managers and government officials are noted to have favoured the protection of wilderness areas over Indigenous individuals that have inhabited and managed the land for centuries: generating millions of displaced refugees. Therefore, even though indigenous people have effectively retained considerable biodiversity for many years without capitalist companies and governmental involvement, conservation methods of the west are favoured. Consequently, the influential cultural assumptions implicit in practices that specifically aim to conserve wilderness landscapes, are those of the capitalist power holders. Wresting power away from weaker Indigenous stakeholders therefore, highlights the way in which the cultural assumptions of vulnerable populations have not shaped the goals, practices and outcomes of wilderness conservation efforts. Even though larger governmental conservation projects are attempting to include community-based strategies, by developing Integrated conservation and development projects (West and Brockington 2006, p. 612), vulnerable Indigenous populations are still negatively affected. For example, community-based marine conservation projects in the Philippines which hoped to increase the inclusion of local people into managing marine species, caused the malnutrition of children as traditional fishing areas became subject to fines and penalties. Therefore, even though the goals of conservation practices aim to include the cultural assumptions of Indigenous communities surrounding the preservation of environments and landscapes, the outcome of these efforts still marginalise and oppress neglected communities.

Equally, there is now an increasing amount of criticism held against the traditional humanist anthropocentric worldview, that centres conservation practices and goals around capitalist power holders and their ability to generate copious amounts of profit through the commodification of the environment. Australia’s cultural relationship to the environment has been historically based on the colonial commodification and domestication of landscapes for wider economic purposes. However, due to a cultural shift in the rejection of colonial actions and a rise in the deep ecology perspective, environmental movements have swiftly risen to challenge these dominant cultural views: that decimating the environment is vital for producing economic and social wealth for a nation. Environmentalist frameworks equally seek to combat anthropocentrism, by recognising that human existence is established through relations to species and landscapes. For example, the ethnographic research of Locke (2017, p. 362) insists that there is a mutual relationship between humans and elephants in Nepal, as both species create synergy, build rapport and facilitate obedience together. Similar advocates for this movement have included Australian Aboriginal societies who contend that the environment is part of a wide social system, interconnected with socio-physical human relationships and identity formation. Similarly, whilst referencing the academic work of Görg, Sanders (2014) exemplifies Aboriginal animalism, through stating that the environment and society are never ontologically divided entities, both are invariably subject to a continuing exchange process. An example of this Indigenous cultural view is conveyed through the ontology of totemism, whereby individuals and tribes are said to have mystical, kinship relations with non-human species. A totemic relationship can be seen between several Yolngu clans who trace their identity and development to Mäna: an ancestral whale shark. Therefore, believers in totemism, argue that the conservation of many non-human species is vital as it upholds cosmological connections and influences the identity of Aboriginal communities. In turn, the intimate correspondence between human and non-human species has played a significant role in the conservation of environmental biodiversity globally, through the restriction of human access to commodify landscapes and species for economic gain. Although, there is limited academic writing on totemism’s influence on environmental conservation policies within Australia, several national management legislations and policies that promote conserving the environment, recognise the importance of Aboriginal people’s cosmological connectedness to species. For example, Aboriginal heritage values contribute to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act (1975) and the Environment protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999). Therefore, Australian Indigenous cultural assumptions surrounding human existence and its relation to certain species, are implicit within national conservation efforts and practices.

Conservation practitioners are increasingly faced with the dilemma that the cost of preserving nature’s biodiversity far exceeds accessible governmental funding. James et al. (1999) states that within the late twentieth century, only US$6 billion was awarded each year globally to protect nature. Therefore, maintaining various species within the environment is now incoherently linked to the costs and benefits that they provide to humans, as limited conservation funding is available. Policy makers are hence allocating available funds and resources to the highest valued species and the private benefits they produce through recreation, consumption and commercialisation. For example, the commercial use of rare, exotic plant species is maintained through preservation projects, as they are viewed as potential pharmaceutical products, able of treating life-threatening diseases. Brown and Shogren (1998) highlight examples of these conserved plants, including the Pacific yew tree, whereby taxol is extracted and utilised within ovarian cancer treatment medicine. On the contrary, the conservation of certain species such as invertebrates, is often overlooked, as many societies hold hostile views surrounding their association with disease and agricultural damage. Therefore, contemporary cultural assumptions implicit in the conservation of species within nature are based on government expenditures allocated to biodiversity projects and to the value endangered species (https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/the-importance-of-the-conservation-ofendangered-species/) provide to human society. These factors influencing species preservation has led to the use of systematic conservation planning globally. This method is a priority-setting process, that focuses on locating and developing “protected areas that comprehensively represent the biodiversity of regions”, while minimising societal costs. One of the best-known examples of systematic conservation planning is the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Zoning project which provided the Australian Parliament in 2004, with a structured process to manage marine biodiversity and the intense political and social negotiation around the inclusion and modification of commercial and recreational fishing zones. Although this approach can leave certain natural habitats with little protection from human destruction, a practical system for prioritising various components of nature must be developed, to combat the endangerment of economically and commercially valued species.

The cultural assumptions first associated with the conservation of environments sought to aim to protect untouched landscapes and species from human engagement and destruction, however by analysing wilderness conservation sites and the protection of certain species, it is evident that cultural assumptions revolving around governmental budgets, perceived human ascendency and the generation of economic capital are implicit within conservation schemes. This essay also highlights the intersectional nature of a few national conservation practices with both the cultural assumptions of capitalist governments and Indigenous communities. For example, it is evident that governmental policies constructed to retain the biodiversity of nature, recognise an interdependent connection between humans and non-humans, exemplified by Aboriginal animism and totemism. However, in this context, it is considered that future governmental policies, practices and goals regarding the conservation of aspects of the environment and various species must involve the cultural assumptions of Indigenous populations who will be largely affected by outcomes. Even though certain Indigenous communities reap economic and social benefits from conservation plans, their cultural values are still not prioritised alongside the benefits awarded to western society. Therefore, as long as national governments are driven by economic concerns and the need for acquiring economic capital, marginal indigenous communities have little chance of becoming equal partners in any environmental conservation practice.

Forest is a terrestrial cover, where habitats like plants and wildlife interact with each other and with the physical atmosphere of nature, which is also their hereditary home. They are an important source for our natural resources. Without forests the world would come to a halt and would become grey. Various countries all over the world differ in forest cover, which in turn depends on numerous factors like weather, availability of landscape, water, rainfall and the number of the population etc.

Forests are critical in maintaining the quality of nature and life all around us. The benefits accruing from forests include many tangible products such as fuel wood, timber, fodder, gum, paper, manure and other minor products such as fruits, flowers and services such as soil conservation, climate change control habitat for wildlife and values such as spirituality, recreational and aesthetic values.

India is the seventh largest country in the whole world occupying at least 2.4 percent of the world area. However, in India there lies only 1.8 percent of total forest cover. In spite of recent efforts in increasing forest and to reduce deforestation through reforestation under the Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), India still continues to be in a devastated condition with only over 21 percent of India under forest cover in 2007. According to the policy requirement, the forest cover in India should be 33 percent of the area of the country, and all should be a closed forest. Sadly, we are very far from achieving this figure.

Indian forests are under immense pressure every day. From deforestation to felling of trees all these man doings contribute to a less population of forests. Systematic management of forests came into existence in the mid nineteenth century. The first forest scheme of India was established in 1894 which mainly focused on commercial exploitation of timber and gave importance to permanent cultivation. According to the 1952 revision of the policy recognized the protective role of forests and proposed that one-third of the land area of the country must.

Be retained under the forest and tree cover. Also, the scheme of 1988 focused on the environment balance and maintenance of ecological stability in nature. Before 1976, forest and wildlife were the state subjects of the Indian Constitution. The forest departments regulated forests in accordance with the Forest Act of 1927. After recognizing the importance of forest and wildlife, the 42nd amendment of the constitution removed them from the state list and placed them under the concurrent list bringing them under light of the Central and the State governments.

Prior to the British era, customary rules have been regulated for the use of forests in India. Certain types of trees which had a significant importance in nature were regarded as sacred and therefore were never cut. Also, certain areas under the forest were highly regarded as God’s groves and not even the deadwoods and the dead leaves were taken out from these areas.

In India the current Forest and Wildlife Legislations are:

1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927
2. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980
3. The Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act, 2006
4. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1976

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 was enacted before the independence era with the goal of “to consolidate the law relating to forests, the transit of forest-produce and the duty leviable on timber and different forest-produce.” It also focuses to consolidate and reserve the areas having forest cover, or significant wildlife. The Forest Act has also established three kinds of forests, which are the Reserved forests, Protected Forests and Village Forests. The Reserved Forests are considered to be in the most restrictive category of forests. These forests are government property and only the government has rights to them. Protected forests are distinguished from the Reserved forests and are those forests over which again the government has proprietary rights and are constituted by the state government. Village forests are those in which the state government assigns to ‘any village-community the rights of government to or over land which has constituted a reserved forest’.

There is also another type of forest which is known as the Non-government Forest. This type covers the forests and land which are not in the hands of government control. The state government can by alerting, regulate or prohibit the breaking up or any clearing of land for cultivation, the pasture for the cattle or the firing or clearing of vegetation in order to protect them from the storms, winds rolling stones, floods and also avalanches, to preserve the soil from erosion, to maintain water supply in the springs, rivers and tanks, and also to protect roads, bridges, railways, lines of communication and to preserve public health. The Act also defines a forest offence and vests power to the state government in order to impose penalties on violation of the provisions of the Act.

In the year 1980, There was an ever-increasing decline in forest cover, to which a new legislation was enacted called The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 this also fulfilled the Constitutional obligation under Article 48-A. This act regulates the proper diversion of forest lands to non-forestry purposes. The traditional objective of this Act was to regulate the indiscrimination of diversion in forests lands to non-forestry purposes and to also stabilize between the developmental needs of the country and for the conservation of rich natural heritage.

The Act made the before approval of the Central Government a compulsion for non reservation of the reserved forest and for the use of forest land and for the use of nonforest purposes. It also paved the way for the establishment of the advisory committee to advise the Central Government with regard to grant of such approval. This Act allows the diversion of forests only for certain developmental projects, which include drinking water projects, irrigational projects, transmission lines, railway lines, roadways, power related projects, defense related and for mining. For these diversions of the forest lands for non-forestry projects, compensatory afforestation is stipulated and catchment area treatment plan, the wildlife habitat improvement plan, rehabilitation plan etc. are used in order to remove all the bad consequences of deviation of such huge cover of forest lands. In accordance to check the effective use of the compensatory afforestation in the country, an authority called the “Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)” has been established at the national level. A surveillance cell has also been set up in the Ministry of Environment and Forests to survey the movement of proposals at various stages and the consent of the conditions imposed in the forestry clearances by the user agencies.

“The Scheduled Tribe and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 was passed by the Lok Sabha as well as the Rajya Sabha on 18th December 2006. This Legislation was aimed at giving ownership rights over forestland to traditional forest dwellers. This Ministry of the Tribal Affairs was constituted as an independent ministry in the year 1999 to deal with especially the scheduled tribes in India. The basis for designating a tribe such as “scheduled” include having ‘primitive’ traits, dwelling in geographical isolation, having a very distinctive culture, being shy of contact with the outside world and people and also being economically ‘backward’. In India there are more than 600 officially listed scheduled tribes, which consists less than 10% of the country’s total population and with a little over 2% is believed to be dwelling in forests.

And lastly, the Right to protect, restore or save or control any community forest materials which the scheduled tribes and other traditional forest habitats have been traditionally protecting and saving.

The Act is not a land distribution measure, and furthermore the Act is more transparent than current law and so can help to stop land stealing. With regard to wildlife protection, it has come to a conclusion that the Act in fact provides a very fine and explicit measure for resettling people where needed for wildlife preservation, but also provides safeguards to prevent this being done in a very arbitrary way.

The Wildlife Protection Act is the most crucial regulation when it comes to preservation of the wildlife. In this Act, it bans killing of animals which are listed in Schedule I, II, III, IV. In this Act, the state government can proclaim any area of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, natural or zoological importance as a reserve or a national park. In both national parks and at the reserves, public entry is banned and the demolition of any wildlife or settlement is prohibited. In the year 1986 the Act was appropriately altered. Under the 1972 Act, marketing and business in wild animals, animal articles and trophies were permissible within the country limits. But many traders have been smuggling animal skin, various animal related articles and many trophies for getting a huge amount of profit. Thereby, in the 1986 Act it was said that no one will be allowed to carry on business in wild animals named in the Schedules Acts of I and II. Also, the past existing licenses for internal trade of animals and animal skin was revoked and there was a complete ban on the trade in Indian ivory was imposed.

Another Amendment in 1991 banned the killing of all wild animals excluding vermin. But in very certain cases, in order for protection of life as well as for property, education, research, scientific management and for caged breeding, hunting of wild animals was allowed. Further, the Act banned the collection of snake venom for producing lifesaving drugs.

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was further altered by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002. In the said revision there were more penalties on killing wild animals. In order to ensure better safety and safeguarding to the wildlife habitats, all sorts of illegal encroach within the national parks or wildlife sanctuaries can now be evacuated and also have the structures removed. There cannot be any kind of construction of commercial tourist lodges, hotels and zoos without any prior approval of the National Board of wildlife. The commercial manipulation of forest produce has now been made unlawful.

From the above study, we come to a conclusion that the various central legislations for the forest conservation and wildlife protection have provided a very powerful legal framework for protection of all kinds of wildlife, establishment of all safeguarded areas, settlements, fine administration of habitats, regulations of rules and proper control of hunting and trade in parts and products obtained from the wildlife. India is still a developing country, and we are still trying to achieve proper balance and greatness in sustaining our forests and wildlife. The different campaigns which have been conducted by the government as well as by the private NGO organization’s pave a path to establishing a more secure life for the wildlife of our country. Also, movements such as “Go Green” help make the common people aware of the situation of our forest cover and encourage them to plant more trees in the process. Therefore, though we are still working hard towards a more sustainable lifestyle for the forest and wildlife, India will definitely hit the milestone mark soon and make the forests and the wildlife great again.

Nowadays, the issue of saving our beautiful home, planet Earth, is more than burning. Each inhabitant of the planet must engage in this critically important process of doing one’s best. I considered this fact while choosing my extra credit activity. For extra credit activity, I engaged in purchasing trees online. In the following paper, I will share my experience, and will also explain in detail why this task appeared to be so meaningful for me. Overall, meditating on the situation I came to a conclusion that buying trees would become my contribution to improving the environment and helping to overcome some of the difficulties connected with the problem of global warming.

First of all, speaking about my extra credit class, it is important to specify some details of it. With regards to financial details, the price was $1 per tree, and I bought more than fifteen trees. I found this task very inspiring as I was meditating on its importance for our planet. Below, I am going to provide more details concerning this.

Speaking about the most significant point for me in purchasing trees online, I would mention the important role that trees have in environmental protection. Regarding the problem of global warming, the theme of environmental protection appears to be very significant during the last few decades. People from more and more lands continue experiencing extreme climate problems caused by global warming. In this vein, it becomes significant that a decade ago common people but scientists and researchers did not think that global warming would have such terrible consequences; but today, when winter becomes too warm with an abundance of unseen natural phenomena such as extreme raining and terrible winds, and summer becomes too cold in a number of lands, people began to really think about the necessity of urgent measures directed into overcoming the effects of global warming. I am among such people as well. Before, when I heard about the global warming problem, I thought that it was not so bad because I enjoyed warm weather. However, nowadays I realize that it was a mistake as the weather simply changed, it not only got hotter. Today, the weather may be very different, and what is more frightening it becomes extreme. However, the weather is not the only problem caused by global warming. Global warming has many harmful effects on both man and the environment. It leads to increased evaporation causing the increase of annual rainfall especially in the areas that experience regular rainfall. High evaporation rates mean that there will be drier soils and, hence, less cultivation. This is a threat to food security. It leads to a rise in sea level resulting from the increased precipitation and thermal expansion of the oceans submerging tourist spots. Shrinkage of the ice cover on mountain peaks with the expectation of it being wiped out with time is another effect of global warming. It causes rising temperatures and increased rainfall which leads to the malaria epidemic which is the major disease-causing death among infants. It will also lead to the loss of forest cover because of a continuous increase in temperature together with decreased rainfall. It causes permanent rivers to become seasonal or even dry up completely due to increased evaporation rate affecting water supply and hydroelectric schemes. All of that motivates me to do my best in helping our beautiful planet-home to survive. That is why I participated in buying trees.

Next, buying trees is also important for me as I know how they are important for saving our forests. Forests and afforestation’s are not only responsible for improving the environmental protection saving us from global warming, but they are also a nice place to have some rest and to enjoy life for people. What can be more relaxing and inspiring for a family to rest than going to the forest, afforestation, or a park full of trees providing pleasant shade and relaxing chill? With all, of these facts in mind, I was joyfully working on my extra credit activity.

Now, that I acquired this user experience and new practical skills, I am more than determined to use this valuable knowledge to make my own contribution to saving our beautiful planet. The problem of global warming occupies my mind motivating me to go further than this. I would like to continue applying these newly received skills in practice in order to save our forests and afforestation’s from greedy people seeing nothing more than gain in everything that surrounds them.

As a final point, today, the problem of global warming becomes more and more complicated. Greedy people destroy our beautiful planet for their gain purposes. Among the things they destroy are trees which are so important in developing oxygen needed for the atmosphere balance and preventing the greenhouse effect. I believe it is more than vital to engage in the process of planting trees as actively as possible because they are the best option for working out the problem of global warming. Thus, I decided that buying trees would be my contribution to making the world a better place to live.

According to FGD and KII revealed contour farming, stone bund, stone-faced soil bund, soil bund, and waterways were common physical SWC whereas, crop rotation, plantation on the bund, mulching, and mixed cropping were common biological SWC practices.

Farmers were applied more than one SWC practice from their land. Therefore, compared to the other physical SWC practice in the area stone-faced soil bund was highly implemented. It is effective because stones and soils are much available in farmlands, and it reduces soil erosion and water wastage more compared to the others. Soil and stone bund also were the other common SWC practice in the area. Farmers use stone bund only when their farm is near to sufficient stone in their farmland, and it is high labor demand. Stone bunds are required 125 PD ha-1 (Teshome et al., 2013). It is also consistent with (Aklilu Amsalu, 2006 ). Soil bunds are less permanent and less durable structures mostly applied on rain-fed flat and gentle slopes in the study areas. The proportion of soil bund is low because coverage of land by soil is very shallow, and requires less labor input compared to stone bund because the excavated material from the ditch is thrown downwards, and easily ploughs by ox were the other possible reason moderately required. It is effective in controlling soil loss, retaining moisture, and ultimately enhancing the productivity of the land. It is consistent with (Anley et al., 2006). In addition, the combination of cutoff drains and waterways together was implemented in the area. It is very important for the success of soil and water conservation where there is high rainfall and run-off.

All of the sampled household heads (100%) practiced crop rotations on their fields for annual crops with common rotation sequences. It is a long-year farmer experience in which legume crops were rotating with other non-leguminous crops for soil fertility improvement in the study areas. Similarly, USDA (1997) stated that contour plowing can increase crop yields from 10 to 50%. Crop rotation practice is used to improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. Moreover, they explained that rotation was used to control pests and diseases infestation. This finding also in line with Kwesiga et al.,(1999) revealed crop rotation increases organic matter in the soil, reduces pests and diseases, improves soil structure, reduces soil degradation. Mixed cropping is common and it is a mixture of legumes and cereals or tuber crops, including complimentary use of growth factors, such as soil nutrients, light, and water; reduced pest and disease incidence, reduced soil erosion, more yield stability, and more household food security. Crop residuemulching are also applied in the area but farmers harvesting crop residues for livestock fodder and cash purpose. This finding is found to agree with the report of FAO (1995). The plantation is very useful for protecting soil erosion (Sanders, 2004). However, only 26.32% of the sampled respondents participated in the planting of trees. Gesho and saspaniya were mostly applied try-on-level bunds.

Moreover, in table 6 from the total participation level, the highest sampled respondents were involved in shared decision-making participation level, and the participation of respondents in the high range of participation becomes low while it affects the willingness of respondents to participate in SWC practices. It is indicated that about 7.24% of sampled households were participating by self-initiation. To mean that only a few of the sampled HHs were participate in SWC practices by their owned initiatives which indicate to be done works on the farmers to increase their willingness to participate in soil and water conservation practices. This level of part is in agreement with done by Mengistu Hone (2019). And only 9.21 % were highly willing to participate in SWC practice at the planning and evaluation phase respectively. This shows that most soil and water conservation measures are designed, evaluate, and planned by development experts of each district. This is consistent with Abrham Mulu et al., (2016) that almost three fourth of farmers participated in the implementation phase of SWC practice.

I have known about the benefits of trees all along since I was in school-that they reduce green house effect by absorbing Carbon dioxide; that one large tree can provide for a day’s oxygen need for up to four people; that they conserve energy by reducing air conditioning demands; that they reduce soil erosion and much more. But even when I read that an area of forest equal to 20 football fields is lost every minute, I thought, but what can I do about it; I don’t cut trees; and even if I plant trees in my backyard, how is it going to make a difference?

This was my attitude-atleast until I saw the Inconvenient Truth and one quotation from it particularly influenced me-“Future generations may well have occasion to ask themselves – what were our parents thinking? Why didn’t they wake up when they had a chance? – We have to hear that question from them, now. ” It influenced me so much that I realised that the justification I gave for my inaction so far was a mere excuse.

What is at stake here is the very existence of our planet. Will we let our Earth-our only home- perish in front of our own eyes and still choose to do nothing about it. If we don’t act today, if we don’t transform our dreams and aspirations into actions, then tomorrow we might not get an opportunity to act. It is our dream that our planet continues to exist with all its glory and its green lush for four future generations to enjoy.

Even the simplest of things we do towards the fulfilment of that dream is going to make a huge difference; and planting trees is one such simple thing. It doesn’t take much effort to plant one compared to the benefit we will derive from each of the trees we have planted. Therefore, let’s all take a solemn oath today, keeping in mind that we owe a responsibility towards our future generations and to our planet, that we will all plant at least one tree a month, so that our grandchildren don’t blame us for our inaction.

I have known about the benefits of trees all along since I was in school-that they reduce green house effect by absorbing Carbon dioxide; that one large tree can provide for a day’s oxygen need for up to four people; that they conserve energy by reducing air conditioning demands; that they reduce soil erosion and much more. But even when I read that an area of forest equal to 20 football fields is lost every minute, I thought, but what can I do about it; I don’t cut trees; and even if I plant trees in my backyard, how is it going to make a difference?

This was my attitude-atleast until I saw the Inconvenient Truth and one quotation from it particularly influenced me-“Future generations may well have occasion to ask themselves – what were our parents thinking? Why didn’t they wake up when they had a chance? – We have to hear that question from them, now. ” It influenced me so much that I realised that the justification I gave for my inaction so far was a mere excuse.

What is at stake here is the very existence of our planet. Will we let our Earth-our only home- perish in front of our own eyes and still choose to do nothing about it. If we don’t act today, if we don’t transform our dreams and aspirations into actions, then tomorrow we might not get an opportunity to act. It is our dream that our planet continues to exist with all its glory and its green lush for four future generations to enjoy.

Even the simplest of things we do towards the fulfilment of that dream is going to make a huge difference; and planting trees is one such simple thing. It doesn’t take much effort to plant one compared to the benefit we will derive from each of the trees we have planted. Therefore, let’s all take a solemn oath today, keeping in mind that we owe a responsibility towards our future generations and to our planet, that we will all plant at least one tree a month, so that our grandchildren don’t blame us for our inaction.

Declines in biodiversity poses a serious threat to human civilization today, and will remain so far into the future. In order to maintain species populations and protect habitat for wildlife, several national and international organizations have developed reporting guidelines for conservation of species. However, current methods of preserving particular species do not coincide. Conservationists believe that these lands should be set aside to be protected for the preservation of animal and plant species. Whereas the conservation model used by hunters funds a range of conservation programs, since it has been promoted as a form of managing that resource on behalf of the populace and to ensure the long-term sustainability of wildlife population. Each state has an agency that is responsible for managing its wildlife, which is an initiative to preserve species in the surrounding area. Conservationists, of course, would certainly take issue with the argument that hunting is unnecessary and has unethical approaches to it, but it is important to note that the combination of sportsmen-derived funds comprise between 60 and 90 percent of the typical state fish and wildlife agency budget. If hunting ends, funding for wildlife conservation is in peril, since it is dependent on the revenue that comes from licenses sold for hunting, trapping and fishing. Although the primary goal is to allow these species to recover, few species have actually recovered. Nevertheless, both hunters and conservationists will most likely suggest otherwise and would certainly take matters into their own hands. The degree to which the existing national framework of wildlife conservation has resulted in a series of agency specific efforts that are often poorly coordinated, and therefore fail to take advantage of specific outcomes. Both parties are examples of a coordination trap – when people settle on an equilibria that is not ideal. These conservation projects are currently managed by a community of people who have overlapping needs and goals, but rarely communicate on reaching a consensus in efforts to improve the efficiency of species’ recovery.

By any rational measure, these models need to be guided not by moral righteousness, but by common sense. There are many sources of uncertainty inherent to this model, including the use of outdated methodology. Linking the funding of conservation directly to hunting ensures that game species and their habitats will receive the majority of aid, and hunters wanting access to lands for hunting due to their investment in the tax. In a recent assessment, the United Nations concluded that Humans are transforming Earth’s natural landscapes so dramatically that as many as one million plant and animal species are now at risk of extinction, posing a dire threat to ecosystems that people all over the world depend on for their survival. The reason being that critical habitat designations and recovery plans may have the intentions of conservation, but designations to hunt are not always based on sound science, therefore leading to ecological disruption as well as skewed population dynamics. As society is changing, certain procedures must be adapted to meet certain measures and concerns. It needs to be ensured that there are regulations and policies that can better address the conservation challenges felt today. Therefore, other methods are needed to quantify for the uncertainty in this conservation model used today.

To address this pressing issue of the inadequate relationship between hunting and conservationists, it is necessary for government intervention to shift actors to an optimal equilibrium at lower individual costs. Some adjustments would include a large scale that needs to be managed in a way that populations will be sustained. Adequate funding is needed to effectively fulfill their vital role in conserving wildlife.

An increase in funding from the federal government is the foundation for conservation. The federal government’s investment in conservation must be sustained in order to translate today’s scientific findings into the sake of our biodiversity. The U.S Fish and Wildlife Services must make aims to ensure that the funding for the conservation of wildlife is not entirely coming from the PittmanRobertson Act; rather, another alternative can be reached by placing an excise tax on other outdoor recreations (e.g. hikers, campers, etc.) as a principal source for federal funding to be allocated, since it will recognize wildlife as a public trust investment and overall help eliminate a free-rider problem. Some unintended consequences that can arise from this can be a decreased budget towards wildlife conservation funds, which can be detrimental in regards to a diminished land health and for species, and many conservationists would not be in par. Hunters would likely argue on the account that this public good is held in trust for the benefit of the public, so an unintended consequence could be that their preferred form of recreation is being held against, despite hunting being a former revenue source for wildlife conservation. Overall, the feasibility of this proposed policy can drive down support if funding initiatives are to go down.

This CCP outlines the combined efforts of the several Maryland States, refuge neighbors, local partners, private landowners, Friends of Eastern Neck, and the local community to protect the habitat of endangered species present in the 2,286 acres Eastern Neck National Wildlife Refuge. It intends to achieve so by attaining several measurable goals, which include: ensuring the protection and enhancing service trust resources, and endangered species together with their habitats in the Chesapeake Bay region. In addition, the CCP aims to facilitate the maintenance of a healthy and varied complex of native flora, and fauna to pass on to the future American generations. The final goal is to perform effective outreach activities to improve public knowledge on the refuge and refuge system, and implementing effective wildlife-dependent public use programs in the Chesapeake Bay region.

The refuge provides habitat to over 250 species of birds and many other mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and insects. Some of the highlighted species regarded as the refuge’s management priority comprise the North American fowl, U.S. shorebird, and tundra swans. According to Eastern Neck National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan (2010), these three bird species form part of bird species given precedence in conservation concerns. The degree of priority is based on the evaluation scores from three primary bird conservation plans (the U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan; the Partners in Flight North American Landbird Conservation Plan; and the North American Waterbird Conservation Plans and Initiatives Guiding the Project Birds of Conservation Concern 2008 Report (USFWS 2008) Conservation Plans and Initiatives Guiding the Project 1-18 Eastern Neck National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan). For instance, the North American Waterfowl was initially addressed in the North American Waterfowl Management Plan of 1986 that was later modified in 2004. The plan describes a 15-year strategy for restoring and sustaining this bird species population through the preservation and restoration of their habitat. On the other hand, the conservation concerns regarding the U.S. shorebird population are addressed in the U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan of 2000. The report outlines critical habitat and conservation needs and recommends public outreach programs that can increase awareness of these birds, including their threats. Lastly, a conservation plan for the Eastern population of Tundra Swans was formulated in 2007. Its main objective was to increase and sustain the status of Tundra Swan at 80,000 in the Mississippi and Atlantic Flyways. This is achieved by providing essential staging and wintering habitat.

Based on the Eastern Neck National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan (2010), the overall three bird species’ status can be improved by protecting, restoring, and enhancing their natural habitats. However, in specific, the waterfowl population can be improved by preserving the tidal marsh and SAV beds by encouraging the public to employ cooperative farming in managing cropland. Moreover, people can engage in sustainable, best-management farming practices with an emphasis on organic farming to prevent chemical, sediment, and nutrient run-off into the lower Chester River basin. In contrast, the reduction in the population of tundra swans in the Chesapeake Bay region is attributed to the decline of SAV beds that led to a decrease in their preferred foods. Therefore, strategies to increase their population include those aiming to control the mute swans’ population and maintain the riparian lands surrounding SAV and clam beds. Furthermore, strategies to enhance the status of the shorebirds primarily revolve around moist soil management practices. These will promote invertebrate production, which are protein-rich food resources for the shorebirds.

Generally, the plan is feasible and reasonable; however, it is subject to a few development issues that might arise. For instance, the attainment of the CCP objectives might be slowed down by the fact that the refuge is not well known in the Kent County Area. Therefore, this might interfere with the performance of public outreach programs and increasing awareness of the service, refuge, and refuge system. Second, there are several cultural and historical resources found at the Eastern Neck Refuge. All of which are protected by the cultural and prehistoric Act. Therefore, the Service trust is required to balance between preserving the Federal trust resources, and wildlife trust responsibilities. Moreover, the major issue affecting the physical integrity of the island, and flora and fauna is shoreline erosion. The recovery and stabilization of the shoreline is centered on practicing effective land management practices, such as organic farming and crop rotation. It might prove to be challenging to raise awareness and convince inhabitants to change their farm management practices. Furthermore, shoreline erosion, coupled with the uncertainty of future climate change effects, makes it more difficult to ensure the creation of self-sustaining populations.

This CCP has three main goals, and they include ensuring the protection and enhancing service trust resources, and endangered species together with their habitats in the Chesapeake Bay region; maintaining a healthy and diverse complex of natural community types, constituting native flora and fauna to pass on to the future American generations; and conducting effective outreach activities to raise awareness of the refuge and refuge system, and implementing quality wildlife-dependent public use programs. Disregarding the potential issues, the CCP is likely to achieve its goals, and this is primarily because it encompasses the participation of multiple stakeholders with different backgrounds having shared interests.

Abstract

Water conservation and drought issues are inevitable in some resorts. The primary reason refers to the fact that demand for fresh water increases with the growth of population and urbanization while supply decreases. The tourism industry is closely connected with water issues due to several reasons. First, most resorts are situated near large rivers and sources of fresh water. Their operation is often dependent on the natural resources of water. Second, the inappropriate water management leads to pollution. Finally, tourism depends on the availability of sources. Several cases exemplify instances when resorts’ activity has been damaged by severe droughts. In the following paper, the water conservation and drought issues in resorts will be investigated and evaluated. Theoretical background on ecotourism and water conservation and real life examples have been used for the paper.

Introduction

Weather conditions and climate changes affect tourism industry drastically. The availability of water is crucial for particular types of tourism. The primary reason for this is global. The scarcity of water resources is terrifying. Also, the ability to save natural resources increases the potential competitiveness in the sphere. Although the implementation of the proper water management is a time-consuming process, it is of primary significance for the future development of tourism as far as most resorts face problems with water consumption.

Background and History

The idea of the conservation of natural resources and water, in particular, became popular in the previous century. It was the time when the notion of ecotourism appeared. Before providing specific examples, it is necessary to examine reasons that predetermined the development of ecotourism.

According to Ballantyne and Packer (2013), natural resources have always served as a major attraction for people. The understanding of the need for nature protection commenced in the 1960s. In those years, people became aware of such issues as environmental protection, pollution, extinction of animals, and scarcity of resources. The mass tourism became popular in the same period. As far as tourism was always based on natural resources, the questions about nature protection became urgent. Consequently, the International Union of Official Travel Organizations has introduced the environmental tourism policy. In 1972, the Ecodevelopment Strategy was initiated at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.

The other reason for changes in tourism is connected with expectations about water availability. The demand for water increases annually while supply decreases. By 2015, the demand for water is expected to rise by 55% (Gossling, Hall, & Scott, 2015). Gossling et al. (2015) also write, “as a result of increased water demand over the coming decades, UN Water (2014) estimate that as much as 40% of the global population may live in areas of severe water stress by 2050, as aquifers are overexploited and groundwater supplies decline” (p. 15).

Finally, numerous examples prove the necessity to conserve water and find solutions for dealing with droughts. For instance, the State of Colorado experienced a severe season of spring and summer droughts. Conditions in wildlife became dangerous, and the number of visitors decreased by 40%. Also, drought influenced the fishing industry. Fishing was prohibited as far as fish species were in poor condition due to the low level of water (Scott, Hall, & Gossling, 2012).

Literature Review

The investigation of environmental issues and their relation to tourism should start from the identification of tourism-environment relations. According to Holden (2012), it is rather a challenge to evaluate relationships between tourism and environment. Tourism is a system that includes a variety of aspects such as stakeholders, the private sector, government, non-governmental organizations, and tourists. In general, tourism-nature relationships define the human attitude towards the environment.

As human activity, tourism may influence environment differently. Holden (2012) examines the positive and negative impact of tourism on nature. Adverse effects of tourism may be viewed at two levels: global and local. On the global scale, scholars argue that tourism facilities, such as airplanes, negatively influence environment. The primary concern refers to the emission to carbon dioxide. Although air companies claim that the level of emission from airplanes is much lower in comparison to other activities, the threat exists. One may assume that there is no connection between air pollution and water conservation in resorts. On the contrary, there is a direct connection.

The emission of carbon dioxide enhances the greenhouse effect. It leads to the changes in climate, and that, in its turn, modifies water demand and supply in the world. The other global issue concerns water pollution. This problem is typical of many resorts in the world. Holden (2012) writes that “in the most visited tourist area of the world, the Mediterranean, only 30 percent of over 700 towns and cities on the coastline treat sewage before discharging it into the sea” (p. 20).

Tourism may also affect the natural environment on the local level. In most cases, it deals with the destruction of local habitats for the development of tourism business. The treatment of coral reefs may serve as the first example. The diversity of species on coral reefs can be compared to that of the rain forests. The building of new tourism facilities often destroys reefs. For example, the inadequate system of sewage and rubbish discharging as well as the building of new tourism constructions undermine the security of almost seventy percent of all coral reefs at the coast in Egypt (Holden, 2012). The other local threat refers to the individual treatment of tourists. Most of them do not realize the significance of coral reefs from the environmental perspective. Even if they do, they just neglect it. Consequently, tourists or divers may break reef to get a souvenir or walk on it. Such damage is devastating for coral reefs.

Nevertheless, tourism has positive effects on the environment as well. Holden (2012) expresses the idea that tourism should be regarded as an agent of conservation. In comparison to other types of human activity such as forestry or agriculture (that require the modification of soil and destroying of habitat), tourism aims at the maximum protection of the environment. Its success depends on the preservation of nature. Thus, such terms as ecotourism, nature tourism, responsible or sustainable tourism are becoming more and more popular nowadays.

According to Buckley (2013), the concept of ecotourism remains rather controversial until nowadays. There is no exact definition of ecotourism although there are several principles that can be met in most definitions. The first opinion is that ecotourism is a sub-type of tourism. The second component of ecotourism refers to the notion of the environmental management. This kind of management is often used together with the term “sustainability”.

Another view concerning ecotourism relates to the fact that it is nature-based. Thus, ecotourism may be realized only in natural settings. The next constituent of the definition is about education. Ecotourism should educate travelers to use water appropriately, for instance. The following aspect of ecotourism is conservation of resources. It is essential for the creation of harmonic relations with nature. Some scholars also consider that ecotourism brings social benefits, especially to residents. As a result, people live in safe places and do not worry about the deterioration of their health conditions (Buckley, 2013). Still, the concept of ecotourism is extremely controversial because it is in the process of development. Nevertheless, water conservation should be regarded as a part of ecotourism as far as it aims at improvement of the environment.

The functionality of almost all tourism facilities depends on the sufficient supply of water. According to Cole (2013), there is little research concerning the relations between water availability and tourism. The lack of adequate research results in improper water management in resorts. One should also differentiate two types of relationships between water and tourism: consumptive and non-consumptive. A non-consumptive type refers to the usage of water for recreational activities. Consumptive relationships occur when there is a need to manage wastes and provide comfortable accommodation.

Scientific investigations of the water consumption and tourism were based either in the Mediterranean region or in Australia — places where tourism comprised a significant part of the infrastructure. Cole (2013) considers that there are several reasons for water inequity in developing countries. The growth of population, rapid deforestation, urbanization create a tension in the tourist sector as well. Besides, water infrastructure has many deficiencies. Water is used to make tourism attractive and comfortable. Consequently, the adequate water management is necessary for the development of business in the pressuring environment.

The primary reason for water conservation refers to the global issue of water scarcity. A demand for water is estimated to exceed supply by forty percent by 2030 (Tuppen, 2013). It means that half of world’s population will be living in places where water scarcity will be an urgent problem. Ninety-seven percent of all water are in oceans. Fresh water comprises only three percent of total water supply. Only one percent of fresh water is in rivers, lakes, atmosphere and underground. The other two percent are in glaciers.

Growing population and urbanization require a lot of water. Climate changes are becoming more and more unpredictable nowadays. According to Gossling et al. (2012), water use tripled in the last fifty years. The term “water stress” is used to describe a condition when people suffer from the water scarcity. In 1995, almost fifty million people faced the problem of water availability. Scientists consider that more than three billion people will live under water stress by 2100 in case the climate change reaches four degrees (Gossling et al., 2012).

These findings prove the need to save water resources and improve water management. As it has been already mentioned, the increasing need for water usage is connected with the growth of population and demands. Agriculture is regarded as the most water consuming activity. Gossling et al. (2012) find that tourism is another significant factor that requires a substantial consumption of water. For instance, tourists need water when using the toilet, taking a shower, going into swimming pools. Fresh water is also necessary for maintaining tourism attractions including landscapes, gardens, and other facilities. Owners of resorts have commercial reasons for water conservation as well. Water comprises up to ten percent of unity bills in most resorts (Tuppen, 2013).

Mei-feng, Jian-chao, and Sheng-he (2014) examined the connection between the tourism industry and water environment. According to their study, three reasons predetermine the significant influence of tourism on the water environment. First, many tourism bases are situated at large water reserves. Second, tourism has adverse effects on the water usage in particular areas. It is necessary to mention that residents of some local areas face problems with water usage due to the extensive development of tourism zones (Mei-feng et al., 2014). Finally, owners of resorts may establish an advanced system of water management, and, in such a way, improve the situation with water pollution in particular areas.

The development of water management plans is of great significance for resorts that are situated in water-stressed regions in the world. Pacific islands are popular tourist attractions. This popularity usually results in the lack of fresh water for the local population. In tropics, the problem of water management in related to season changes in climate. For instance, long-lasting droughts are usually accompanied by increased usage of water reserves. Such treatment is harmful to the environment. Bromberek (2009) emphasizes that all resorts produce water on their own though do not treat it adequately. The author writes about gray and black water.

Gray water comes from bathrooms, sinks, washing machines, and showers while dark water — toilets and dishwashers. In most resorts, these wastes are just discharged into the natural environment without treatment. Discharging of water waste may lead to the pollution of local habitats. Also, resorts may save a lot of water with the help of systems for water management (Bromberek, 2009).

Kuoni Group developed “Kuoni Water Management Manual for Hotels” that can serve as a useful guide for every resort. According to Kuoni Group (n.d.), water management is a prolonged process that comprises of several steps. Considering the usage of innovative technologies for water management is important. Thus, gray water can be used as a renewable source of water. Also, the installation of water-saving technologies such as low-flow showerheads, tap aerators, flow regulators, and flushing volumes can reduce the water consumption substantially. Finally, it is of particular significance to train staff and develop consumers’ understanding of the need. For instance, tourists may be asked to keep taps closed while brushing teeth or use the same pool towel during the day (Kuoni Group, n.d.).

Best Practices in Industry and Solutions

Numerous researchers have discussed the significance of water conservation and drought issues. Nowadays, the status of the discussed subject is of primary importance for water-stressed regions. The following real life examples demonstrate best practices to overcome water consumption issues:

1. Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide, Inc. This company is one of the most reputable providers of leisure facilities in more than one hundred countries over the world. The consumption of water by Starwood was immense as the company began expanding. As a result, the company realized the need to reduce water usage almost ten years ago. Starwood has an advanced system of water reduction and spares no means on further development of water conservation technologies. The following infographics represents Starwood’s initiative (Our Water Story: Thinking Beyond Conservation, 2015).
2. Disneyland Resort in California. California’s climate is known for prolonged periods of drought. During droughts, the whole area faces a challenge of proper water management. Disneyland Resort in Anaheim needs plenty of water for the creation of Disneyland’s wonders. In 2008, the company installed Groundwater Replenishment System for water recycling. This system purifies already used water. Hotels in Resort are equipped with low-flow showerheads and toilets, urinals, and aerators. Various innovative systems control irrigation. For instance, drip irrigation and cut-off valves assist in timely identification of leaks (Water Conservation, n.d.). Authorities of Disneyland Resort also prefer planting drought-tolerant plants that do not need a lot of water for survival. In such a way, Disneyland Resort attracts even more visitors by stating that the park is environmentally friendly.
3. Boutiquehotel Stadthalle in Vienna. Hotel’s initiatives are considered to be one of the best practices in Europe. Hotel owners became interested in ecotourism since 2000. They acknowledged the need to save energy, water, and enhance sustainability in general. Boutiquehotel Stadthalle received many awards including EU Ecolabel and Austrian Ecolabel. In 2015, the hotel was awarded the Green Hotelier Award in Europe. The primary accomplishment of the hotel is the building of the passive house. The passive house operates on its own energy produced from renewable sources such as solar power and water. Also, visitors decide about the frequency of changing their linens and towels in the hotel. Water from the local well is used for the activation of the passive house (O’Neil, 2015).
4. Lady Elliot Island in Australia. This resort is located on the southern side of the Great Barrier Reef. The location of resort predetermines the need to implement the effective water management strategies. Thus, the island is isolated from rivers and runoffs. Water around the island is exceptionally clean. A proper wastewater management is necessary in such location. The direct disposal of sewage would result in water pollution. The supply of fresh water is realized via the Dunlop IBC reverse osmosis desalination system. The system converts sea water into fresh water. It should be mentioned, that the resort has a solar power station for this system (Water Conservation, n.d.). Lady Elliot Island promotes environmental awareness of their guests and asks them to control the change of towels and everyday water use.
5. Pebble Beach Golf Resort in Northern California. Drought in California hindered the activities of numerous resorts. The principal problem of the resort concerned the water discharge system. Thus, a resort discharged all water waste into Camel Bay. Recently, resort invested 67$ million into the project for the reduction of discharge. The proper irrigation system predetermines the popularity of the golf resort. “An irrigation system is based on evapotranspiration rates, soil probing, visual inspection and the weather” (From Disneyland to golf resorts, California tourism adapts to drought, 2015, para. 12).

Resources and Future Implications

The following web sources can be useful for the further research on the subject:

1. kuoni.com/docs/kuoni_wmp_manual_0_0_4.pdf — it is the link to the Kuoni Water Management Manuals for Hotels. This manual provides a comprehensive description of all necessary steps towards the efficient water management. A visitor may read about every stage of the plan starting from planning and ending with the creation of customer awareness. One can see various tables and graphs that provide useful information.
2. Greenhotelier.org is the principal online source when it comes to the developing of sustainability in tourist resorts. A visitor may find many useful articles concerning water issues. Besides, there is a rubric describing best ecotourism practices in the world.
3. Thetravelfoundation.org.uk is the official website of the charity organization that aims at providing best services for people as well as taking care of the environment. One can read about current projects and news relating not only to water conservation and drought issues but tourism industry in general.
4. Ecotourism.com is one more source that is useful for gathering information concerning a sustainable tourist industry. One can choose the region of interest and find more information about the particular destination.

The topic of water conservation and drought issues is significant as far as it is directly connected to the well-being of the humankind. Tourism is a factor that influences the environment and water reserves drastically. Climate change and inappropriate management may result in little interest among visitors. Ecotourism is a new kind of tourism, and it is the way to future success. People become more environmentally aware. Consequently, they will prefer environmentally friendly resorts. Besides, ecotourism is a good way to save money and protect nature at the same time. Thus, most resorts should consider the idea of implementing water conservation plans for their future development.

Conclusion

The necessity to promote water conservation and address drought issues is proved by real life examples. Global issues such as water scarcity and local pollution of water are exact examples of the negative impact of tourism on the environment. The notion of ecotourism has been introduced to present a new age of ecologically friendly resorts. Nowadays, water management is becoming more and more significant for many resorts. The recycling of water, usage of low-flow showerheads and toilets, and economical irrigation systems are the most popular ways to conserve water and retain functionality during droughts.