Identity and national consciousness are two similar concepts that are attributed to different scales. Whereas identity refers to the individual, national consciousness defines the whole nation state. Those two concepts explain how part of the global society defines itself and forms a separate self-perception. The article by Kirk and Okazawa-Rey considers the factors that influence the process of forming a person’s identity within society. The article by Anderson argues that the creation of national consciousness was made possible by the disappearance of a universal language. Thus, the authors of both works explore how separate identities are formed within the larger group. In particular, they emphasize the influence and interconnection of multiple external and internal factors in this process.
Identity transforms over the course of a person’s life and determines how individuals perceive themselves and position themselves in society. The article by Kirk and Okazawa-Rey explores how the mixture of external factors, including social, political, geographical, historical, and others, impact the process of identity formation. The authors underline that “identity formation is the result of a complex interplay among a range of factors” (Kirk and Okazawa-Rey 8). Thus, identity represents an interconnection of self-image, societal perception, and social position. The main argument that Kirk and Okazawa-Rey make is that identity is shaped not only by individual decisions or choices but influenced by complex external factors (9). The authors conclude that the process of identity formation includes individual, community, societal, and global aspects. Interconnection of those factors defines the person’s social location, which is the place of each individual within the global society. Conflict between multiple identity aspects can lead to questioning one’s social location.
As individual identities, nations are also formed and influenced by numerous interconnected aspects. Anderson underlines that the development of multiple national consciousnesses was the result of the spread of print-capitalism (41). In particular, modern European nation states gradually moved away from the universal Latin language to develop their own languages primarily for capitalistic purposes. Anderson notes that this process can be considered “as a gradual, unselfconscious, pragmatic, not to say haphazard development” (42). The emergence of linguistic nationalism led to a split in the universal Christian community and the development of separate states with unique national consciousness. The author represents this process as the result of the interaction of different factors, including production, printed communication, and human linguistic diversity (Anderson 43). Capitalistic society stimulated the eradication of universal language, which made the appearance of national consciousness possible.
Thus, the authors of both works consider how internal perception and external factors influence the formation of identity. Kirk and Okazawa-Rey consider this process within the framework of the individual, while Anderson appeals to the national consciousness. Anderson defines nation as “imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” (6). However, the same concept can be applied to the personal identity as it exists in the social context and defines its position according to internal and external factors. Kirk and Okazawa-Rey also argue that social location, where all the multiple identities are interconnected, is the place where individuals “meet others socially and politically” (15). Thus, identity and national consciousness can be represented as two similar concepts applied to different scales. Complex factors shape individual identity, which later interacts with other identities within the national framework. These identities were influenced by similar political and social factors, so they form a shared national consciousness based on their common features.
Works Cited
Anderson, Benedict. “The Origins of National Consciousness.” Imagined Communities, edited by Benedict Anderson, Verso, 2006, pp. 37-46.
Kirk, Gwyn, and Margo Okazawa-Rey. “Identities and Social Locations: Who Am I? Who Are My People?” American Identities: An Introductory Textbook, edited by Lois P. Rudnick, et al., Blackwell Publishing, 2006, pp. 8-16.
Reflective consciousness can be defined as the capacity of human beings to objectively reflect, rework and transcend concepts and classes in the context of experiential stream. Person-centered ethnography is a strategy that is utilized by psychological anthropologists to reflect techniques and theories in order to comprehend how persons interact with regard to sociocultural contexts. This paper focuses on discussing the concepts of person-centered ethnography and reflective consciousness.
When analyzing the concept of reflective consciousness, it is important to focus on implicit objectives. Here, the term implicit is used to refer to psychological contents that, in most cases, do not face any resistance in coming to consciousness. Feelings are central to understanding how people interact in day-to-day life. For example, socialization on the shop floor and other places in different settings show Brazilians’ feelings of displacement. In some instances, interactions are characterized by high levels of disorientation and disturbance. When co-workers do not recognize a worker or student, he or she feels unmotivated to work for an organization.
On the other hand, when people spend some time in restaurants taking drinks with friends, they may experience some feelings of nostalgia and modes of sociability. In such a context, an individual’s sense of being displaced arouses reflective consciousness.
This could be turned inward to reflect a high degree of intimacy and sensitivity. However, it has been shown that persons respond to feelings in different ways, leaving many observers admiring and perplexed. In fact, some psychologists assert that reflective consciousness could be an awkward attribute, which does not have very clear boundaries with regard to definition and conceptualization. That notwithstanding, some personalities such as Eduardo Mori and Naomi Mizutake, among others, were influential Japanese-Brazilians. In fact, they changed their identities based on their own circumstances. Their ever-changing and ironic deeds could be used to define the limits of cultural and historical dominion.
Person-centered ethnography could be discussed in the context of sets of exchanges in which people try to express their thoughts and feelings. Exchanges are utilized to explore states of minds of people in direct modes of engagement. It has been shown that an ethnographic exchange unfolds over time and it focuses on comprehending some important aspects of persons. Psychologists have contended that when people are engaged in talking with others, they also speak to themselves. In so doing, they aim at clarifying their ideas and sharpening their internal debates. In fact, during conversations, persons tend to shift from objectification to reflection to reobjectification, which are characterized by various thoughts and verbalizations. The interviewees in the reading materials could be described as persons who spoke their hearts.
However, some could still be described as individuals who did not understand their hearts. Some persons spoke tentatively for themselves, or utilized the interviewer as a sounding board. It can be noted that conversations in the reading resources involved shifts toward closure, mutual recognition and/or understanding. However, they occasionally involved some aspects of contradiction and conjecture. Thus, it would be appropriate to say that such exchanges provided excellent avenues of experimenting with regard to thinking through and finding answers that are more satisfactory. Ethnographic interviews could be used to awaken reflective consciousness, but they can also fail to be implemented in some situations. Examples of such situations are when Brazilian workers attempt to enter Japanese factories, or when Brazilian students try to enter a Japanese school.
Racial prejudice has been in existence within the United States and other parts of the world for the longest time. Despite the many efforts that have been applied to curb the vice, it still prevails. Direct racism turned into discrimination, and it would later transform to segregation, which is all too evident in the modern world. It is a pity that during this entire transition period of the American society, the black man has always been the victim of circumstances.
He has been branded different insulting names and placed at the very bottom of the social hierarchy through denial of freedom and opportunities for liberation. Dubois and Fanon express their sentiments about the issue, and their approach toward developing an understanding of the plight of the black man reveals the nature of the African-American man with respect to his consciousness.
Dubois paints a picture that depicts the black man as having double-consciousness, whereas Fanon claims that the black man has an experience of being a triple persona. To be a happy black man in the American society, one has to assume a passive character to the discriminating nature of the racial identity-sensitive society.
“To be a poor man is hard, but to be a poor race in a land of dollars is the very bottom of hardships.” This paper looks into Dubois’s and Fanon’s sentiment on the issue of the black man in the American society, with a close focus on the differences and similarities of their sentiments about racial identity.
Similarities and differences
Dubois and Fanon share the sentiments that the black man is directly discriminated and segregated in the American society. From their accounts, it is apparent that being a black man in a society where the white people are the majority is a great task for the black man. Dubois reckons that the American world grants the black man the burden of existing in a relatively unfair world. Freedom for the black man is just, but a dream despite the many attempts, he has made before to liberate himself from the social problems in America.
Fanon concurs with this sentiment by asserting that the black man is not entirely part of the American society, but he has been trying to overcome social stereotypes against him. Both authors claim that the black man is viewed by his white counterparts as an inferior human being, who should strive to liberate himself into the white civilisation.
Dubois’s double-consciousness is a function of the double aims held by a black man. The first aim is to uphold the Western civilisation that is associated with being an American, and the second is retaining his cultural beliefs as a black man. Fanon’s triple persona ideology also highlights the two aims provided by Dubois. Fanon believes that the black man is oppressed because he is neither entirely American nor African.
Both authors also claim that no matter how hard the black man has tried to liberate himself from the social issues, he has failed. Failure has become commonplace for black men because the white people are not willing to provide the black man with a chance to become independent. Dubois asserts, “In vain do we cry to this our vastest social problem.”
He mentions the Ku-Klux Klan, which was one of the most violent groups against the blacks. Fanon, on the other hand, indicates that the mentality that the black man is intellectually deficient has been preached across the white society, and black people have been denied the chance to prove otherwise.
Very few black men have been given the chance to shine in the society. The few that have succeeded in life, their legacy is not celebrated by the whites. Fanon reveals that a third person’s consciousness in black men is a function of their bodies, and it is a negating issue.
One of the differences between Dubois’s double-consciousness and Fanon’s triple persona is the role of the physical characteristics of the black man. While Dubois claims that the black man’s plight is a function of his dilemma to become entirely American or African, Fanon introduces another view that reveals that being black in the American society is the main issue.
He reveals that there are even scientific researchers looking into developing medications to help the black people turn white. While both authors believe that black people are oppressed because of his culture, Fanon boldly reveals that the issues in the society are almost entirely caused by a man being black.
Conclusion
The American society is a difficult place to be for the black Americans. Racism, discrimination, and segregation have led to black men being subjected to different expectations of the white people. Dubois’s double consciousness indicates that the black man is torn between becoming a civilised American man and upholding his cultural values.
Fanon’s sentiments about racial identity through triple persona are similar to Dubois’s double-consciousness, but Fanon adds the concept of the third person. The main difference between the two concepts is the emphasis on physical appearance that Fanon uses.
Hindu religion has several gods, who manifest themselves in human form, and then come to rescue man during a time of trouble. The gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva form the trinity in Hindu religion. Brahma is in charge of creation, having grown from the navel of Vishnu. He later made himself a goddess to enable him create the world and human beings (Bryant, 12).
Vishnu is the most powerful of the three and is supposed to sustain the status quo. They believe that everything is in place the way Vishnu wants, and he stays vigilant to ensure things do not go astray.
So far, he has had nine avatars, and it is believed the next will be a white horse. Shiva is a god of destruction. He is believed to reside on at the top of the Himalayas. He facilitates reincarnation by destroying old things and men. All these gods are depicted differently, according to the roles they play. It is essential to note that Krishna was an avatar of Vishnu. Krishna worshippers identify themselves with devotion to Vishnu (Vaishanvism), and the religious philosophy of Vedi (Bryant, 12).
Beliefs
Krishna followers subscribe to (ISKCON) The International Society for Krishna Consciousness, an association created in 1966. The late A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada moved to America in his old age and settled in New York, where he started the society. The movement was originally founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who instructed people on excessive dedication to Vishnu. A. C. B. Swami Prabhupada was inducted to the movement by his friends at the Guadiya Matha Mission, which was based in Calcutta.
They worship by chanting the Krishna mantra and performing sentient dance routines around statues of Krishna (Bryant, 12). They believe in aim towards salvation in the end, and carry out several practices to help them achieve this, most notably lacto-vegetarianism. They also abstain from illegitimate sex, gambling and intoxicants like tobacco, alcohol and many more.
As observed from their beliefs and practices, we can conclude that Krishna followers are monotheist. This is unlike original Indian religion which had polytheistic characteristics. Mainstream Hindus believe in the existence of more than one god, and have gone further to categorize them either as major or minor (Bryant, 12).
According to them, Krishna was only an avatar, and like his predecessors, he died. They are waiting for his successor, who will appear as a Kalki on a white horse bearing a sword that will be used to eradicate poverty and corruption. Krishna followers view him as their main deity. They do not have any regard for past avatars or future avatars, although they acknowledge god Vishnu’s existence.
It is noteworthy that both Krishna followers and mainstream Hindus believe that life has a purpose, and we have to achieve this before the end of our lifetime on earth. For mainstream Hindus, the purpose of human life can be analyzed in four stages, namely; Dharma, which requires someone to fulfill their moral, religious and social obligations.
Artha necessitates personal success by attaining financial stability, while Kama calls for restraint when laboring to satisfy our needs. Moksha is regarded as the ultimate purpose of life (Saliba, 45). Here, people aspire to avoid reincarnation, by strict adherence to frugal discipline of world denouncers, by direct knowledge of ones inner self. Krishna followers, on the other hand, lay emphasis on Dharma and Moksha.
Drifting away
Members of the ISKCON worldwide participate in numerous charity activities of different types, targeting different sections of society. They are universally involved in the provision of rations and accommodation for the famished and destitute. Their branches worldwide collect funds which are then used to achieve this goal.
They use this as a means of coercion, hence their steady growth in numbers over the past years. Mainstream Hinduism is silent on the use of incentives to lure people to their religion. There is no documented record of their engagement with such activities explicitly. It is noteworthy that a silent rule exists, which grants native Hindus the right of entry into the temples of their gods. Krishna followers are the only sect who disregards this rule (Bryant, 12).
Modern day Krishna followers engage in income-generating ventures, in order to sustain their temples and themselves. In Australia, for example, they operate restaurants, shops and other businesses. As a result, most of their establishments are autonomous, and they register themselves under ISKCON as a formality.
The money they raise from these sources is used to finance their schools and for the upkeep of devotees and other full time temple employees. The remainder is donated to charities (Saliba, 45). Swami Prabhupada established a council to oversee the activities of the sect after he died, which is based in America.
They were tasked with the responsibility of making momentous decisions and resolving all conflicts among followers. They were given the power to mediate on matters of doctrine. No records have been found among other mainstream Hindus of such organization levels. They engage in charity activities individually, and most of them do not have schools specifically dedicated for their children.
The American chapter of the Krishna sect was embroiled in controversy, compelling them to file for bankruptcy. This showed some level of organization, the existence of a hierarchy, and most importantly, a strong financial base. Parents and victims accused the society of child molestation.
Most of the other mainstream Hindu sects have not had allegations of such high magnitude against them. The mere fact that they filed for bankruptcy proves that they had financial ambitions and that their existence depended on their financial muscle. The American chapter sought for financial assistance from other societies worldwide to settle the claim.
Numerous cases of child molestation had been reported, both in American and Indian schools. Cases of violence and neglect were also rampant in the said schools (Saliba, 45). Remote cases were reported in Australia, although they responded promptly by shutting down all their boarding schools. They later asserted that it was due to lack of sufficient funds.
It is also striking that despite having its roots in primordial India, the Krishna society started from America where it is based, before spreading to India and many other countries.
All other sects of Hinduism originate from India and are propagated by Indians, as opposed to the Krishna sect, which has placed emphasis on recruiting non Hindus to the sect (Saliba, 45). There have been cases of infighting, disagreements about the validity of doctrines they were propagating among members of the executive council. It has negatively affected the society’s standing.
Surprisingly, the sect continues to grow steadily as converts from different walks of life are lured into it, hoping to find an alternative to Christianity, Islam and other mainstream religions. Hindus who migrate to other countries where their sects do not exist tend to join the Krishna band wagon.
Works Cited
Bryant, Edward. Krishna: A Sourcebook. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2007 12
Saliba, John. Understanding New Religious Movements. California: Rowman AltaMira, 2003 (2 illustrated) 45
Memory is regarded as the most complex phenomenon in the natural world of living organisms. It has been scientifically established that all organisms have very complex mental processes which help them interact with their respective environments (Schacter, 2002). Most researchers have been more concerned with understanding the concept of memory in human beings.
The human brain is adapted and reorganized by the day to day experiences. Continued interactions with the physical world through the sensory experiences, perceptions, and actions play a central role in shaping and changing the state of the brain (Thompson & Madigan, 2007).
These experiences will later determine what an individual would be able to recall, perceive, comprehend, and become. The essay seeks to discuss memory in terms of the processes occurring in the brain as far as memory is concerned. It will then analyze one of the existing models of memory as well as discuss some ways of enhancing memory.
Researchers have made attempts to provide a comprehensive definition of the complex term of memory. Psychologists have defined memory in human beings as the ability to store, be able to retain for sometime, and recall the stored information, depending on individual’s experiences (Kandel & Squire, 2006).
Memory has also been investigated long time ago by the philosophy investigators. Towards the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw the rise in research into memory under cognitive psychology. Modern studies into memory are mainly conducted under cognitive neuroscience which is an inter-link between neuroscience and cognitive psychology. Most of these researchers are also interested in understanding the relationship between memory and the mind.
The information that is received from the environment can be classified into three main stages in storing and recalling the information. First, there is the registration otherwise known as encoding of information. It involves the reception, processing and the synthesis of the information received (Thompson & Madigan, 2007). The second stage involves the total retention of the encoded information. The last stage is the recollection or retrieval of stored information through bringing them back to conscience.
Information storage process has three major levels relative to the time that has elapsed after the perception of some phenomena (Schacter, 2002). The first category of memory is the sensory memory which includes all information received within about 200 or 500 milliseconds after the perception of a given item. It involves to ability to recall most if not all the details of an item after being exposed to. The display cannot last longer than 100 milliseconds. Sensory memory cannot allow pro-longed rehearsal.
The second process of recollection is the short-term memory whose recall duration is several seconds to about a minute without necessarily rehearsing. This memory has considerably small capacity that can hold limited information (Schacter, 2002). It can store up to about 5 or 9 items. Modern researchers estimate the capacity of the short-term memory at even lower levels of between 4 and 5 items. However, the capacity of the memory can always be enhanced through the chunking process.
It is a process of grouping information data into smaller groups with a pattern that is easier to follow. Most psychological researchers have established that acoustic coding is most convenient way of storing information compared to the visual coding. Research findings reveal that it is much difficult to recall vast amount of information with acoustic similarity. The ability to recall, however, depends greatly on individuals’ capabilities.
The third level of information storage is the long-term memory. In the first two cases, information available for recollection is available for a limited period of time implying that the information is not indefinitely available (Thompson & Madigan, 2007). On the contrary, long-term memory can retain numerous quantities of information for a considerably longer period of time. It can even be for a life time.
This is mostly due to its nearly infinite capacity. For instance, one may recall a ten digit number within some short period of time then forget implying that it had been stored in the short-term memory. However, we can recall the same number for a number of years through constant rehearsal; this implies that the information has been stored in the long-term memory. The most distinguishing characteristic between long-term and short-term memories is the system of encoding.
It has been found that whereas short-term memory encodes data acoustically, the long-term memory, on the other hand encodes information semantically. Researchers hold that it is more difficult to recall information with similar meanings, for instance, words with similar definitions like large, huge, big, and great.
In their quest to understand the complexity of the concept of memory, scientists have developed models of memory. These models provide representations that are always abstract with an aim of depicting how the memory operates (Thompson & Madigan, 2007). One of them is the working memory model which focuses on the short-term memory and the active components.
According Baddeley and Hitch, the proponents of this model, the working memory model has three stores: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (Thompson & Madigan, 2007).
The central executive has been regarded as acting as attention. All information is channeled from this store to three other components: these are the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad as well as the episodic buffer which was incorporated into this model in the year 2000 (Kandel & Squire, 2006). Auditory information is stored in the phonological loop through silent rehearsal of words or sounds in clear continuous loop.
On the other hand, visuo-spatial sketchpad is modeled to store spatial as well as visual information. This component is used when dealing with spatial undertakings like distance estimation or the visual tasks like counting floors of tall buildings or image imagination (Thompson & Madigan, 2007).
Furthermore, episodic buffer concentrates on integrating information from all the other components. This can best be illustrated by the ability to call the flow of a movie or a given story in a chronological order. This component process is mostly linked to the long-term memory as well as the semantic meaning of given information.
Some methods of enhancing the memory have been proposed. Psychologists have proposed some reliable techniques of improving memory (Schacter, 2002). These include the incorporation of memory tasks into the day to day practices which include; strive to reduce stress, use of mnemonics, and maintaining a healthy body. The principles used in mnemonics include; imagination, association and location.
The essay has elaborated the concept of memory, particularly as used in psychology. The working memory model has been discussed as an attempt by psychologists to explain how memory operates. Some of the methods that can be used to improve memory ability have been mentioned.
References
Kandel, E. R. & Squire L. R. (2006). The journals of gerontology and memory:
Psychological sciences and social sciences. Gerontological Society of America. 30 (12) 231-78
Schacter, D. L. (2002). The memory facts: how the mind forgets and remembers. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Thompson, R. F. & Madigan, S. A. (2007). Memory: Understanding consciousness. Princeton University Press.
What does the emergence of historical consciousness in modern Judaism entail? It is a western civilization that took place sometimes back and transformed the older version of Ashkenazic Judaism into modern Judaism. It was more of a change that occurred in the way we look at things or simply our perception. The values, institutions, and ideas became modern and westernized after this transformation occurred it is like it became a platform for the translation from the past to the modern ideologies, values, and ideas. The main focus of the essay will be on the emergence of the historical consciousness in modern Judaism, which is the sole purpose of this research.
Main text
The historical awakening is what led Jews to change their way of thinking. People started thinking of ideas that were not known there before. The argument was that history was not simply the act of putting down data for the sake of being read in future but it was recorded so that we could be able to look at the past transactions and analyze them so as to come up with the results to the disturbing future questions. The Judaism of the past was destroyed by the wissenschafts ideas. It rendered the former way of thinking weak especially when Gans released his Hebrew chronicle that comprised of two parts. This chronicle successfully became the bridge that was formerly used to shift from the past to the modern times.
This made the Gentile Jewish history to be forgotten and then was replaced with the history of his time. Also, the Azariah De Rossi’s essay collections played a part in making people start being less influenced by the Jewish sources of history that have been preserved in the books that were written by the Jewish Writers. All past works and languages that existed in Jewish history from this time were depicted as awkward.
The two writers in their documents restricted the misuse of traditions, which were no longer useful they instead reasserted the messianic influence and the sacred practices for the past times so that they could be used in modern times. However though this strategy for the intellectuals still worked, it only produced excellent results when applied to a new Jew who had not been ‘spoilt’ by the past traditions.
This historic transformation coincided wit the time when Germany’s university was also being revamped. With time, the Jews population in schools surpassed the whole Jewish community by 1830. Due to this kind of socialization, many of these Jewish students did not come so strongly engrossed with the stereotypes and traditions of the past times and this made notions of the western world to be easily accepted.
“No Jewish figure understood more presciently the futility of persisting in a policy of cerebral segregation and literary censorship, giving the penetration of western learning into Jewish consciousness.” (Modern Jewish History pdf, 178).
Though contemporary writers such as Gans and Azariah De Rossi had managed to convince a lot of people to adapt to the western ideologies, the course of their work was made bumpy by criticism that came from the opponents such as Nachman Krochmal. This writer was not widely traveled and for this reason, he was seen as a conservatism who in his masterpiece, “The Guide for those perplexed by time in our day 1851” urged people not to forget about their traditions. (Modern Jewish History pdf, 178). This led to division among those that have been transformed before. This is evident in the Steinschneiders memorable program.
Sooner than later that the historians started detecting the traits of Greek, Roman as well as Islamic trends in what could have been referred to as modern Judaism. In making Judaism’s transformation a reality, the Wissenschaft ideology was put in the only books that were available to the people. This was a premeditated step designed to check the spread of other beliefs apart from Judaism. For example, the school curriculum of Ashkenazi Yeshiva was introduced to help in the spread of Judaism.
The main focus of this curriculum was on Halakhah but later Haskalah, German Biblical literature started being read by many but its introduction was not with some resistance. This small disagreement was raised to a new height by Zunz who in 1818 led this small division into a topic of discussion in schools (Modern Jewish History, pdf 180).
The bid for conceptual advancement led to the discovery of text materials that were not yet published such as siddur of Saadia, David Reuben’s Diary, and the Nebukhim Maimonides Arabic as well as the Yehuda Halevi’s Divan. Also, this expansion involved the re-appropriation of some texts such as the Talmud. The uncovering of the unpublished work completely changed the scholarly agenda. Some of the terms that were tenaciously held by the Jews were subjected to closer scrutiny to establish their applicability. These were terms like Jerusalem, Philosophic notions, and liturgical compendia as well as midrashic collections.
The historians who were determined to bring Judaism consciousness to the people worked without getting tired to increase the volume of the right Jewish sources. The collection of these sources were expanded to include even the works written in other languages apart from Jewish and as a result of this, the Hebrew and Aramaic books found their way in the Jewish sources. The move to incorporate other works in Judaism reflected how Jewish historians were flexible and ready to adapt to the new changes.
Even the writer like Jost while revising the commonwealth history much more preferred to depend on Josephus, unlike Gans who used Josippon. The idea of relying on other works of literature apart from Judaism along portrayed how changing the Jewish literary was advancing and also showed how the literature was changing over time.
There were also some efforts to secularize some Judaism terms for example the literature of “etwas uber die rabbinic literature” the terms were used well so as not to be in conflict with other terms. The secularization involved balancing all these terms whether Hebrew and Jewish without losing the scope of the work. By 1850, stein Schneider had released the survey of the Jewish literature that showed the ingenuity to apply different languages in expressing the Jewish conceptions. The success of this secularization led to the production of the Jewish literature two volumes. This work was produced by Gusta Karpeles created another platform apart from that of the pasta where Judaism was viewed as a religious thing only but Karpele’s work of 1886 was more than that.
Cognitive thinking as a means of acquiring knowledge was in line with the Wissenschaft and was nothing more than a western ideology. The past way of thinking of the Jews that was prevalent during the rabbinic era was seen as exegetical and somehow commentary came to be viewed differently that is, as an intellectual expression.
“A sacred text called for elucidation application and renewal and midrash evolved into a mode of cognition, an expression of piety and an instrument of revitalization and episodic” (Modern Jewish History. Pdf 183).
Later in the phase of Judaism Geiger made very important contributions to the continuing debate something that gave an impetus to the development of consciousness. His arguments backed those of Creizenachs by adding a historical dimension to his. Geiger portrayed rabbinic exegesis as ideologies that are not aware of the importance of history in shaping the meaning of the text. What made Geiger become the German spokesman on reforms was because he dropped his criticisms that were directed against rabbinic Judaism.
As Fassel did not put it in a dialect, the bid to seek self-knowledge.
Increased the level of exploitation and to reverse this situation, the literature in the ancient texts to be explained so as to make more Jews aware of the modern information. The Jewish terms values, institutions had to be integrated with the western know-how. There was also a trial to reject the usage of the concept Wissenschaft des Judentums in the lessons about rabbinic literature. As Graetz saw rabbinic Judaism as a free religion that is not directed to one. Later he also came with more reforms while he tried to initiate his own program of publishing the philosophy of the Jews. (Modern Jewish History. Pdf 195).
Conclusion
From the reading, we can infer that the emergence of the historical consciousness in modern Judaism led to a lot of other big transformations later in the period. The people who were credited with the work of instilling consciousness in the Jews are people like Gans and De Rossi. They incorporated the western ideas into Judaism and this became the point of departure that is from the past form of Judaism to the modern conscious form of Judaism.
Reference
Modern Jewish History. The Emergence of Historical Consciousness in Modern Judaism.
Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior. Human beings exhibit different behaviors. The behavior that an individual portrays is controlled by the mind because people act as per their thoughts. People have different personalities whereby another dislikes a behavior, which one cherishes.
The term consciousness is defined as the state of mind in which one is aware of what he/she is doing. Conscious persons control his mind in determining what to do and what not to do and the time. Since the person acts in his right senses, he is accountable for results of his actions.
There are some instances in which people act out of consciousness. An individual can get involved in a very bad act but he does not know whether he has committed any sin. Consciousness involves prior plans because people act according to their plans. The state of mind determines the condition in which one performs his actions.
Amnesia is a condition in which memory is lost totally or partially. The term memory is used to refer to the remembrance of things, which happened sometimes back as well as keeping in mind events taking place presently. The Limbic system is a region in the brain whose function is to retrieve memories already stored in the brain.
The limbic system is composed of hippocampus, amygdale and the cortex. The lymphatic system enables the functioning of the endocrine system as well as the feelings and emotions (Holland, 2003). If the lymphatic system is interfered with, amnesia is likely to occur. Since Amnesia deals with mind, it is important in the scientific study of consciousness.
Literature Review
Chapter Overview
The scientific study of human and animal behavior is referred to as psychology. Psychology is also concerned with the methods that affect and change the behavior of people. The study of behavior and processes of mind is collectively referred to as psychology. Psychologists are mainly interested in the study of behavior and characteristics of people.
A study of psychology includes issues that take place from individual’s day of birth to death. Psychology became a discipline on its own in the 17th century during Greeks time. During this time, Rene Descartes a French philosopher introduced the idea of dualisms, which asserted that human body is made up of two different parts, the body and the mind.
The study of mind was supposed to be independent. Nature versus nurture theories of human behavior also explain the role played by psychology. According to the nature theory, human behavior is genetic. During the process of mutation, character traits are passed from the parents to the child so that the child behaves much more like the parents. The nurture theory is based on the assumption that human behavior depends on the environment in which an individual is brought up.
Background
Modern psychologists use scientific methods to study human behavior as well as his thoughts. Physiology has contributed a lot towards the emergence of psychology as a discipline. In the study of brain and behavior, physiologists applied scientific methods in an attempt to understand human behavior and thoughts. Wilhelm Wundt founded psychology in 1979.
He started the first Experimental psychology lab at Leipzig. In his book, “Principles of Physiological Psychology”, he defined psychology as the study of human consciousness. He aimed at carrying out research to understand internal processes of mind .He used a method he referred to as introspection. Introspection is the process through which an individual examines and reports his/her thoughts, feeling and impressions for a period. It involves observing the functioning of the brain to understand the laws that govern the mind.
The process occurs consciously in mind. The behavior that individuals display is based on the thoughts. Behaviorists who suggest that psychology should base on objectives and ways, which can be measured, have criticized the method. Psychologists shifted their attention from consciousness and sensation to measurable behavior.
There are two major schools of thought in psychology. Structuralism was founded by Edward Titchener, a former student of Wundt founded the first major school of thought .Structuralism is the perception that mental experiences is made up of simple events. Structuralists are mainly concerned with the components of mind.
Structuralists argue that consciousness of human beings can be divided in to smaller parts. Structural psychology aimed at describing consciousness in its basic elements, putting together these components and determining the relationship to each other as well as their relationship to the nervous system. Edward classified sensations and thoughts as the major components of mind.
The method used in structuralism was unreliable. This is because of the use of subjective methods in the study of the structures of mind. It is also blamed for emphasizing much on the internal behavior, which cannot be observed daily. There is no actual way of measuring internal behavior.
Functional psychology is concerned with the process through which the mind acts and functions instead of what it contains. Functionalism was advocated for by William James and Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. It was a reaction against structuralism.
They used systematic and accurate ways of explaining the processes of mind. In addition to elements of consciousness, functionalists were also interested in studying the purpose of behavior. They also dealt with differences between people, for instance, people have different levels of understanding in schools. Functionalists wanted to know reasons behind this.
Amnesia is related to scientific study of consciousness. This is because the behavior that an individual exhibits depends on the state of mind. Amnesia affects the consciousness of an individual because it changes the way in which the brain functions. When people loose memory, they loose the control of their brain and therefore do things unconsciously. For example, mad persons do things unconsciously.
They do things, which can never be done by a person in his right senses. Such people walk naked and eat food remainders from garbage. They are not in control of their mind and therefore do not have the knowledge that what they are doing is wrong. Such people have already lost their awareness. Consciousness is therefore influenced by amnesia. Amnesia is related to consciousness in the sense that if an individual is amnesiac he is likely act unconsciously (Blackmore, 2005).
There are three main categories of human memories. After the creation of a memory, it is stored regardless of the time duration. There are many events, which take place in people’s lives, and if they are accommodated in the brain, it will be overworked. These stages help in sorting the information so that the most important things are permanently stored in the brain.
They are sensory, short-term and long-term memory. Sensory memory involves the remembrance caused by stimulus received through the senses. People may remember something after seeing it (iconic memory), hearing a particular sound (echoic memory) or even touching it (haptic memory). Sensory memory is short term as events, which are of importance at that particular time, are stored in the brain. In short- term memory information is stored for a limited time.
The capacity of remembrance is low such that only few things are stored. Valuable information is transferred from the short term to long-term memory so that they are retained for remembrance after a long period. This memory stores large volumes of data. For example, the information that students learn in schools is stored permanently in their brains. This helps them later during their exams (Blackmore, 2005).
In the process of remembering something, information is willingly retrieved from unconscious level to the conscious mind. People are different in remembering where some people remember various things better than others do. Some people are said to have good memories while others poor.
People who have problems of remembrance and are physically fit, it is not an implication that the whole memory system is damaged, part of the memory system is not functioning. When an individual keeps books on the drawer before going to sleep, the mind should register where the books were kept. One should pay attention to the storage place or else he will not remember the following day.
The information is stored in the mind for future retrieval. If the memory system is working well, the person will find it easy to remember the following day. Difficulties in remembering may be due to lack of proper registration of the storage place, failure to retain what was registered in ones mind or poor memory retrieval. The above stages are very important in ensuring proper remembrance Relation between amnesia and consciousness. Distractions during encoding can make an individual to forget (Blackmore, 2005).
Amnesia comes in different forms. The most common form is called anterograde amnesia. It involves the inability to retain and recall events, which happened after the condition. Patients find it hard remember things that have just happened in their lives. If you ask them of their last diet, they will not be in a position to tell. Another characteristic of those patients is their tendency to talk of disorderly things.
They may be explaining things, which never happened, in the real sense. In this case, their minds are full of fabricated events. Dementia and Alzheimers diseases have such characteristics. Some Patients forget the events, which took place before the beginning of Amnesia. This is called retrograde amnesia. It mainly occurs because of head injuries. Some patients lose memory of the events in the previous hours completely.
This condition is mostly found among the old people. The conditions disorient the patients so that they keep asking the same questions repeatedly. Those people may not know where they are, what they do and some cannot tell their names. Other mental diseases like madness contribute to memory loss (Elchenbaum & Cohen, 1995).
Amnesia is also caused by drug abuse. Excessive usage of drugs affects the brain so that the normal functioning of the brain is affected. Most drugs are harmful to human health. Tobacco and alcohol for instance affects the lungs making the breathing system difficult.
When persons become addicted, they concentrate much on the drugs. In many cases, drug addicts do not have control on their actions. When they are under the influence of the dugs, they do things, which they cannot remember the following day. They cannot remember the words they utter once they come in their right senses.
Stress also contributes to memory loss. When one is stressed, there is low concentration on what is done It is difficult for example for a student to understand what is being taught by their teacher if he is under stress. The student is likely to forget what is taught in class at that particular time (Eichenbaum & Cohen, 1995).
Critique
In future, psychologists should employ accurate measures of explaining the behavior of human beings. This is because functional and structural theories of explaining human behaviors are not accurate. Even though amnesia leads to unconscious actions, some individuals take the advantage and prevent not to be aware of their actions.
For example, many drug addicts pretend that they do not know they previously did when drunk. Some are so chaotic when drunk after which they complain not to have any knowledge on their actions. Most of them just prevent not to be aware but in the real sense, they know what they are doing. However, some like mad people do not pretend, as they do not have control over their actions.
They even do some things, which are harmful to themselves like garbage. According to me, a research topic on the ways of ensuring that people’s actions are really unconscious should be done. This research will differentiate those people who do things out of pretence from those others. This will be of great help because many people do things and pretend not to have done but they are actually aware (Eichenbaum & Cohen, 1995).
Conclusion
Studying the psychology of consciousness is important because it helps in understands the behavior of amnesiacs. Amnesiacs do not have control on the things they do .They do things unconsciously. For instance, mad people usually do abnormal things. They eat dirty foods, dress indecently among other abnormal activities. This is because they have lost their memory of differentiating the right from wrong. For the elderly people, their level of retrieving information is very low.
As they grow old, the level of their understanding goes down. They forget easily, an effect that can lead to wrong steps. In conclusion, amnesia and consciousness are intertwined because they affect each other. Loss of memory leads to unconscious actions so that the person is not conscious about the action he takes. Conscious individuals are accountable for the actions they take while unconscious individuals are not (Parkin, 1997).
References
Blackmore, S. (2005). Consciousness: A very Short Introduction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
Blackmore, S. (2005). Conversations on consciousness. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
Eichenbaum, H. & Cohen, N. (1995). Memory, amnesia, and the hippocampus system. New Jersey, NJ: MIT Press
Holland, O. (2003). Machine consciousness. Washington, DC: Imprint Academic
Parkin, A. (1997). Memory and amnesia: An introduction. London: Psychology Press.
Research done in past indicates that study of mind by ancient psychologists was related to study of consciousness. In the late nineteenth century, William Wundt carried out a study where the subjects were mandated to report conditions of consciousness under different situations like sleeping, standing, and walking (Morin, 2007).
Similarly, Sigmund Freud (Drori, 2003), advanced the theory that wants, wishes and influence form part of the conscious mind. He stated further that the degree varies among individuals. In the recent past, the concept of consciousness has become elusive leading to advancement of various positions by scientists. This has attracted more attention to it hence an unprecedented increase in studies related to it.
The issue of consciousness is ranked among the top areas of study in subjects relating to psychology, philosophy and to some extent neuroscience due to its multidisciplinary applicability. In equal measure, it elicits controversy among scholars across the science divisions. Hosts of dynamics have been advanced to explain this buzz with consciousness. The use of methods of human neuropsychology, functional imaging, and to some extent psychology shows characteristics of knowledge of consciousness.
This has been given props up by identification of unconscious conditions which have a direct influence on one’s activities. This has acted to provide a leeway to differentiate neural substrates of the unconscious and conscious actions in the mind of a person. It is thus necessary to look at the advancements and forward steps made in the study of consciousness in an attempt to explain its ambiguity.
Meaning of consciousness
Consciousness is commonly known as awareness of the immediate environment. It is being aware of different sensations, memories and thoughts at a particular time such as making a school timetable, feeling pain or getting angry because of a bad day at the office. It may be argued that consciousness is also a state of mind but this does not include the unconscious mind. In fact consciousness entails the brain being aware of the presence of awareness
Forms of consciousness
Consciousness as the waking state
In entirely all neurological studies, awareness referred to as consciousness is deemed to be same as the waking state. This is considered together with capacity to recognize, associate and interact with the surrounding in the state of being awake. This state of consciousness varies from waking up from sleep to going into a coma. To achieve this form of consciousness, one has to be awake, attentive and observant. It refers to the time when a person is awake.
Consciousness as an experience
This is the first logic of how we express or show our state of being awake. There is a wider agreement that it has features such as being personal, interacting for few seconds though variation occurs over a period of time.
According to Nagel (Emmett, 1978), consciousness in this sense is based on occurrence that is witnessed from time to time. The sense of uniqueness to be an individual is more inborn than the consciousness of the waking state. Most theories prefer using the term ‘qualia’ to explain the personal feel of experience as a sense of consciousness.
Consciousness as the mind
It has been argued that what is in the mind is the exact reflection of what is going on in the brain. This attests to the fact that any state of mentality is considered to be conscious, any form of belief, faith, intention and many others. It is common knowledge that the body becomes useless without the mind. This is further reinforced by psychologists who agree that mental activity is dependent on the brain.
Sleep as a state of consciousness
This is a natural altered state of consciousness. It is characterized by four different stages. Stage one refers to the period between waking up and sleeping; stage two is more intense than stage one as it entails being more asleep.
Step three refers to sleep that has more regular brainwaves and is more than step two. Step four refers to that stage where sleep is most intense and deepest, and it is unresponsive to any outside stimuli. Stage one is where rapid eye movement is experienced coupled with increased heart beats and rate of breathing. In some cases, erection occurs in men.
Multiple theories and philosophies have been advanced to give meaning to dreams in our sleep. One of such theories was advanced by Sigmund Freud (Drori, 2003). He argues that any dream a person gets, shows wishes that are not satisfied or fulfilled. He wrote that needs, desires, and influences are part of the conscious and people have different levels of consciousness. He further says that dreams have some hidden power that determines them in the long run (LaBerge, 1990).
Sleep as a state of consciousness is controlled by the body. This is supported by the fact that after spending sleepless night on some duty, one will eventually feel tired as the body cannot take anymore lack of sleep hence the need for rest by going to sleep. This is occasioned by biorhythms which control the activities of the body. Such activities include body temperature, heartbeat and many more, though time needed for adequate sleep varies from one person to the other. Hobson (2007) refers to sleep as a state of ‘turned off’ consciousness.
In the contemporary world, there is a new theory known as ‘dreams-for-survival’ which says dreams play a vital role in transmitting information essential for our survival to be reconsidered and eventually reprocessed. While the activation-synthesis theory by Alan Hobson., suggests that the brain has some electrical energy which it releases when one is asleep so as to stimulate release of memory lodged in certain parts of the brain.
Hypnosis
This refers to an altered state of consciousness. A person in this state is not in control and acts in a trancelike manner due to susceptibility to suggestions put forward by other individuals. The mythical nature of hypnosis fascinates a lot. This attracted believers in hypnosis and non believers. It is suggested that those under hypnosis neither get destructive nor antisocial; they can tell lies while not revealing truths.
The state of hypnosis has been used and employed in multiple disciplines such as hospitals to treat psychology disorders, pain control and smoking therapy. It has helped reduce crime rate as it is used in law enforcement; while sports such as athletics have employed it as a performance enhancer. It is always carried out by an individual who induces sleep into a person, then goes on to control the ‘sleeping’ person.
Meditation
This is also an altered state of consciousness. It is a practice that one has to master through learning and be able to refocus the mind. It is mostly used by people who undergo depression and it is suggested that it helps in relieving depression, leaving them more rejuvenated than before. It is a way of thinking about your own thinking.
Drug related and induced state
Millions of people get addicted to drugs, while thousands others die from drug overdoses. Psychoactive drugs can cause a person to go into an altered state of consciousness due to their ability to influence ones thoughts and memory. Some of the psychoactive drugs include beer and coffee. Addictive drugs are the most dangerous form since they produce a psychological and in some cases biological dependence on them by the user.
Irresistibility occurs in cases where one tries to withdraw from the use of the drugs. This occurs in cases where the body has developed physical dependency on the drug and will fail to function properly without it. The stimulants are responsible for causing a rise in the heart rate due to the fact that they affect the nervous system of the body. Caffeine and nicotine are classical examples of stimulants.
Some people take drugs thinking that it will bring them into lower levels of consciousness. Depressants, on the other hand, represent a complete and stark contrast of stimulants; they slow the nervous system and do not speed it up due to intoxication. Alcohol is the most common type of depressant.
Other drugs are used to increase relaxation while relieving pain and anxiety; such drugs are known as narcotics. They give a person a good feeling and later some form of peacefulness. Heroin and morphine are the greatest and most dominant narcotics. Increased uptake ultimately leads to eventual addiction leading to a dangerous precedence. A change in mentality can be caused by someone experiencing hallucinations which result from taking hallucinogen drugs. They drugs, for example marijuana, create an air of euphoria.
Functions of consciousness
The four major functions are as follows
Simplification and Selection of information
The level of processing that is carried out in the mind is a lot due to the amount of information present at a time in the mind. The mind has to make a decision and it is consciousness that ultimately guides it.
Guiding and overseeing actions
It is consciousness that enables the body and brain to collaboratively decipher what is occurring outside the body. They plan what has to be done in order to rhyme with the environment in terms of walking, speaking, sleeping and even drinking.
Setting priorities for action
Consciousness controls and determines what is too prioritized over the other in order for survival to occur. If this does not happen, crowding can result leading to chaos.
Detecting and resolving discrepancies
It streamlines issues that occur from changes in the external and internal worlds due to the fact that the information received in the consciousness comes from these two worlds.
Theories of consciousness
The rebirth of experimental studies on consciousness has inspired the advancement of more theories to give an overview on it. A few have tried to divulge the neurological modalities of consciousness. Focus has also been directed at computational duties that may be undertaken by conscious procedures, mostly training their focus on behavioral control. Another bunch of theories attempt to look into roles and origins of consciousness.
Neurobiological theories
These types of theories dwell on two rules or beliefs which are based on research carried out in the past century. They are hinged on the works of Donald Hebb which is based on the neural correlate of consciousness.
According these theories, structures in the upper brainstem play a critical role in arousal, and that thalamic and cortical activity supplies much of the content of consciousness. The quorum on the functionality of neuronal assemblies in the birth of consciousness creates a room for discontenting concerns on multiple vital details.
Information processing theories
In any case that consciousness has a biological role; it will be visible through observing behavior. A lot of the activities we do daily require no or minimal use of conscious. Such related theories are in agreement with the basics of William James who links the level of consciousness with choosy interest advanced by Velmans (Hobson, 2007). While Baars has advanced a model that compares the contents of consciousness with those of ‘global workspace’ that are capable of being transmitted into the nervous system.
Social theories
A number of fundamental beliefs define these theories. One of them refers to its origin of common information that is shared among individuals. This shows us that consciousness has a social aspect in the society. Another aspect is the distribution of knowledge within oneself while in consciousness, and also doing the same with others trough social contacts, as interdependent.
Philosophy of consciousness
Three intuitions about consciousness
The first perception about consciousness is its strong nature which should be considered rather than being wished away. Several behavioral senses such as hearing of sound and color vision refer to simple forms of consciousness. The second perception of consciousness is linked up with our physical existence. This viewpoint comes before scientific knowledge.
The third perception takes into consideration the fact that consciousness creates a variation (Fodor, 1989). It is not lost on us that a large part of our actions is described by mental activities. Lack of ability to touch or see, would mean no feeling of pain or pleasure. This attests to the ideology that consciousness has the biological capability to develop.
Identity theory
The proposal that there is a relationship between the identities of conscious activities with those of related neural activities provides a materialism way out to the body-mind quandary. Scientists have been able to show that our mental activity has its roots in the brain. This is not very contemporary since it was expounded in pre-historic days by Lucretius and given more impetus in the 17th century by Hobbes (Kokoszka, 2000).
Functionalism
Functionalism had a lot of support drummed up for it. It is heavily linked to Daniel Dennett (King, 1993). Its tenets are based on the argument that the existence of consciousness is hinged upon functions that it provides. In the views of Dennet a certain subset of the transformation of input into output which our nervous system serves (King, 1993). Functionalism gives a lot of credit to the science of artificial intelligence that is continuing to grow.
The beauty of this approach is multiple. It has been allocated a space for consciousness in the ordinary world. The only soft underbelly of functionalism is its vulnerability to similar deep seated objection as the theory of identity.
Dualism
This analysis on the link between conscious and neural events gives a view of close relation, but very divergent in terms of fundamentals. These theories are mostly advanced by followers of Rene Descartes, a French philosopher, dualistic nature of events. Descartes intuits that despite the separation of the mind and the body, there is still some interaction between them.
Dualism advances the fact that nothing can be in existence without having a corresponding opposite. Such an example is the fact that darkness exists because there is light; good is in existence to provide a balance on evil; while body would not be able to perform various functions in the absence of the mind.
The discipline of wakefulness
A complete natural description of consciousness would determine its operations, origin and structure. The science of wakefulness is educated by a set of two studies in the last century. These are the experimentation of electrical correlates and the breakthrough in determining that the conscious states are regulated by thalamus, basal forebrain and brainstem.
Conclusion
Currently, there are a lot of philosophies that have been brought up to deal with the issue of states of consciousness. Majority of them tend to base their analysis on bio-behavioral. There are also trials to give details of consciousness by elaborating parts of the brain and its functions. Focus has also been centered on states of consciousness such as hypnosis, sleep, meditation and drug related consciousness.
The level and amount of progress that has been achieved towards consciousness in the past century has been tremendous leading to ultimate evolution of our biological knowledge of the states of consciousness and their details. These achievements have led to the determination of electrical correlates of the states of wakefulness, sleep and mind. A number of new prototypes have started to initiate more focused studies on the neurology of experience.
References
Drori, G. (2003). A journey towards higher consciousness: On retreat in pacha mama, a spiritual village in Costa Rica. Chicago: Frontier.
Emmett, K. (1978). “States of consciousness and the new paradigm in philosophy.” Metaphilosophy, 9(2): 37-43.
Hobson, J. A. (2007). Normal and abnormal states of consciousness. In Max Velmans & Susan Schneider’s Blackwel. New York : Cengage Publishers.
King, C. Daly (1993). The States of Human Consciousness. New Hyde Park NY: University Books.
Kokoszka, A. (2000). “Altered states of consciousness.” Psychiatr Pol, 27 (1):75-83.
LaBerge, S. (1990). Lucid dreaming: Psycho physiological studies of consciousness during Rem sleep. Chicago: Frontier.
Morin, A. (2007). Consciousness is more than wakefulness. New York: Cengage Publishers.
Studying a human personality is by far one of the most complicated tasks, since it presupposes embracing a number of issues, starting from the factors that the environment in which a person develops in can be characterized, to the values and principles that the person in question was raised in accordance with.
That being said, the number of theories of personality is rather large, and it is bound to grow as other factors of personal development are discovered. However, among the ones that already exist, certain theories deserve being taken a better look at. Despite the fact that these theories were provided quite a while ago, they still remain challenging and inspiring.
Maslow: Holistic Dynamic Theory
Starting from the basics, one must mention that Maslow’s Holistic Dynamic Theory must not be confused with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; even though the two theories have a lot in common, with one of them practically being the logical continuation of another one, there is a basic difference between the two.
As Feist and Feist explain, the famous hierarchy of needs makes one of the elements of the Holistic Dynamic Theory; to be more exact, it allows for distilling the key reasons for people being motivated. As for the theory itself, Feist and Feist put it in the following way: “it assumes that the whole person is constantly being motivated by one need or another and that people have the potential to grow toward psychological health, that is, self-actualization” (Feist & Feist, 2008, p. 275).
In other words, Holistic Dynamic Theory presupposes that every single step in a person’s development is predisposed by the need in self-actualization, which, in its turn, can be defined as “achieving in action” (Simmermacher, 2005, p. 15). To be more exact, self-actualization is the manifestation of a person’s need to grow and become more experienced, more developed and more sociable.
Another way to consider Maslow’s theory is to view it from the position of the argument between determinism and free will. Allowing for the assumption that such concept as destiny might exist, determinism somehow tones down the need for self-actualization specified by Maslow.
Indeed, with every single event being predetermined, there is little motivation for striving for personal success. The theory of free ill, however, provides the Holistic Dynamic Theory with more reasons to exact, seeing how both explore the opportunities for personal development.
Likewise, self-awareness, which intersects with the concept of self-actualization, also serves as the proof for Holistic Dynamic Theory. Without further evolution, being self-aware, i.e., building awareness of changes in one’s personal needs and the variety of the latter is practically impossible; hence, the need for self-awareness as an integral part of personal growth is defined as a part of Maslow’s concept of the Holistic Dynamics Theory.
Truly, Maslow’s theory has its limitations, and most of them are linked to the criticism of the way in which the needs are arranged in his hierarchy. The very fact that the researcher put self-actualization as the top priority caused quite a stir among the academics and raised a number of questions, the primary one being whether it was possible to measure self-actualization and if it was not, how the theory of personality could work.
Despite the fact that POI (Personal Orientation Theory) was later on developed by Everett L. Shostrom (Feist & Feist, 2008, p. 297) to support Maslow’s theory and measure self-actualization, the lack of diversity in Maslow’s concept of actualization as a part of development of self seems to be a major issue.
Rogers: Person Centered Theory
The basics of Roger’s theory are quite simple. Founded on two key assumptions, the formative tendency and the actualizing tendency, the given theory presupposes that an individual personal experience should be used as a basis for developing trustworthiness between therapists and their patients, as well as stressing the necessity to adopt an individual approach towards the clients’ psychological needs, seeing how every single individual’s perception of the world is unique and, therefore, requires a unique approach to be adopted.
In the given theory, the formative tendency defines the evolution from simpler to more complicated forms, while the actualizing tendency puts the emphasis on people’s need to “move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials” (Feist & Feist, 2008, p. 313)
Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory can be seen in a different light when considered through the lens of determinism-versus-free-will dilemma. It is quite peculiar that, compared to the deterministic argument, the Person-Centered Theory can be considered as rather optimistic in nature.
Indeed, with the emphasis put on personal development, Person-Centered Theory is much closer to the concept of free will than the traditional behaviorism theories and, therefore, allows for more room for personal development, making it clear that a person’s evolution depends basically on the person in question.
In terms of the awareness of self, the given theory can be considered a giant step forward in recognizing the need for self-actualization. Even though Maslow also mentioned the necessity for self-actualization, basically calling it the top priority in the hierarchy of people’s needs, Rogers developed and improved the given idea by stressing the role of self in personal growth.
In addition, Rogers expanded Maslow’s theory by adding the concept of contact as one of the basic personal needs: “First, an individual must make contact—positive or negative—with another person. This contact is the minimum experience necessary for becoming a person” (Feist & Feist, 2008, p. 371).
There is no doubt that the given theory has its limitations; the latter are especially obvious when viewing the theory as a means to approach an average person. Since the Person-Centered Theory is focused on the individual patterns of a person’s development and, therefore, disregards the average manifestations of self, it does not allow for conducting researches that provide average results.
Hence, it is practically impossible to prove the actual accuracy of the theory, as well as its efficiency once the theory is applied to practice. In other words, the efficacy of Rogers’ concept must be proven on a case-by-case basis.
That being said, none of the theories provides a flawless interpretation of self and people’s personal needs, which begs the question whether each of the theories is worth being credited as a worthwhile idea of self. However, it is worth keeping in mind that these theories handle a very complicated concept of personality growth, which is practically impossible to nail down with impeccable precision.
Therefore, with all their flaws, the given theories provide decent explanations for people’s motivation and have a number of points of contact, which is why they are worth being considered credible.
Reference List
Feist, J., & Feist, G. J. (2008). Theories of personality (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Simmermacher, D. G. (2005). Becoming the me I want to be: A self-help guide to building self-esteem. Albuquerque, NM: Health Press NA, Inc.
Consciousness is expressed as the awareness of self which is influenced by past and present experiences. When a child is born it does not know itself and in fact the early years of development emphasize on learning about the environment. Biological conscience is influenced by what we see and hear.
A child realizes her gender by observing those around him or her. It is this consciousness that defines our behavior and personality. This paper seeks to define consciousness, focusing on the biological perspective to explain the various aspects of consciousness and how they affect our lives.
Personhood theory explains that consciousness is always present in human body but it can not be seen because it’s more spiritual than physical. Both the brain and the consciousness are intertwined because the brain acts as the reservoir of information which is conveyed by the consciousness. When somebody touches another person that touch is interpreted by the conscious of that person to determine whether it’s a friendly or hostile touch. From that point the mind is induced by the consciousness in response to the touch.
Human consciousness is said to be divided because the brain is capable and actually refines information in two ways. Our consciousness creates an image of what we are unable to see in our eyes. The unconsciousness enables us to perform various tasks at the same time because information is processed in dual ways. A good example is when one watches television while talking on the phone at the same time without missing anything in both cases.
When our consciousness is focused on one single event our attention to that event makes it difficult for us to notice other events in close vicinity. When one is driving while talking on the phone he or she may not notice a pedestrian crossing the road and this might result in an accident. This is because our consciousness is held hostage by our object of focus hence we see what we want to see and hear what we want to hear and ignore other activities.
If you are watching dancers do their thing your focus won’t be on all of them but on the one that looks more appealing to your eyes. When you are thinking about other things that are not physically present you are said to be asleep because you do not realize what is happening in your current location.
Being awake comes in when something happens or someone does something to bring your attention back such as tapping your back. This situation is referred to as inattentional blindness and this is why when you watch a movie more than once you will realize there are things you did not notice the first time you watched it (Myers 59).
Sleep is one of the most crucial elements in every human being because it plays various roles in someone’s life. First this kind of resting enables people to relax the mind and also enhances the growth of a person. In ancient days, sleeping cautioned people from the dangers of darkness.
When we sleep our consciousness is at rest and that’s when the tissues of the brain are mended. Sleeping helps us to remember the events of the day and thus come up with ideas of doing them better to achieve more fulfillments. Moreover, fosters creativity because it is in the sleep that ideas that bring lasting solutions are drafted.
On the other hand dreams make us feel complete because they allow us to experience what is missing in our lives. Dreams also participate in arranging information in our brains. It is also the dreams that enhance the growth and conservation of neural pathways. If people could not have dreams our brains could not interpret neural activity.
As seen in the biological concept, consciousness and the mind rely on each other because none of them can exist without the other. The consciousness offers a platform where the mind can issue commands to the other parts of the body while the brain jump starts the consciousness. Consciousness is very important in understanding human behavior.
When we speak it is our conscience that guides us in selecting the appropriate words in our conversations. Before somebody speaks to another person they arrange their words before the commencement of the conversation by visualizing the response they are likely to get.
When one is guilty over his/her actions it is because that person knows that he/she did not follow the guidelines of his/her consciousness. This awareness is capable of depriving humans of their happiness.
Kirk argues that when we look at things around us it is the brain that explains what those things mean to us by referencing to the available information about those things (28). For instance, when you see a lion the perception derived by the brain informs you that you should run to the hills because your life is in danger. This information is derived from the intellectual knowledge about lions, thus selective attention.
Our consciousness is what induces us to plan ahead for future events. It is the same element that tells us that something is not going in the right direction even before it actually happens. When somebody stands behind you even when you don’t see him or hear him something inside you will make you nervous and want to turn around.
Consciousness tends to swell as we grow due to our interactions with informative sources such as television and magazines. Consciousness helps us to identify our strengths, weaknesses, likes and dislikes. When we know where our strengths lie we extract them and use them for own betterment. This is why different people have varied talents which drive them to different careers.
Everyone has his/her own consciousness and hence they are different that’s why one person may decide to become an athlete and yet another one decide to become an accountant.
Our consciousness makes us decide what we want to become in our lives because it identifies what we do best and makes us develop interests in that particular activity. When we don’t adhere to the guidelines of our consciousness we don’t feel complete until we fulfill our desires.
This explains why some people change their careers later in life. This happens because in their previous lives they knew what they wanted to do with their lives but may be because the situation was not favorable back then they opted to take what the nature offered.
Consciousness helps us to discover our weaknesses in life. People have varied weaknesses and the weaknesses of one person could be strengths in another person. For instance one person may be poor in public speaking while another one could be very good in speaking to crowds of people. In addition to that our consciousness influences our likes and dislikes.
When we are in the company of the people that we like it is our consciousness that makes us trust and have confidence in those people because our awareness analyzes their personality and concludes that they don’t mean harm to us. When you are talking with someone over the phone you can not see them but you can tell when they are smiling and when they are angry due to interpretations guided by your consciousness.
Consciousness is a very complicated issue because it sees what our physical eyes can not see. Biological consciousness causes our bodies to react according to our demands.
For instance, when a woman is pregnant her mammary glands begin to secrete milk because the body realizes that the forthcoming child will need food. When someone is used to having meals at certain time of the day even without a clock that person can still tell when the time is right for having a meal. These thoughts are influenced by our consciousness.
Even in animals it is their consciousness that drives them to behave in a particular manner. Many animals begin to mate when there are heavy clouds because their consciousness tells them that soon there will be plenty of food to sustain them hence the time is ripe for multiplying. Further more when the young one is born it’s the consciousness of the animal that induces it to take care of the young one.
In humans there are many body reactions that are induced by biological consciousness. For instance when room temperatures become high the hair that is on our various body parts lies flat to help in regulating body temperature.
On the other hand when room temperatures are so low our hair becomes stiff to prevent the loss of body temperature. This logic is quite true because temperature is not something that you can see or touch but our consciousness is able to interpret the climate.
Barrett (2006) argues that our consciousness is what boosts our self esteem in relation to how we see ourselves. There is a certain level of fear that is connected with consciousness because when we are proud of who we are the main concern is dealing with our worries about how other people feel about us (45).
When a child is born consciousness is not present but it accumulates with experiences that a child faces during his development. That is why a child may comfortably play with fire because he/she does not know the dangers associated with it. The thoughts about fire are soon changed when the same flames hurts the child. This and other experiences are thought to influence our consciousness.
When we go through the education system our consciousness is changed and from there henceforth we consult our knowledge when making decisions.
Those who are not learned are thought to be poor decision makers because their mind does not have intellectual knowledge. Our consciousness is what induces thoughts of advancing ourselves because we are aware that changes may occur in future and it makes us see the need for being prepared to handle these changes.
When our consciousness is lost we are as good as dead because we can not tell what is happening to us. Someone who has lost consciousness can not tell where he/she is and why he/she is there. When someone has been in a comma for a long time the survival of his/her brains is what determines that person’s fate because if his brains are not alive then he is also dead.
If the affected person manages to survive he/she will take a lot of time in discovering him/herself because what he/she used to know has been erased without a trace. The consciousness of such a person can only be recovered by exposing the victim to the environment that reminds him/her about her/his past.
When we are faced with situations where we have a variety to choose from we consult our consciousness in order to choose the best option. Our consciousness therefore refers to the information that is availed by various sources before reaching a conclusion. Once information is presented to our consciousness it is analyzed thoroughly to understand the characters of that information.
For instance, when a baby is held by somebody else apart from its biological mother it looks in the eyes of the person holding it to determine whether the person can be trusted or not. During the creation of understanding the information is evaluated against the existing information in the mind and if there is a link between the two that’s when a conclusion is arrived at.
When decisions are being drafted our past experiences are evoked in a bid to understand which decision is safe and efficient in the long run. When the situation in question has never occurred in our lives decision making employs our instincts. But then our instincts are not perfect but there are some that are acquired naturally.
Therefore, biological consciousness is important in our daily life because it helps us to maintain our state of mind when asleep or awake. Through selective attention, our brains can help us make the right decisions with regard to more than one competing occurrences.
Works Cited
Barret, Richard. Building a Values-driven Organization: A Whole System Approach to Cultural Transformation. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006. Print.
Kirk, Robert. Zombies and Consciousness. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.