Disney’s animated film ‘Mulan’ is a beloved tale that explores themes of bravery, honor, and self-discovery. Within the narrative, elements of Confucianism, an ancient Chinese philosophy, can be identified. This essay critically examines the portrayal of Confucianism in ‘Mulan,’ evaluating its representation, potential implications, and the broader cultural context. While the film incorporates certain Confucian ideals, it also presents a nuanced perspective that challenges traditional gender roles and highlights individual agency.
Body:
Filial Piety and Respect:
Confucianism places great importance on filial piety, which involves showing respect and obedience towards one’s parents and ancestors. In ‘Mulan,’ the protagonist’s decision to join the army in place of her father initially challenges this Confucian value. However, Mulan’s actions can also be seen as an expression of filial piety, as she demonstrates her love and loyalty to her family by risking her life to protect her father’s honor.
Gender Roles and Social Hierarchy:
Confucianism traditionally emphasizes strict gender roles and a hierarchical social structure. ‘Mulan’ subtly challenges these norms by depicting a young woman who defies societal expectations and disguises herself as a man to fight in the army. The film suggests that personal merit and courage should be valued over gender or social status, thereby subverting Confucian ideals in favor of individual agency and equality.
Honor and Duty:
Confucianism emphasizes the importance of honor and fulfilling one’s duties to maintain social harmony. In ‘Mulan,’ honor and duty are central themes as the protagonist strives to bring honor to her family by successfully serving in the army. However, the film also explores the notion of honor beyond societal expectations, emphasizing the importance of staying true to oneself and acting with integrity.
Education and Scholarly Pursuits:
Confucianism places significant emphasis on education and the pursuit of knowledge. While ‘Mulan’ does not explicitly delve into scholarly pursuits, it highlights the intellectual capabilities of the protagonist, who employs her intelligence and resourcefulness to overcome challenges. This portrayal aligns with the Confucian value of valuing intellectual growth and suggests that education can empower individuals to contribute to society in various ways.
Harmony and Balance:
Confucianism emphasizes the attainment of harmony and balance in personal and societal relationships. While ‘Mulan’ does not explicitly address this concept, the film portrays the importance of teamwork, unity, and mutual respect among the soldiers. It suggests that achieving harmony can be achieved through collective effort and understanding.
Conclusion:
Confucianism’s influence on ‘Mulan’ is evident through the exploration of themes such as filial piety, honor, duty, and respect. However, the film also presents a nuanced perspective that challenges traditional gender roles and emphasizes individual agency and personal growth. By incorporating Confucian ideals while subverting others, ‘Mulan’ creates a narrative that promotes values of bravery, integrity, and the pursuit of one’s true identity. The film invites viewers to question societal norms and consider the importance of individual values and personal growth in the face of societal expectations.
Disney’s animated film ‘Mulan’ is a beloved tale that explores themes of bravery, honor, and self-discovery. Within the narrative, elements of Confucianism, an ancient Chinese philosophy, can be identified. This essay critically examines the portrayal of Confucianism in ‘Mulan,’ evaluating its representation, potential implications, and the broader cultural context. While the film incorporates certain Confucian ideals, it also presents a nuanced perspective that challenges traditional gender roles and highlights individual agency.
Body:
Filial Piety and Respect:
Confucianism places great importance on filial piety, which involves showing respect and obedience towards one’s parents and ancestors. In ‘Mulan,’ the protagonist’s decision to join the army in place of her father initially challenges this Confucian value. However, Mulan’s actions can also be seen as an expression of filial piety, as she demonstrates her love and loyalty to her family by risking her life to protect her father’s honor.
Gender Roles and Social Hierarchy:
Confucianism traditionally emphasizes strict gender roles and a hierarchical social structure. ‘Mulan’ subtly challenges these norms by depicting a young woman who defies societal expectations and disguises herself as a man to fight in the army. The film suggests that personal merit and courage should be valued over gender or social status, thereby subverting Confucian ideals in favor of individual agency and equality.
Honor and Duty:
Confucianism emphasizes the importance of honor and fulfilling one’s duties to maintain social harmony. In ‘Mulan,’ honor and duty are central themes as the protagonist strives to bring honor to her family by successfully serving in the army. However, the film also explores the notion of honor beyond societal expectations, emphasizing the importance of staying true to oneself and acting with integrity.
Education and Scholarly Pursuits:
Confucianism places significant emphasis on education and the pursuit of knowledge. While ‘Mulan’ does not explicitly delve into scholarly pursuits, it highlights the intellectual capabilities of the protagonist, who employs her intelligence and resourcefulness to overcome challenges. This portrayal aligns with the Confucian value of valuing intellectual growth and suggests that education can empower individuals to contribute to society in various ways.
Harmony and Balance:
Confucianism emphasizes the attainment of harmony and balance in personal and societal relationships. While ‘Mulan’ does not explicitly address this concept, the film portrays the importance of teamwork, unity, and mutual respect among the soldiers. It suggests that achieving harmony can be achieved through collective effort and understanding.
Conclusion:
Confucianism’s influence on ‘Mulan’ is evident through the exploration of themes such as filial piety, honor, duty, and respect. However, the film also presents a nuanced perspective that challenges traditional gender roles and emphasizes individual agency and personal growth. By incorporating Confucian ideals while subverting others, ‘Mulan’ creates a narrative that promotes values of bravery, integrity, and the pursuit of one’s true identity. The film invites viewers to question societal norms and consider the importance of individual values and personal growth in the face of societal expectations.
Culture refers to the manifestation of human intellectual achievement. It is usually collective and can take various forms such as music, art and the way of life of a group of people. Researchers have noted that culture is a very powerful tool for human survival and is in many cases determined by factors such as geographical location and a common historical origin.
People with a common culture share common ideas, attitudes towards various issues, and indicate a common pattern of behavior. For instance, many inhabitants of Asian countries have a culture that features different kinds of cultural heritage that are divided into distinct geographical regions namely central, east, west, south and northern Asia.
The aim of this paper is to propose a research project that will explore a religious aspect of people of East Asia. The research project will explore how Confucianism influences the lives of people of South Korea. The initial assumption is that Confucianism is evident in traditional funeral and post-burial rites of Korea.
Problem Statement
Confucianism refers to a system of thought based on the teachings of a Chinese man named Kung Fuzi who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. The name was first Latinized and then translated to English to sound “Confucius”. It was claimed by Confucius proponents that his teachings were not original.
However, the same proponents of Confucianism believed that he was a creative wisdom transmitter from the past. A moral code that was based on humanity, ethics and love was created by him. Ideas that are emphasized by this system include the need to live in harmony and order both with other human beings and nature. This project will qualitatively explore evidence of Confucianism in the traditional funeral and post-burial rites of Korea.
Objective statement
The main objective of the research project proposed in this proposal will be exploring evidence of Confucianism in the traditional funeral and post-burial rites of Korea.
Justification
Understanding the way of life of people is critical when it comes to interacting with them. This is because of the cultural diversity that exists across all the nations of the world. South Korea forms a larger part of the East Asian that has people with a different way of life from the rest of the world. Research on evidence of Confucianism in traditional funeral and post-burial rites of Korea will go a greater step in helping to understand them thus creating a harmonized understanding between them and people of different cultural values.
Methodology
This is a qualitative research that seeks to explore how ideas of the Confucianism system impact on the general lifestyle of people of the republic of South Korea.
Participants: Participants in this research project will be selected citizens of South Korea who have a strong believe in the system of Confucianism. This will be used as a representative sample of people in the whole country who follow ideologies of Confucianism.
Research tools: In this study, structured interviews, participant observation and review of secondary sources of information will be utilized as primary research tools.
Data collection: Data in this project will be collected by use of tape recorders, video recorders and note taking.
Data analysis: Data collected from this research project will be deeply analyzed through analytic induction, domain analysis, and logical analysis/matrix to establish specific points on how ideas of Confucianism impact on the lifestyles of people of South Korea.
Data presentation: Data in this research project will be presented in form of tables, graphs and percentages that will be accompanied by a detailed discussion.
Scholars refer to Confucianism as a system of thought based on the teachings of Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. Confucius had a significant influence on the life and thought of China more than any other person in Chinese history. He had titles like Sage of All Time and First Teacher (Molloy 11).
Religion has shaped human civilization almost from the start of civilization for more than 10,000 years ago. Today more than half of the world’s population practice either principal or indigenous religions. Religion still shapes people’s lives significantly in politics and culture.
There is ever increasing ethnic and cultural differences, which have led to several religions practiced alongside each other. However, this essay shall focus on how Confucian thought challenge world view through his teaching of moral code reflecting on ethics, humanity, and love.
There are about six million people who today call themselves Confucians. They mostly live in Asia, particularly in China. In Europe, North and South America and in other continents there are a small numbers of people who identify themselves as Confucians. For over 2,000 years, China’s poetry and history, government and social life, and the ethics of the society dominate philosophical system of Confucianism.
Confucius emphasized on the ideal of order and harmony. Confucius emphasized that people should live in harmony. He suggested a system of interpersonal relationships and proper governance. In the system, age favored over where only friends were equal. He regarded government as the noble duty of all because ethical governance would bring joy to the people.
This explains why people are loyal to their country and the government of the day, while living in order and harmony with each other. He also believed that through education anyone could reach the highest standard of a gentleman (Molloy 13).
Confucius viewed the family as a basic unit of society. The family reflected the social, economic, and political units of the society. Family served as the natural environment for moral training. It also acted as the bridge between the individual and society.
Therefore, individuals achieved their human potential within the family. Confucius stressed the duties and obligations of each family member. He believed that each family member should act according to their roles (Molloy 15). In this case, the son owed obedience to his father just as required in European civilization. Today family relationship still remains the most fundamental unit of society.
According to Confucius, a wife was subservient to a husband. Young girls also had to obey their fathers. Girls served and obeyed their husbands and parents once married. They could only get power over their daughters’ in-law when her sons got married (Molloy 16). Sexuality and gender discourse across the world is slowly influencing Confucius’ view on the position and roles of women.
Confucius directed his teachings toward the government. Subjects owed respect to the ruler, just as the sons’ owed respect to their fathers. He also perceived the state as an expanded family. The subjects considered the emperor as the “father and mother” of the state. Today one of the duties that the emperor carries out is the wishes of his subjects as taught by Confucius.
When Confucianism became a state religion, it formed the basis of the Chinese education system. As such, education became the only way to win government appointment to higher posts. The government honored distinguished scholars just like sports super-heroes of the United States (Molloy 20).
Wealth, honor, and status followed the successful candidate and his family. Today citizens consider government officials as people of brilliant minds. Although Confucianism developed and changed, certain core ideals remained and became a stabilizing force for Chinese civilization.
Works Cited
Molloy, Michael. Experiencing the World’s Religions, 5th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2010.
The Daoism and Confucianism have some similarities and differences. The research paper will be comparing and contrasting both through what they share and what they differ. Various aspects like their origins, their theories, dynasties and major focus will be discussed. The paper starts with differences:
The history of origin
Confucianism is a philosophy that was introduced by a Chinese philosopher by name Confucius. This philosophy mainly based its arguments on the idea that logic and reason can create a solution to all challenges facing human beings (Yao 189). The Confucius opposed the excessive application of human emotions and superstition. According to the teachings of Confucianism, the use of early Chinese traditions is the best and most appropriate way of having an organized community.
This philosophy also valued the traditional rituals and music as they maintain the harmony in the society. However, Lao Tzu initiated Daoism and its ideas are based on human beings living a balanced life according to the nature (Tang 76). According to Lau Tzu, he conceived the natural world as a teacher through whom human beings can obtain wisdom if only they observed and shaped their lives depending on the nature. He had a main goal of avoiding conflict and human beings to move according to the flow of things.
Human cooperation and connection of nature
The Confucianism is mainly known to encourage the cooperation among the human beings. It discourages the individualism as it teaches on the benefits of staying together as one community. The teachings of Daoism encourages on how one can survive well if only he or she associates well with the laws of nature.
Even without the assistance of the fellow human beings, Daoism insists that anyone can survive in the society. Despite the fact that Confucianism encourages loyalty of leaders and superiors, it also gives people some rights to fight and oppose those rulers who are corrupt and treating other people unfairly (Renard 113). On the other hand, Daoism does not teach people on such aggression, as it calls for peace, humility and inaction.
Dynasties believe in both Daoism and Confucianism
The people in china have different believes as far as Confucianism and Daoism are concerned. A group believes in Confucianism while others believe in Daoism. This is facilitated by the fact that both have some truth and reasonable ideas that attract individuals.
For instance, for those who follow Daoism, they believe that the most important aspect of a rational human world is not that matters a lot than the cosmic world of nature (Little 108). However, the followers of Confucianism value much the occurrences and events that affect people in their normal lives. Confucianism has a perception of human beings to enjoy their lives in the world to maximum.
The teachings of Confucianism are human oriented because it valued the pleasures of life like giving birth, feeding on good diet, and enjoying life with relatives and friends. In order for people to enjoy their lives fully, the Confucianism insists on social responsibility and working hard for them to be prosperous and joyful.
When considering the thoughts of Daoism, naturalness and spontaneity are the most emphasized aspects of human beings (Renard 207). The teachings of Daoism does not give room for teleology no matter the circumstances, it is non-mechanistic such bringing the idea of the world as an immoral one.
Similarities in ideas
Although they differed in their ideas, there were still some theories that the two philosophers shared. It was a common idea to both of them that it was ones responsibility to care for his or her personal life, to facilitate individual development, and to improve oneself in economically and socially. On matters of improvement and development, the Confucianism says that the efforts that one puts in doing so are rewarded in the rest of ones life on this earth (Renard 221).
According to Daoism, a person has to work for improvement and development here in the universe but the rewards may be realized in the next life and not necessarily here on earth. For both the Daoism and Confucianism have assisted in promoting the satisfaction of personal desires a moral way that has guided the Chinese people and other interested followers to attain their personal goals and objectives in life.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the both philosophers have managed to compliment one another as both have set an example that can be followed by the Chinese people. Most of people followed them in pursuit of achieving development and growth. Most of people preferred the teachings of Confucianism because it concentrated much on the current and present happenings in the society (Yao 195). Unlike the Daoism that insisted on what would happen in the future, where one is not so sure of being present.
When people are doing their normal things in life, they prefer to be assured of what they will benefit from here on earth but not about the life after death. The Confucianism also encourages its followers to be ken on what their leaders are serving them. Incase of any incidence of abuse of power and authority, people should not remain inactive and watch things happen; instead they should act against such leaders. This would lead to improvement of individuals and the society as a whole.
The picture of Confucius, who introduced the Confucianism (www.logoi.com)
The picture of Lao Tzu, who introduced the Daoism (www.taopage.org)
Confucius (K’ung-fu-Tzu, 551-479 BC) is one of the most prominent sages -at the same time dominating also- of ancient time who have swayed the political and moral arenas of different nations over the world. His scholarly teaching and thoughts emerged as the most dominant philosophy over the vast east of Asia. Throughout the passage of the upheaval of different dynasties his moral and political doctrines shaped and had been manipulated to shape the people’s life of this region. Through the adoption of Confucius’s doctrines in the Han Dynasty Confucianism grew into one of the three religions, (Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism) though Confucianism is more of a philosophy than a religion.
But why Confucianism was adopted by the Han Dynasty is probably the sole reason for its survival and popularity with the ruling class throughout the centuries. The instant success of the doctrine was to present a stable and sustaining society. But at the same time, it was able to compose a society unquestionably submissive to the rulers. Consequently, it retained its appeal to them. The causes of the success of Confucianism lie beneath the context in which he composed this philosophy. The misery of the war-torn society of his age worked as an inspiration for him to preach his moral and political doctrine. The society that he envisioned is illustrated in different approaches. His primary focus was on social relations, proper code of conduct, and social peace and harmony. As a result, his teachings were widely accepted by the Chinese rulers as a state education for the citizens to make them loyal. One of Confucius’s Quotations -“Let a father be a father, a son a son, and a king a king ” -( A Misfit: The LTA in Our Confucian Society)went well with the rulers as it asserts the role of king to be the king of the people without any clear-cut answer what the people should do in case of their rulers’ delinquency.
Components of Confucius’s Thought
The primary concern of Confucius is the misery and the distress prevailing in the society because of the immorality of its people. He presents ideas and thoughts to remove these immoralities. He was concerned with the improvement of the government’s and society’s level of morality. “He was convinced that the problem with government and society was a lack of virtue.”
Almost all the virtuous qualities of Confucius’ consideration are stated in the above description. Sincerity, a willingness to learn, restrained desire for material things, and loyalty’ are the key terms of the moral life of man. He also advocated a form of moral life that includes filial piety, knowledge of ritual and poetry, humility, self-cultivation, and a code of conduct. Confucius argued,
“If you are virtuous, people will be attracted to you (and, if you are a ruler, your government), willing to provide you with help and information, and happily follow orders.”
The stages of Confucius’ moral doctrine can be defined, according to the ethical pattern of western philosophy, as Being, Doing and Ends’. (Confucius K’ung fu-Tzu or Kongfuzi) His philosophy bears similarity to that of Immanuel Kant. Through these fundamental virtues benevolence, charity, humanity, love,’ a human being exists. Confucius defines it as “Aì rén,” “love others.” A human being exists as a corporate part of society by his Doing or Means. This is the Yì‘ in Confucian thought. Morality, the duty to one’s neighbor, and righteousness are its features. Confucius said, “The gentleman (chün Tzu,) understands yì. The small/mean man (Hsiao-Jen,) understands lì.” Again the master says, “what you don’t want yourself, don’t do to others”.
‘Profit, gain, advantage’ are not considered to be a proper motive for life. In Confucian thought longings for material gain is the mother of all wrong. This is the source of temptation therefore it is to be checked. Indeed the essence of Confucian morality is the restraint of self-interest. But this is not complete self-denial as the limitation is clearly marked by the necessity of the self so far as it is not harmful to others.
The Society that Confucius envisioned
The society that Confucius envisions completely pivots on morality. As a result of Confucius’ focus is on virtuosity, stable social relation, and proper conduct as prerequisites of social harmony. Huanyin states that “[w’hat he considers as the problem of his society is the lack of virtue.
Confucius’s pupil Zizhang stated: “A public servant who on confronting danger is prepared to lay down his life, who on confronting gain concentrates on what is right, who when sacrificing concentrates on reverence,..”
Five types of relationships in society have been explained by Confucius. The harmony and proper feedback to these cardinal relationships are considered to compose his society. These are the relationship between dominant and dominated, between spouses classification is mainly based on the fact of superiority and inferiority. For social peace and harmony, Confucius stresses loyalty and complete submission, the obedience of the inferior to the superior. As in an ideal Confucian family, authority rested with the elderly male members the power of a country comes down on the elder and elite of the society. “Filial piety (obedience to parents) was one of the most important virtues emphasized by later Confucians”.
The drive of Confucian society is Be humble, obedient, trustworthy, and loyal’ to whom you should be. Though ironical enough, it is true that his loyalty’ (zhong) often turns to be blind loyalty’ or absolute obedience. As a result at one point Confucius society becomes absolutely obedient to the authority regardless of their right or wrong. After all Confucius’ society lays importance on the educational and cultural cultivation of the mind of its people. Self-cultivation, ritual, education, and filial piety are the keywords of Confucian sZhongy.
Why Confucianism is popular with the Chinese rulers
The popularity of Confuciani, Confucius’s Chinese rulers over the centuries is due to its political instructions much of which other dominating isms of this continent devoid. First, it was adopted by the Han dynasty in as “the official moral and political doctrine of the State”.
Since then through the ups and downs of human history Confucianism prevailed over the continent till 1911. After the upheaval of Communism in China the popularity of Confucianism was choked by the communist rulers of the country. Being adopted by the Han dynasty around 200 BC Confucianism had retained its popularity with both the people and the rulers for about 2500 years. One thing that is remarkable in the adoption and the application of Confucianism by the ruler is that it was adopted as a process of examining and culturing the state official. It is stated in the following line:
“As for the recruitment of officials, examinations based on Confucianism, as applied in China, were organized over….eleven centuries (from 788 to 1893 AD).”
Firstly the reason for the popularity of Confucius with the Chinese rulers lies in the fact that it was able to compose a society loyal to its superiors. Secondly, Confucianism was able to establish a stable and harmonious society. According to Confucius a ruler who is to apply force is a total failure as a ruler’, but at the same time when he says,” Your job is to govern, not to kill” (Analects XII:19) people are to keep their faith in the royal pocket of the society. Ages after ages over Confucianism fed back the loyalty of the society to its authority and in return, it had enjoyed the utmost favor of the rulers.
Conclusion
Indeed the moral terminologies of Confucianism, its effectiveness in building a harmonious and loyal society, and its popularity among the Chinese rulers over the centuries are intertwined with one another. The thoughts of Confucius attempt to make them loyal and trustworthy to the superior, whether the superior is of the country or of the family. When it makes people loyal and submissive to the elder’s family or of a community, it is fully successful to build a harmonious and peaceful society but it is more successful in creating a loyal environment in the society. Consequently, it has enjoyed the favor of the rulers.
The role given to reproduction in religious doctrines shows that reproduction is a natural process inherent in all humans. In that sense, analyzing all major religions, it can be seen that reproduction is promoted in every possible way. China in particular “has a long and rich cultural tradition” (Peng and Guo) as one of the earliest civilizations in which Confucian ideology dominated for centuries.
The impact of Confucianism and their concept of marriage as reproductive vehicle were overlaid with the introduction of the one-child policy which makes it difficult to assess the current impact of Confucianism on the reproduction rates in modern China.
The teachings of Confucianism are deeply rooted in Chinese culture and the desire to have at least one male child springs from this belief. The government’s view does not consider such gender preference stating that having one child would enable a family to own more consumer items, spending less on education, health and lifestyle improvement. Chinese culture still affects family planning in modern China, where the desire for at least one male child can be seen as an influence of Confucianism and as a natural prolongation of the family.
Nevertheless, it can be seen that in the modern world, the tendency to have big families became a prerogative of the less developed countries. In that sense, a new research on the effect of reproduction teachings of Confucianism on modern-day China is needed. In another sense, the question is would the reproductive behavior of Confucianism be the same if the policy of one-child was not introduced. This question is important as many factors such as higher level of women’s education, urbanization and increase in per capita income, occurred during the same period, and most likely have affected demographic behavior” (Dennis Tao Yang)
The socioeconomic changes occurred in China and there is a possibility that Confucianism does not have as much influence as in reproductive behavior prior to 1950s.
This paper evaluates the relation between Confucianism and reproduction rate in a modern setting, in an attempt to bypass Chinese one-child policy. The paper presents an extensive overview of the origins of the reproduction approach in Confucian teachings, outlining the ancestor’s cult. An overview of the literature that addressed the issue of Fertility and growth in China outlines the main points of controversy regarding birth control, and the factors assigned with it. Finally, the paper proposes a research design in order to assess the effect of Confucianism as a factor that shapes the reproductive behavior in China.
Introduction
The fertility riddle – the sacrament of birth has occupied people’s minds since the epoch of primitive state. The fertility and the reproduction stimulation of both humans and their means of existence (i.e. animals and plants) were probably the most important conscious actions of ancient people. It is natural that thus, the ancients sought the help from their might patrons.
For some nations, it was great gods, for others – numerous spirits, or powerful idolized ancestors. As it is known, the indicators of birth rate for different nations strongly vary. However, the national identity in itself does not define the level of birth rate, which is conditioned by the combined influence of many factors: physiological, matrimonial, social, economic, cultural, and finally religious.
For different nations, these factors are differently combined, operated in a varied direction, and have unequal relative weight, as a result of which they at times obtain rather specific ethnic aspects. All that leads to the fact that, at times for neighbor states birth rate indicators rather strongly differ.
East Asia is sharply distinguished among other Asian countries with sufficiently lower rates of population growth. First of all, it is caused by the fact that the two major countries of the region – China and Japan – have rather low population growth. As for Japan, its characteristic low gain is connected with the transition to a modern type of reproduction of the population, with low indicators of birth rate, death rate and a natural increase, which was ended in the fifties. China, on the other hand has undertaken huge efforts for slowing down the rates of the natural increase, using methods, that can be considered absolutely unacceptable for democratic countries, and apparently it has given its consequences.
The fundamental principle of the family laws in China – procreation planning, legislatively was assigned rather recently. Until the middle of the twentieth century, the birth rate of Chinese women was kept at a high level – 5.68, and in the period of 1980 – 2000 was decreased to a level of 1.75. Analyzing the matrimonial factors of birth rate, the issue of the influence of religion on reproductive behavior should be considered.
In that sense, it should be mentioned that the influence of the religious factor is not limited only to that representative of various religions have different forms of family and the unequal relation to deuterogamy. Confucianism although not a religion, plays a religious role in Chinese life and society. In the same measure as Protestantism in the West, Confucianism impregnates people’s model of behavior in China. Confucianism forms the basis of public and private life, defining in detail the behavior in all kinds of human mutual relations at all levels of social order – from family bonds to sporadic units, and in each sphere of the daily life and daily activities.
Throughout the history of China, an important role was assigned to the Confucian thesis that the whole Celestial is only a uniform big family. On the one hand, such broad interpretation of the concept of family had the definite purpose to present all the society in the form of a group of relatives sealed together by the same indissoluble bonds as members of a family. On the other hand, this analogy as much as to say justified the hierarchy and authoritativeness of the family system in China. In that sense, the family cult in China caused its huge attractive force. The system of Confucian principles influenced the family and marriage ratio in China.
The specificity of Confucian China was that family usually started neither from marriage, nor from coupling together. On the contrary, from the family, at the will of the family, and for the needs of the family marriages were contracted. The family was considered primary, and eternal.
Family interests are rooted deeply in the history of China. The ancestors interested in the prosperity of the family, attentively observed its prosperity. Marriage was a sporadic issue, individual, and entirely subordinated to families requirements. According to the ancestors’ cult, caring about the deceased and exact fulfillment of all obligatory rituals to their honor was the main duty of the descendants, first of all heads of the family, and heads of the clan.
As a matter of fact, in the opinion of a devout Confucian, it is the necessity of fulfilling this sacred duty that justified coming of people into this world and all their existence on the earth. If the main task of the living is caring about pleasing the deceased, it is quite natural, that all of the family system, and all forms of its organization should be focused so that better cope with this main and honorable issue.
That is why it was considered that, the first duty of any head of a family and a carrier of the cult of ancestors serving as an intermediary between the dead ancestors and their living descendants, is in no way allowing the fading of the family and accordingly not to draw the anger of the dead. To die sterile, and not to bring into the world a son, who would continue the cult of ancestors is the most awful misfortune, not only for a separate person and his family, but also for all the society.
In such approach to the functions of reproduction in Confucian China, many researchers witness a major influence on the reproduction rate that resulted in the enormous growth of the population in China and consequently implementing the one-child policy. Researchers differ in their views on the influencing factors on population growth, and fertility control, prior to family planning policies.
In (Wang, Lee, and Campbell 1995; Lee and Campbell 1997; Lee and Wang), the general conclusion opposes the widespread belief that historically the Chinese did not control their reproduction and wanted as many children, sons in particular, as possible. On the other hand, in (Tang, 1995), the author argues that the absence of birth control which results in population growth is related the cause to the principles lying within the teachings of Confucianism.
Literature Review
Tang (1995) stated that the critical influence of Confucianism on fertility was of a cultural nature, where educated people had greater knowledge of Confucianism, and at the same time “official-degree-holding” was an indicator of such education. In that matter, the major conclusion is that high fertility level was related to higher ranks, rather than with poverty, illiteracy, and low rank.(Tang 278)
On the other hand, in Wolf (2008), the author referred to the studies of Malthus to whom China was known as “one of the most fertile, best cultivated, most industrious, and most populous countries in the world,”(Wolf and Engelen 345), and at the same time “Surveys conducted in the 1930s and archival studies of genealogies indicated that despite early and universal marriage, Chinese fertility was not as high as Malthus appears to have imagined, largely because of late weaning, poor nutrition, and female infanticide.” (Wolf and Engelen 347)
Wolf argues with Lee and Wang, whose view on fertility ranks China next to Britain and USA, stating that “Whereas European couples practiced moral restraint [that is, they did not marry if they did not have the means to support a family]but little marital restraint, Chinese couples practiced no moral restraint but considerable marital restraint. “(Wolf and Engelen 347) Wolf’s conclusion was that contrary to Lee and Wang, there is no evidence for deliberate birth control in China, where marital fertility was lower than in Europe, but not as low to make birth control the most likely explanation. (Wolf and Engelen 369)
The origins of Wolf’s criticism can be seen in Campbell and Lee (2005), who assume that there might have been a classic fertility control after reaching a targeted number of children. The conclusion made is based on an examination of the Qing imperial lineage as a sample target, and in that sense, Campbell did not emphasize that all the population practice birth control, and if they did the reasons remain unknown.
In the view of differences of data collected by different researches, the timeline distinctions as a factor might be omitted as was found by Liu (1985), where his “findings argue that Chinese reproductive behavior did not change markedly until the introduction of family planning in the 1950s”. (Tang 282)
In Zhao(2002), the author refers to the findings of both Wang and Lee, and Wolf, stating that the latter misinterpreted the results of the Wang and Lee’s findings. In that sense, Zhao remains faithful to the findings of Wang and Lee, arguing that “given the available evidence it would be unwise to suppose that the Chinese made every effort to maximize the number of their children and never wanted to practice deliberate fertility control.”(ZHAO 756-57)
Interpreting the results of the debate related to the topic of this paper, the influences stated by Tang should be examined. The question that should be asked is that giving a great importance for reproduction, was birth control falling within the teachings of Confucianism, if not, how the reasons for implementing birth control correspond to that “when the Chinese people regarded marriage as simply a way of reproduction rather than the enjoyment of sexual relations, the birth rates consequently increased.” (Tang)
Was the reproduction, as an influence of Confucianism implied a certain number of children after which birth control was taken, then if that was so comparing to other countries, why how did China reach such high birth rates. In that sense, the implication of the review is that there is no established theoretical framework to analyze the relationship between the high fertility and Confucianism.
Purpose
Due to the difficulty to analyze the relation between Confucianism and reproduction rate prior to 1950, the purpose of this paper is to establish a contemporary setting to examine the relationship between Confucianism and reproduction rate. Another purpose was to examine the relationship between Confucianism and other influencing factors on reproduction rate such as social status, income and age.
Design
Confucianism in China as variable is not possible to control; therefore the chosen design is non-experimental correlational design. Where in correlation designs the setting will not control or altered. The selection of such design is preferable as the obtained results will imply to which degree the dependant and independent variables “tend to co-occur or are related to each other.” (Price)
Taking the findings of the Tang’s article which imply a direct connection between Confucianism and education, Confucianism Knowledge Instrument (CKI) would be designed to observe and measure the knowledge of Confucianism. Participants (N=2000) will consist of employees of companies located in China’s major cities. The directors of these companies will be contacted for a permission of employees’ participation. The choice of participants will be on a random basis from companies varying in size.
The total number of items on CKI was 24, which represented questions on Confucianism knowledge, as well as questions regarding personal data. An important question will be asked regarding the marital status as well as the preference for children’s number and gender, including existent children if any. In the case of children planning, the question should be answered in the context that the one-child policy was canceled. Under the sub-group of Confucianism knowledge, CKI contained 16 questions using Likert scale.
The Confucianism knowledge question should result in score with a particular rating which will act as the independent variable in the study. To check for validity, experts in Confucianism should be selected in order to review the questions implemented in the CKI and possible revisions which might be addressed in order for the test to represent knowledge of Confucianism. The CKI must represent questions of specific knowledge, that not only represent general information on Confucianism, but also particular knowledge of specifics. The dependent variable will consist of the number of children a participant wants to have in total.
Results
The established research questions should investigate the relationship between the independent and dependant variables. The correlation should be examined using two-way ANOVA to check if there is a significant main effect of Confucianism scores on the number of children. Additional statistical data would be collected for descriptive purposes regarding the other variables, such as age, income, gender, and etc.
Discussion
It can be assumed that there will be a statistically significant difference between the Confucianism rating and the number of children. The main point outlined in Tang 1995, was the cultural and educative influence of Confucianism on reproduction rate, stating that educated families were more reproductive. The research might reveal as an outcome the degree to which the one-child policy is an obstacle for having more children. For the purpose of omitting the influence of other factors, a preliminary research might be conducted to examine their influence on the dependant variable if the independent was taken out of the formula, e.g. the existent number of children on the desire for additional children. In general, the research might serve as an indicator of the influence of Confucianism on the reproduction of modern China.
Works Cited
Deliberate Fertility Control in Late Imperial China: Spacing and Stopping in the Qing Imperial Lineage. XXV International Population Conference. 2005. California Center for Population Research.
Dennis Tao Yang, Dandan Chen. “Transformations in China’s Population Policies and Demographic Structure.” Pacific Economic Review 9.3 (2004): 269-90.
Peng, Xizhe, and Zhigang Guo. The Changing Population of China. Oxford, UK ; Malden, Mass., USA: Blackwell, 2000.
Price, Ian. “Non-Experimental Designs”. New England, 2000. Research Design. School of Psychology. Web.
Tang, Zongli. “Confucianism, Chinese Culture, and Reproductive Behavior.” Population & Environment 16.3 (1995): 269-84.
Wolf, Arthur P., and Theo Engelen. “Fertility and Fertility Control in Pre-Revolutionary China.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 38.3 (2008): 345-75.
Yao, Xinzhong. An Introduction to Confucianism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
ZHAO, ZHONGWEI. “Fertility Control in China’s Past.” POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 28.4 (2002): 751–57.
Confucianism is a system of ethical and philosophical values that are majorly practiced in eastern Asia. Taoism is on the other hand defined as traditionally practiced values that have philosophical and religious characteristics as practiced in the eastern region of Asia.
This paper seeks to discuss both Taoism and Confucianism. The paper will with this respect look into aspects of both Taoism and Confucianism with the aim of comparing and contrasting the two.
Similarities between Confucianism and Taoism
Though Confucianism and Taoism had different histories of origins, there is a great deal of resemblance between the two subjects. One of the similarities that have been identified between the two is their religious nature.
Religion as defined by Nadeau is a “means of ultimate transformation” (Nadeau 1) over lives of individuals. Confucianism and Taoism are considered as religions because of the way in which their practices, beliefs and values have been spread over the world.
Like major world religions, such as Christianity and Islam, Confucianism and Taoism have been spread and adopted by populations outside China.
Following their spread and adoption outside china, Confucianism and Taoism have changed the people who convert from their original beliefs and practices into the Chinese practices. Their spread that results into transformation of converts thus reveals the concepts of religion in them.
The two are reported to have significantly spread to other parts of the world following significant emigration of Chinese from their country carrying along their practices.
Apart from their religious definition, Confucianism and Taoism are reported to be almost concurrently spread across world’s populations. The spread of the two elements were, for example, simultaneously felt in regions such as Asia and even Europe and America. Another similarity between Confucianism and Taoism is their historical origins that can be traced to individual personalities.
Taoism is for example believed to be attributed to Lao-zi who founded and influenced the teaching which was later to be named Taoism. Confucianism has similarly been attributed to a personality with respect to its origin. Confucius, a man of Chinese origin is for example believed to have founded the religion through thoughts and values which he then taught to his disciples who then helped in spreading such beliefs (Nadeau 1).
Zang Haihiua and Baker Geoffrey also illustrated the similarities in the two concepts in terms of beliefs that are attributed to the concepts. One of the common elements between Confucianism and Taoism is their philosophical belief of the “ever changing nature of the world” (Zang and Baker 12).
It was believed under the two principalities that the environment is naturally accustomed to change which is reversible. It was believed under both Confucianism and Taoism that once a process has completed, it will restart and continue in a recycling nature.
Examples of such changes include the rotation of the moon around the earth that completes its process and restart continuously. Another similarity between the two is the “golden rule which promotes the art of achieving a fine balance in life and finding harmony between society and nature” (Zang and Baker 12).
The ethical values like doing what is right as one would want to be done to are some of the common views in the two ideologies that seeks harmony. The two philosophies therefore have a range of similarities (Zang and Baker 12).
Differences between Confucianism and Taoism
As much as the two philosophies share a number of values and ideas as complementary beliefs, they at the same time pose differences. One of the differences is obtained from the similarity of the two schools of thought to attain natural harmony.
The approaches that the ideologies apply towards the attainment of this harmony is however different. While Confucianism gives an active approach, Taoism applies a passive technique in which harmony is sought through restraint from active involvements with nature.
Confucianism calls for a person’s initiative to create such harmony such as “a man should be a good father to his son, a good son to his father” (Zang and Baker 12). Every individual is thus supposed to take measures to ensure that harmony exists.
On the contrary, Taoism calls for minimum response to “social duties or social orders” (Zang and Baker 12). Harmony between two parties can thus, according to Taoism be attained by all parties avoiding participation in natural involvements.
Confucianism also advocates for obedience to social values while Taoism views such values as regulations that only adds strains to life and on the contrary proposes isolation from such social values. The two ideologies therefore follow different principles even in cases where their social ultimate objectives are perceived to converge (Zang and Baker 12).
Conclusion
Confucianism and Taoism are philosophical ideologies that have their origin in china. They are based of religious and social values as was expressed by their founders. Though they have same geographical origin, the two philosophies have a number of similarities and differences. It is however worth noting that the two make a major contribution to ensuring that people live together peacefully and ethically.
Works Cited
Nadeau, Randal. Confucianism and Taoism. Trinity, n.d. Web.
Zang, Haihiua and Baker, Geoffrey. Think Like Chinese. Sydney, Australia: Federation Press. Print.
Although the key concepts of Daoism and Confucianism seem to be miles away from each other, there is still a distinct similarity between the two. While most of the concepts that Daoism embraces stand on their own, some of the ideas expressed in the Daoism postulates cross with the ones conveyed in Confucianism.
Analyzing the key concepts of Daoism, i.e., “analogies”, one can possibly figure out what the philosophy of Daoism manifests as the ultimate enlightenment, as well as compare the given ideas with the similar ones from Confucianism.
First and foremost, the harmony between yin and yang must be mentioned. Aimed at restoring one’s balance within, Daoism stresses the importance of balance between the feminine and the masculine. Further on, the Daoism teachings say, “Make yourself like bamboo, a bowl, door, window, canyon/valley: empty, void, still” (Daoist philosophies, n. d).
Another key Taoism analogy concerns water; as Oldmeadow put it, “Still following the analogy of water, Taoism rejects all forms of self-assertiveness and competition” (Oldmeadow, 2007, 220). Finally, the analogy between a Taoism follower and a child is drawn to stress such virtues of a child as innocence and curiosity (Scharfstein, 2009, 266).
Though the four above-mentioned analogies are considered the key ones in the Daosism school of thought, there are also a couple of related concepts that are worth brining up. To start with, Daosism teaches that Dao, the crucial concept in the entire philosophy, can be viewed as an analogy of a family’s house.
On the one hand, the given analogy might not seem adequate enough; while a family house is something stable, Dao is usually translated into the concept of a road and, therefore, represents a constantly changing environment. Therefore, Dao as an analogy of a family house seems quite a stretch.
However, the given analogy still has certain grounds to base on. Considering a family house as a shelter, a place where one can feel relatively safe, will inevitably bring one to perceiving Dao as a kind of “family,” the school that teaches one basic values and provides a viable way to analyze things, as well as develop one’s own set of values, which is actually often what family members provide their child with. Therefore, the analogy that represents Dao as a family’s house is quite understandable.
Finally, the issue of Zhuangzi, or wu wei, should be mentioned. An important analogy in the philosophy of Buddhism as well, wu wei is usually referred to as “nonaction,” though there is no actual translation – at least not into the English language – for the given concept.
However, the given translation is wrong; as Daoist principles claim, “Those who wu wei do act” (Daoist philosophies, n. d.); only, in contrast to the traditional actions that people perform on a daily basis, the wu wei actions are “natural,” “effortless” (Daoist philosophies, n. d.).
Hence, Daosism concepts embrace a wide range of virtues and abilities that contribute to finding the way to the ultimate Enlightenment. While Confucianism communicates the principles of returning to nature, Daosism focuses on personal development. Therefore, it can be concluded that in Daosism, the focus is on a person as an individual, while in Confucianism, the focus is on the relationships between people and nature, i.e., the interpretation of a nature-versus-nurture argument.
In his book, Yao provides a detailed analysis of Confucianism. The author claims that it is hardly possible to give an account of all schools within this philosophical, religious, political and social phenomenon. The author focuses on Confucianism considering it as a religious and philosophical tradition.1 Yao does not take into account the political perspective.
He stresses that it is quite inappropriate to consider political perspective as it changed in accordance with development of the societies and it tended to become quite different from the original tradition.2 Thus, the author focuses on major principles of Confucianism.
Notably, one of the classical texts, The Analects, can be regarded as evidence for what Yao revealed in his book as the text also provides major values and virtues.3 The readings helped me to obtain certain understanding of what Confucianism is and what the major principles of the tradition are.
In this paper, I will focus on Yao’s view on Confucianism and its representation in the human society and I will also consider the role of Confucian in the creation of Yi Jing. As has been mentioned above, Yao focuses on religious and literary perspectives when considering Confucianism. The author notes that these perspectives are the closest to the original texts as they have not been influenced by trends that existed at different periods.4
The author is against political perspective as he stresses that people often interpreted the text to fit their political goals. Yao notes that there were two major periods in the history of Confucianism, i.e. creative and interpretative periods. The latter has been associated with lots of changes which were often due to political changes in the society.
The author also notes that interpretation of ancient texts was free from bias when it came to religion and literature. People tried to remain as close to the texts as possible. They needed to make people aware of Confucian principles to make people virtuous, not to make them loyal to certain political agendas.
Therefore, the author focuses on religious tradition and its major principles. The author considers the three core principles of Confucianism, i.e. heaven, earth and humans. It is necessary to note that Confucianism is based on principles of harmony and respect. According to this tradition, young people should respect older people and obey them5.
People should obey laws not to escape from punishment but to seek for harmony with the universe. Yi Jing, also referred to as The Book of Changes, can be regarded as an example of the history of Confucianism. The book includes two parts. The first part is regarded as a primary source which was written by several sages.6 Confucius played a very special role in the creation of this book as he is thought to write the other part of the book.
This book is also a representation of the history of Confucianism and Yao’s idea of the two periods. To sum up, it is possible to note that Yao considers Confucianism from religious and literary perspectives as he claims they are free from bias.
The author is against political perspective as it led to interpretations which were aimed to fit certain political agendas. It is also necessary to note that The Analects and Yi Jing can be regarded as certain evidence of Yao’s assumptions as the former reveals core principles of the tradition and the latter reveals the core values and represents the very nature and history of Confucianism.