Philosophy is a very important part of human life. People search for some answers, ideas, and advice in philosophical studies. It is not a secret that most philosophical movements arose during ancient times, Confucianism and Daoism are not an exception. Three dynasties have been very popular in China and these dynasties have been largely responsible for all the religious changes and the lifestyle that have taken place in China. The most influential dynasties before 500 CE were the Xia, the Shang, and Zhou (Bentley and Ziegler 111). During the ruling of these dynasties two the most significant philosophies appeared: Confucianism and Daoism, which directed peoples outlook, they created a new vision of government and governors.
Main body
The contribution of the Zhou dynasty is invaluable and the most visible. They wrote books in poetry, history, politics, and philosophy. The most valued are notes about Confucius. As he never wrote down his expressions during the ruling of the Zhou dynasty his expressions were noted down (Bentley and Ziegler 126). During the ruing of the Zhou dynasty China prospered: the military power strengthened and the agriculture area increased. People get an education with books written by the Zhou dynasty. (Bentley and Ziegler 126)
Two of the biggest, from our point of view, philosophical movements were Confucianism and Daoism. Confucianism is a philosophical movement in China that states that only a powerful and morally strong person can govern the state successfully. Confucius noted that only law and peoples responsibility may lead to obedience. He believed that military equipment could help to govern. He also pointed out that people should be faithful to the people who take the responsibility of governing on their shoulders. If the rulers of the state are clever and respected people there will be no need to think of punishment; the rulers conduct should also be perfect as people repeat and inherit their actions and behavior, people should be sure of their governors (Bentley and Ziegler 184).
Confucianism also provided the straights of character which should possess a real leader: kindness and sense of humanity, sense of propriety, and good family relations which should be combined with ambitions and activeness (Bentley and Ziegler 186). Confucius believed that education is not so important as the ability to make wise and faithful decisions during the judgment when you govern the state. As it was said above, moral qualities are also rather important (Bentley and Ziegler 184).
Daoism is another philosophical study that was founded by Laozi. This movement aims to make people believe that to solve some problem people should not just defy the solution but to understand the character of the problem and the solution and to try to find the fundamental aim, to look for their nature (Bentley and Ziegler 186).
According to Daoism people should live in harmony with nature and the whole world. Ambitious and active people cannot govern the state, they should leave politics and govern. Only balanced people, those who live in the consent with nature and the world can govern. The ambitions and physical power have nothing to do with governing as only wise people can find a balance between themselves and the surrounding world (Bentley and Ziegler 186).
Conclusion
These two conceptions are rather different in their points of view about the rulers, but still, they have one common trade: they both arose during the ruling of the Zhou dynasty and they were supported and developed by that dynasty. Confucianism and Daoism philosophies give the effect of variety but still, it was one country and one religion where they appeared and it gives them some commonness.
The text talks about the human cravings that are propelled by the personal instincts and inner feelings that if they are left without a commendable action they will cause damage and ruin. This is a perspective that is directed towards the human nature according to Confucianism. According to Hsun Tsu, (162), humanity in general is tainted by prejudice, lack of responsibility and led by chaos with the overall aim of having to attain self satisfaction the drive of greed that is the propelling factor to the human evil.
Despite this view of the writer he receives opposition from the Mencious view of the human nature who argues that if at all a man saw a child at the verge of falling over a cliff, he will be driven by compassion of the Childs cry and help. (Mencius, 11 A 6).further more he also says that man is full of compassion, courteous, shame and modesty beyond rightness. This is what Hsu Tsu disagrees with completely by trying to question of why the nature is so spoilt and hard to reshape it if at all man was this rational.Hsun Tsu, (162), argues that if at all the man was a good person he would not devour each other resources and drop warmth offers when hes feeling cold which are the factors that are aimed at attainment of individual needs.
He supports his view by questioning the act that follows human being after the hindrances are left out. Why would the majesty impose against the weak and lead the world into destruction and a chaotic perspectives. The reasons found to support this are grounded on the fact that human nature is Evil and destructive.
As a dooms day preacher, (Hsun Tsu, 152), its indicated that the humanity should be destroyed despite all that they have done by supported by the fact of a man who sticks to the doctrine of nature and get into the emotional perspectives of his self interest will end up with wrangles and strife and an individual who is a violator of the social rules and at last will be a die hard fugitive. from this perspective, Hsun Tsu then recommend that man should be changed by the use of a teachers instructions and given a guide by the principles of ritual connotations and cut of this he will be encouraged to follow the callings of courteousness and humility, abide to the societal codes of conduct and hence orderliness shall be attainable. The great emphasis on education that is depicted by the writer here is the factor behind him being a Confucian.
According to Hsun Tsu, (19), there are the encouragment reasons toward the attainment of humanity in a man by using learning to create a student focus in a certain way. he says that setting aside of the rules of ritual and craving to attain aims with the use of a Odes and the relevant materials alone is comparable to the person who works at testing the rivers depth with a finger Emphasis on education is coupled by Confucius when he says that a profound man is described as eager to gain knowledge and postulating. (Confucius 11:15).
Concept do create an emphasis of the educational help that can be applied to assist the settling of problems that are described by Hsun Tsu in the definition of evil.Hsun Tsu point of view concerning the human nature is in one way or the other derailed from the accepted Confucian norms, still has a bigger count of how an evil man can go about the recreating oneself.
Confucianism ideals are popular among the Japanese. Confucianism appoints various philosophical movements that had different views in Japanese culture. For instance, Jukyo explained that Confucianism was a scholars teaching and Jugaku described it as learning of scholars.
Japanese traced Confucian philosophy from ancient history. This was illustrated during the Tokugawa period which characterized politics of Samurai, to the Meiji era. The Meiji era was viewed as a restoration of the colonial rule. However, the most remarkable development of Confucian philosophy was linked to Tokugawa period.
This paper discusses the Confucianism on a Japanese view point. The writer illustrates that the Japanese views asserted that Confucianism was a social system which influenced morality in the society. It was also a practice which enhanced fidelity and devotion, the pillars of ethics. Further, Confucianism was viewed as a practice enhancing wisdom and encouraging effective political leadership.
Discussion
Japanese Confucianism was significant in influencing the society. They placed a stronger emphasis on members of the society to embrace moral life for a better living. Hence, respect and love were imperative elements that thrived in a family setting than in the society. On the contrary, human and equality was viewed as vital for a fair society.
Confucianism underlined the model and widespread truth expressed by past sages. They also supported self-improvement. These elements were set in the Confucianism doctrine of Zhong, heart and middle, which suggested faithfulness and Shu, which suggested treasuring the heart, as it belongs to oneself
Social harmony
Japanese Confucianism was viewed as a social system embedded on morality than rules. It was viewed that if a person was led and respected the laws to escape punishment, the person had no intelligence. But, if a person was directed by moral guidance and respected the code of conduct, that person had wisdom and was guaranteed of an upright life.
The Japanese culture placed a strong emphasis on group and social harmony. These views were showed in the Japanese ideas of Wa, the idea of being a group and perpetuating harmony. The thoughts of shared responsibility and decision making by consent was fixed to social harmony in the society. Hence, being special from the group was viewed as disruptive manners.
Ethics
The Confucian values in ancient and modern day Japan are viewed as a teaching of fidelity and devotion. Fidelity and devotion are pillars to the Confucian ethics. However, equally important is the collective ethical prescriptions such as Jin (humaneness). Humaneness was explored differently in Japanese culture, mostly, Japanese linked humaneness with being careful not to offend others. Humaneness was viewed as model of all Confucian virtues.
Similarly, another ethical view of Confucian ethics was Justice, gi. Justice was translated to mean rightness and righteousness. Gi also showed wisdom in perspective or accountability, commitment and duty. To draw someone was a gi elicited ethical honor, while failure meant conviction. Gi was harmonized with humaneness to form Jingi. Jingi illustrated justice and humaneness. These were political merits that shaped lucid legitimacy of an organization embracing them.
Mind
The Confucian viewed mind as supreme to the body because it influenced body activities. When ri, principle, and generative force, ki, were combined, the mind controlled the body. This was because the mind had the ability for lucid and unclouded intelligence.
Political thought
A political touch to Confucianism philosophy characterized the political context of Japan. As it was anchored on Confucius himself, the Japanese followers embraced the teachings to direct their rulers. They viewed that embracing Confucianism views guaranteed a successful solution to political crises. Confucianism valued an individual with good virtues connected to royal birth.
Therefore, they looked down on a person who was born in a royal context and ignored the activities connected to self-cultivation. This person, in Confucius view, never advanced the standing granted to birth (Berthrong and Evelyn 173). Hence, understanding the true prince demonstrated those born in a higher caliber must struggle to attain respect, self-cultivation and the choice to exercise influence basing on their standing in the society.
These conditional perspectives of Confucianism on leadership and governance spread among the ruling community in the Japanese history. According to Berthrong and Evelyn (2) to affirm Confucius perspectives, the political teachings were a requisite of the selected few among the ruling elite, rather than being taught to the wider population. However, Confucianism education covered extensively in the country such that the poor began to comprehend the basics Confucianism political thoughts (Berthrong and Evelyn 2).
The poors protest activities were embedded on the idea that virtuous leaders needed to embrace the needs of the majority rather than the needs of the selected few. However, when these wishes were not embraced, the poor showed their anger through remonstrations.
Confucius philosophy ensured a leader understands the merits of of self-cultivation (Berthrong and Evelyn (32). Daigaku, which was designated as the Great Learning, was a significant literature which spelled out pertinent instructions for a ruler to follow.
It was compulsory for rulers to embrace Daigaku to achieve luminous virtues. Besides, rulers had to humble themselves with sincere thoughts to simplify acquisition (Berthrong and Evelyn 186). Thus, when these virtues were gained the people would be assured of ordered families, well managed and governed state and great peace. A society with efficient rule strengthened a culture of self-cultivation on the side of the ruling rank.
Education
According Berthrong and Evelyn (85) education was one of the significant contributions of Confucius to the Japanese culture. Confucianism highlighted education at all ranks in the society. Confucianism illustrated that education was a requisite for attaining self-cultivation.
At upper level, learning was viewed as a vital constituent in recognizing an organized state and peace in the world. Learning was achieved through emulation. Emulation process was used in early-modern Japan.
Emulation was embraced by heterodox thinkers such as Ogyu Sorai and Ito Jinsai. Jinsai was famous for using calligraphy to elucidate that education can be acquired by emulation (Berthrong and Evelyn 65). Thus, using emulation, a learner was given a teachers sample to emulate it. A learner who showed consistent practice and efforts increased his/her chances of comprehension of the task. The growth of education in Japan increased.
Hence, advanced literacy rate in the nineteenth century led to developing mass printing, fixing of schools in various Samurais and the rise of learning movements linked to Japanese culture and literature. Learning movements were critical of Chinese style philosophy. The Confucianism view on education was that it was an essential aspect of human life which enabled a person to attain better life and live harmoniously in the society.
Works Cited
Berthrong, John H and Evelyn Nagai-Berthrong. Confucianism: a short introduction, Oxford: Oneworld, 2000. Print
Confucianism is considered as one of the philosophies that were developed in the ancient times yet it still asserts a significant influence on the contemporary society (Liu 2006, 47). One of the authors who have written widely on Confucianism is Yao. In his presentation of Confucianism, Yao (2005, 17) makes attempts to link the philosophy to its developer and the culture or tradition within which Confucianism developed. This paper looks into the conception of Confuciasm by Yao. The paper also assesses the classical development of Confucian, the Yi jing.
The broader view of the philosophy
Yao reacts against the constricted view of the philosophy, which comes from failure to open into the historical development of the philosophy and the role of the Confucian tradition as a whole in advancing Confucianism. By opening up into this history, it becomes easier to establish the role and influence of Ru in the advancement of Confucian teachings (Yao 2005, 21).
Yao does not rule out the role of the founder of this philosophy. He tries to present a broader picture of the development of the philosophy by picturing it from his tradition and the society from which it developed, rather that basing on Confucius. This is achieved by focusing on the evolution of the philosophy of Confucianism.
By placing the philosophy in the context of the entire Chinese society, it emerges that Confucianism has grown within the traditional Chinese society has thus been influenced by the changes in the political and social demands of the society. The point that is brought out here is that Confucianism had an influence on the functionality of the society through learning and the exercise of the Confucian ethos.
By arguing that Confucianism was not solely developed by Confucius, Yao tries to present a broader view of how the philosophy of Confucianism has grown and spread across the world. Yao tries to present Confucianism, not merely as a philosophy, but also as a tradition. This is done through the linkage of Confucianism to the Ru tradition in China (Yao 2005, 17).
Understanding Confucianism from the societal context
In order to link the development of the Confucian tradition to the development and enhancement of the Chinese society, its development is divided into two. There is the creative period of Confucian development, which depicts the formulation of the philosophy together with the development of the principles within the tradition.
The second part is the most valid part as it links the Confucian tradition to the social and political developments over the period of development of the philosophy. This puts the philosophy in the context of the tradition, thereby moving it away from the focus on the developer and picturing it from a wider perspective. Confucianism is further divided into three epochs.
These are the periods of development that are presented in a sequential manner in order to capture the developments in the philosophy and other historical happenings (Yao 2005, 18-20). The main aim of such a presentation of the historical development of Confucianism is to establish its tie with the developments in the contemporary globalized society.
The question that leads to this is whether Confucianism can be likened to global culture and spirituality. Yao seeks to present an understanding of the doctrines of Confucianism in the modern society. This cannot be attained by looking at philosophy from the developer perspective, but from the perspective of the tradition and society.
Apart from the founder of the philosophy of Confucianism, the tradition and society within which the philosophy has developed exerted a lot of influence on the philosophy. This justifies the exploration of diverse dimensions in the development of the tradition (Yao 2005, 6-8).
What Yi Jing says about the role of a Confucian?
Of great importance to the development of Confucianism is the translation of the teachings and doctrines of Confucianism into other languages. This is known as Yi jing. Yin jing was a curriculum that was utilized in the study of Confucian philosophies. Yi jing falls within the main Confucian classics of China. Yi jing plays a significant role in advancing the Confucian commentary.
The concept of divination has been one of the core concepts in the doctrine of Confucianism. Therefore, translation of the ethical and philosophical commentaries in the Yi jing provides a background for understanding the conceptions of divination in Confucianism. Western conceptions of Confucian philosophies are highly founded in the binary translations (Engelfriet 1998, 98-99).
The translations in the Yi Jing can be likened to western Geomancy. These classical texts have portrayed a deeper sense of the role of Confucian in the society. However, the translation takes complex process, which makes it hard for one to translate the Confucian commentary. One needs a substantial amount of time in order to know how to make translations of the Confucian commentaries as posited in the Yi jing.
This is a negative implication as it portrays Confucian commentaries as difficult for translation and understanding (Little 2006, 165). The paper has profoundly implored the confines in the understanding of the philosophy of Confucianism. From the discussion, it has come out that a clear understanding of the philosophy, more so in the context of the contemporary world can only be attained through studying it within the context of the tradition and society in which it developed.
Reference List
Engelfriet, Peter M. 1998. Euclid in China: The Genesis of the First Chinese Translation of Euclids Elements Books I VI (Jihe Yuanben; Beijing, 1607) and its Reception up to 1723. Leiden, Boston, Koln: Brill.
This assignment is a discussion on the topic of Confucianism. The thesis statement of the discussion is that Confucianism is useful in cultivating and instilling good morals in individuals and in so doing contributes to harmonious co-existence of people in society. In the discussion I will argue that individuals gain good morals through the scripture, experience, reason and traditions. I will conclude the discussion by refuting the criticism labeled against Confucianism especially by Marxists.
Discussion
Confucianism is a philosophically derived ideology which outlines the moral and ethical principles which govern the relationship of people in a society. The philosophy has its roots from the Chinese philosopher Confucius who founded it in 551 BC.
Confucianism makes the project of moral self-cultivation central to human living and offers a distinctive account of the nature of the self and of its cultivation. According to early Confucians, the essence of humanity is to live to serve other humanity with a view of creating a harmonious society (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 244).
From the Confucianism view, morality is a behavioral based approach in distinguishing and classifying actions and decisions as being good or right on one hand and bad or wrong on the other. Put simply, morality refers to what is right and what is wrong based on some specific socio-cultural environments. It is synonymous to virtues, ethics and good.
About what constitutes knowledge, Confucianism views knowledge as a belief which is best explained by the reference to its truth (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 244). In philosophy, moral knowledge is knowledge of what is morally good. Philosophers however tend to disagree on whether there is moral knowledge. Some elitists like Aristotle argue that there is nothing like moral knowledge, but rather knowledge of the forms , which means that moral knowledge is only found in those people who are trained or have studied morality.
Other philosophers of the Confucianism orientation and especially those who are inclined towards the view that there is universal knowledge about morals based on our cultural and philosophical orientations argue that it is essential to reject the elitist views of Aristotle, and base our arguments on our conscience, simply because everybody has a conscience, which directs him or her to make judgments on what is good, right, bad or wrong.
The difference of this view from the elitist one is that conscience enables everyone, regardless of whether educated on moral knowledge or not, to be able to gain moral knowledge regarding what is good, right, bad or wrong.
According to Confucianism, morality is governed by moral codes of conduct which are written down rules which govern the moral conduct of a particular group of people, who share beliefs and customs. Examples of codes of conduct are the bible for Christians and Koran for Muslims.
The opposite of morality is immorality, which are actions which can be interpreted as being opposite of what a particular group of people belief to be moral. For example, Christians believe that faithfulness and trust in marriage constitute good morals. If one commits adultery therefore, he or she is perceived as being sexually immoral.
Moral Self-Cultivation
Moral knowledge, just like any other knowledge has got its sources. Each and every one of us lives in a society, which is characterized by values, norms and ethics which are specific for that particular society. It is these values, norms and ethics which make every one of us direct his or her conscience to comply with the expectations of the society.
It is important to mention here that a persons conscience may go against what is considered to be good by many people within a particular social setting. This act of going against what is considered to be good by the society is what constitutes immorality within a particular social setting, even though it may be relative because it may depend on the reasons which make an individual commit or engage in such actions.
Even though there are the standard forms of behavior and actions governing our conduct in the society, it is important to acknowledge the fact that what may constitute good behavior in society A may constitute a bad behavior in society B.
As I have already mentioned that everyone lives in a society, the society itself may be seen as the main source of moral knowledge because people get moral knowledge through various experiences in the society, reasoning in regard to the prevailing societal norms, religion and tradition, all of which are either directly linked to the society or are part of the society itself.
Confucianism explains what constitutes knowledge and how morality is acquired within a society. According to Confucians, there are four ways in which morality can be acquired namely from traditions, the scripture, experience and reason. These are discussed below.
The scripture
One way through which we cultivate morals is through the Scripture. By this, I mean the various religious doctrines, books or publications which talk about God or gods. Everybody has at least an idea about the existence of a supreme creature, which is above all other creatures, and is behind the existence of all other creatures and the creation of the earth and the world. This is what is referred to as God.
God is the central theme in any religion, meaning that each and every religion outlines rules of conduct for those who belief in that faith. Both the bible and the Koran outline what the followers should adhere to, and thus the two may be seen as moral codes, because they shape the morality of the followers of those faiths. For example, the Christian faith is based on the Ten Commandments, which were given to Moses by God himself.
Those who subscribe to the Christian faith therefore follow the Ten Commandments as their guidance in their moral conduct by observing things like respect for older persons, not to steal, not to kill among others. Those who commit acts opposite to these are therefore considered to be morally wrong.Those who are not Christians on the other hand follow their doctrines as guidance to good moral conduct while those who do not have any religious doctrines are guided by their conscience regarding what is good, right, bad or wrong.
Reason
Every action is triggered by a reason. This means that many of our actions are based on some reasons and some realities. The big question is whether the reasons are genuine or not. The aspect of reason is synonymous to conscience; which can be seen as the basis upon which we base our actions, behavior and thinking.
One person may prefer steeling instead of borrowing money while the other may prefer borrowing to stealing. Even though the two are reacting to a similar problem of lack of money, they have different consciences, which lead them to meet their need using different ways.
The question of whether one is right or wrong or who is right or wrong may become debatable because we may not know the beliefs under which the conscience of the two were based, and whether the beliefs were true or not, but one thing we know is that both acted as per their conscience, which may have been based on true or untrue beliefs. The interpretation of their actions as either moral or immoral depends on our socio-cultural orientations.
Experience
Since we live in a social world, it constantly keeps on influencing our behavior, actions and thinking towards various social phenomena. This is what I refer to as experience. The ideas of John Locke, who argued that we are born as a tabula rasa, meaning that we are open to absorb what is within our socio-cultural environments explains how experience can be a source of moral knowledge. What we experience greatly shapes our morals.
If we undergo through tough life conditions like war or civil strife, we may find our self not caring much about killing other people, because we have witnessed others be killed any way as opposed to situations where by we are not exposed to such experiences.
If we live in a country where we experience a lot of official corruption, we may see nothing wrong with being involved in it because we would have either participated in it in one way or another or we would have benefited from the same. Experience can therefore enable us develop some ideas about moral knowledge.
Tradition
Culture and traditions greatly influence our understanding and acquisition of moral knowledge. Each culture and tradition has got its teaching about what is acceptable as good behavior and what is not acceptable. The morals are passed on from generation to the other through birth and assimilation as well as acculturation.
Even though they keep on changing, each generation is able to have a chance to gain some moral knowledge from the culture and traditions of that community, which increases commonness and makes the community members, have a sense of solidarity as they acquire and share similar morals and moral knowledge.
Confucianism has however attracted criticism from various quarters in the manner in which it presents individuals as teachable, perfectible and improvable. For instance, Marxists argue that the ideology of Confucianism is a fallacy used by the elite in the society to oppress the poor.
They go to the extent of blaming it for the oppression and exploitation of the poor before the era of revolutions and also during the cold war, arguing that it created an ample environment for the rich to exploit the humble poor. They cite the contention by Confucianism that human beings should live in harmony with each other, as the one which was used by the bourgeoisies to exploit their subjects, who did not question the basis of the exploitation so as to avoid disturbing harmony in the society (Van Norden 87).
Conclusion
Confucianism is useful in cultivating and instilling good morals in individuals and in so doing contributes to harmonious co-existence of people in society. This is my basis in responding to the above criticism by Marxists. Confucianism is not to blame for the oppression but rather, it should be credited for making people sensitive to those around them.
It can be argued that Confucianism ideology made the poor communities to be aware that they were being oppressed by the rich, which made them to stage revolutions in countries which perpetrated the inequalities. Those who criticize Confucianism fail to understand that every individual who has good morals has to put the interests of others before the interest of self. This is what Confucianism ideology is about (Van Norden 87).
Works Cited
Ivanhoe, P.J., and Van Norden, Bryan William. Readings in classical Chinese philosophy. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 2005. 244. Print.
Van Norden, Bryan. W. Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 2011. 87. Print.
The philosophical teachings of Stoicism and Confucianism concerning their differences and similarities are of great interest to researchers. Taking their origins in incomparable cultures, they possess several identical points. Although the cultural distance between Chinese and Hellenistic civilizations might be regarded as a giant, the comparison of these philosophies can lead to identifying the relationship between them.
Firstly, speaking about the principal contrasts between Stoicism and Confucianism, it should be mentioned that Confucius developed the teaching aimed at the improvement of the state structure, whereas the Stoics pay the main attention to logic and physics. Expressing the idea of devotion to the country and humility, Confucianism was also used as an ideological instrument to rule the nation. On the other hand, Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy, which concentrates mostly on developing logical thinking and wonders about the nature of the universe. This dissimilarity in the approaches makes evident the theoretical contradictions in the basic provisions of Stoicism and Confucianism.
Secondly, the concepts of morality seem to be indispensable for the comparison as well. Trying to build a highly disciplined and prosperous society, Confucius advocates that morality plays a crucial role in education, making people understand what is good and what is evil. In other words, Confucianism implies the possibility of reducing human-made evil. Contrariwise, Stoicism concentrates on a slightly different aspect of the question.
One of the central tenets of Stoic ethics claims that human happiness is not influenced by any goods or evils, which are considered non-moral, such as pleasure and pain, health and illness. Thus, Stoicism introduces the notion of morally indifferent things, which are absent in the theory of Confucianism.
However, representing one of the central aspects of these teachings, the understanding of relationships with others can be useful for further comparison. Confucianism, as it was mentioned above, covers all aspects of social life, from the individual to the state structure. One of the basic principles of this ethical teaching implies respect for other people and all living things. To produce a fairly functioning society, Confucius considers it necessary to talk about the personal responsibility of each concerning others.
A similar idea can be found in the doctrines of Stoicism, which claims that all people are citizens of space as a world state. In other words, the Stoics ethics implies cosmopolitanism that equates all people in the face of world law. Thus, according to the Stoics, slaves are equal to free citizens, barbarians to Greeks, and women to men. The common good depends on the well-being of all, and, as a consequence, it actualized the necessity of the brotherhood of humanity and a respectful attitude towards others. Moreover, both Stoicism and Confucianism consider discipline as a fundamental category, which occupies one of the leading positions in their theories. Given that fact, it can be said that these philosophies agree on the concepts of human relationships and discipline, which are significant aspects of the teachings.
To conclude, although there are differences in the basic provisions of Stoicism and Confucianism and they came from different cultures, these philosophies might be regarded as comparable. Stoicism focuses mainly on questions of logic and physics, and Confucianisms main goal is a perfectly operating society. Nevertheless, both teachings consider discipline and respect for others as fundamental issues.
All nations have their own philosophies of life which shape their attitude towards life and their behavior. There can be no surprise that philosophy permeates literary works of people who write about what they see and what they feel. Confucian philosophy is based on such principles as harmony, virtue, education, moral development and respect. Notably, Asian people had to face numerous constraints including invasion of military forces as well as different ideologies. Thus, Communists had a great impact on the development of Asia as well as its people. The wars and military operations forced numerous people to flee and look for new places.
Thus, numerous Asian people found themselves in the western world with its (quite different) philosophy. Nonetheless, Confucianism is still present in Asian peoples minds and in their literary works as their philosophy, affected by different intrusions, is rooted in their hearts in the form of genetic memory.
In the first place, it is necessary to outline some of major principles of Confucianism. The principle of harmony is one of key elements of Confucianism. Asian people strive for balance in everything. Notably, virtue is seen as an indispensible part of harmony as it is believed that if people follow moral rules build a healthy and balanced society. The next principle to be considered is development and education. Asian people believe that an individual has to learn more about the world, the culture, themselves and so on. Learning is development and the way to reach harmony in a humans life. Finally, respect to older people, parents and ancestors is also central to the philosophy. Asian people respect their ancestors as well as their philosophy and their mindsets. All these principles are apparent in literary works of Asian Americans.
For instance, this desire to harmonize ones life can be traced in Amy Tans short story. She tells a story of her mother who she does not understand. The Young Asian American woman was ashamed of her mothers mastery of English, though she finally reveals a simple truth that her mothers tongue is not limited but enriched by the mix of two great cultures (Tan, 1996). The young writer notes that she understands the beauty of her mothers tongue which encloses her intent, her passion, her imagery, the rhythms of her speech and the nature of her thoughts (Tan, 1996, p. 44). Hence, this work highlights the eternal quest for harmony. Thus, the woman finally lives in harmony with herself as she understands that she speaks different languages with different people. This diversity is certain balance and harmony for the woman.
The principle of virtues permeates lots of Asian American literary works and respect is seen as one of the most important moral values. This principle can be traced in Tans and Kingstons literary works. Thus, Tan (1996) is very respectful to her mother. The young woman sees that her mother is behaving in an inappropriate way. The young woman may try to ask her mother about the reasons for behaving that way but she will never treat her mother disrespectfully.
Kingston (1996) tells a story of a family of new Americans and their hardships. It is clear that even though her aunt left the place she left several times she was respectful to the traditions. In her nostalgic account, she warmly talks about some traditions, language and so on. Importantly, the author tells the story of Asian people in the times of Communism in their country through the story of a family. Communists made the family suffer as they killed lots of people and a member of their family. They forced this family to move. However, in the new place, this Asian family still sticks to their roots. Their daughter goes to a Chinese school and aunts husband is a typical Asian man who is respected in the family. It is also important to note that the girl wants to know more about her familys past and this is also manifestation of respect to ancestors.
Nevertheless, one principle of Confucianism is persistent in loads of Asian American literary works. Hence, the idea of education and development permeates works by Tan, Kingston and Chin. At this point it is important to draw a line between formal education and self-study or rather self-development. All three works mentioned above touch upon these two types of education.
Thus, formal education gives people skills to be a part of the society and make the society better. For instance, Tan (1996) studies languages and is a writer who enriches world literature and makes people consider important issues. Chin (1996, p. 368) stresses that formal education makes peoples lives richer and more complete but it can never affect the course of nature as a girl who understood [t]he tongues of the living, the slang of the dead still dies. It is noteworthy that it is still clear that the poet makes people understand that education is the right path for every person who wants to live a full life even if it has to end. Kingston (1996) also mentions the importance of education as the aunt makes her children study and get education.
At the same time, it is clear that self-development and learning from own and other peoples experiences as well as from the life itself is seen as one of the most important virtues. The three literary works are permeated by this principle as all of them make the reader learn a lesson. Each individual has to contemplate and change something to become a better person. It is important that in these works people interact with older generations and learn more from them. Therefore, their experience becomes the best lesson for younger generations and younger generations willingly listen to their stories and make their conclusions.
In conclusion, it is necessary to note that Confucianism principles permeate Asian American literature due to peculiarities of this philosophy. Asian people are very respectful to their ancestors and their philosophy. These people understand that it is pivotal to learn more about their past. Therefore, each Asian often thinks of important and eternal issues like life and death, past and future. These ideas are reflected in their literary works as they want to share their inner world with people. Admittedly, Asian people have to cope with numerous influences like Communists ideology and western philosophy. It is also necessary to admit that Confucian philosophy is being shaped and Asian people are changing some of their views. However, it is also clear that the milestones of Confucian philosophy remain untouched and Asian people still get their power and stamina from these principles.
Reference List
Chin, M. (1996). Elegy for Chloe Nguyen. In S. Wong (Ed.), Asian American literature: A brief introduction and anthology (pp. 363-368). New York, NY: HarperCollins Pub. Web.
Kingston, M.H. (1996). The making of more Americans. In S. Wong (Ed.), Asian American literature: A brief introduction and anthology (pp. 26-39). New York, NY: HarperCollins Pub. Web.
Tan, A. (1996). Mother Tongue. In S. Wong (Ed.), Asian American literature: A brief introduction and anthology (pp. 40-44). New York, NY: HarperCollins Pub. Web.
Confucius is one of the greatest philosophers in the world. He established a moral and ethical code that helped to govern China for generations. He established the first public schools so that education would be available to everybody instead of only the upper class; however, since the education was so intense it was difficult for individuals from the lower classes to be able to afford the education. His teachings also helped change the way the government was run and organized. He edited and compiled the five classics, which became the foundation of his educational and philosophical teachings. Individuals who had passed the civil service examination were given posts based on their scores rather then on family connections, this helped increase attendance at schools as people studied to pass those exams since the questions were based on those five classics (Twitchett, 75).
Confucius lived in a time in which the social order of China was disintegrating. His teachings were focused on the ability to ritualize life; one of the main focuses of those teachings was that the majority of the problems in society were the result of individuals forgetting their proper station in life. In order to maintain harmony every individual needed to know how to react in any social situation. He established five social relationships. They included: ruler and ruled, husband and wife, parents and children, older and younger brothers, and between friends (Twitchett, 75). By teaching these relationships the society became much ritualized with every social interaction based on these teachings. His teachings created a lasting religion while promoted increased social harmony also resulted in the subjection of women to the will of either their husband or father (Croll, 721).
In the teachings of Confucius the authority of the husband over his wife was established (Croll, 721). This was done with the intent of increasing the strength of the slave owners and resulted in classifying the relationship between a husband and wife as the same relationship between a master and a slave (Croll, 721). The males decreased the roles that they were eligible to play in the society in order to continue control the female portion of the population. This allowed the males to create a society in which females could be used to consolidate power through marriage or given as gifts. This was also a way to provide minimal protection to the females by placing the responsibility for their safety onto the males related to them.
One of the foundations of Confucianism is the subordination of women to men was one of the supreme principles of government and the relations between husband and wife, like those between king and minister and between father and son, were all, as those between master and servant, universal under Heaven (Croll, 722). The basis of the ethical codes taught to the women of China during this time known as the four virtues were developed (Croll, 722).
Peasant rebellions are believed to include platforms in which the restrictions placed on women were opposed and at least one of those rebellions was led by a female (Croll, 723). With this understanding and research the women of China had overcome one of the flaws in Confucianism that women should remain at home focused on their husbands and family not concerning themselves with political matters (Croll, 723).
Even as late as 1949 the women in China were attempting to overcome the restrictions and attitudes placed on them by the teachings of Confucius. These women have overcome these prohibitions and gained the skills necessary to enter new areas of the workforce and be as proficient at those skills as the men in those fields such as pilots and scientists (Croll, 725).
While women in China have increased the variety of jobs that they are accepted in, the history of China shows that women have attempted to decrease the restrictions placed on them by the teachings of Confucius and maintained through the various political dynasties.
The Tang dynasty ruled China from 618 907 A.D. This dynasty is well known for promoting the Confucian values, increasing the administrative system throughout China, and created a code of justice that listed the penalties for crimes committed and the level of relationship between the offended person and the criminal. The Tang dynasty also created a program for the distribution of land among individuals. This was done in order to ensure that families had enough land to support their families as well as pay taxes. The tax system was based on the number of individuals in a family and each individual was responsible for a specific portion of taxes. This indicates that they had a very sophisticated and accurate method of conducting a census. Early in the Tang dynasty the rulers provided incentives for families and individuals who followed the ideals of Confucius such as decreased taxes and increased land.
One of the ways that the families maintained their strength and political power was through the marriage of their daughters to members of the seven most prominent families in China. In order to obtain these marriages the practice of dowries and betrothal gifts (Ebrey, 66). During the Tang dynasty the emperor outlawed the practice of mercenary marriages in which the two families negotiated price in order to increase the wealth of the family (Ebrey, 66). In the teachings of Confucius the discussing of wealth in matters of marriage was the way of the barbarians and should be a situation that was avoided (Ebrey, 66).
During the Tang dynasty there are references to several self-contained areas that were known as kingdoms of women in which there either were no men in the population or that women were in charge of the state. While there were kingdoms told in stories as legends as well as historical kingdoms of women located in Tibet, Japan and Korea which chose to interact with the Tang dynasty (Jay, 220).
The definition of matriarch is a social organization that in which descent follows the maternal line rather then the paternal line, children belong to the maternal clan and women are responsible for the decisions concerning the community, functions, social standing and values which can include the sexual conduct of the men in that society (Jay, 220). While researches and anthropologists believe that there were no actual societies in which women held full control and responsibility over the society due to the lack of available data (Jay, 220).
While there is a lack of data on any actual matriarch societies there are several kingdoms of women that are considered legends that have been mentioned in Chinese literature that can be examined. While historians have ignored the nature of these kingdoms due to their mythical nature and unreliability of the information available these legends have been incorporated into the history of China especially during the Tang dynasty (Jay, 220).
The first one is dated toward the fourth or third century B.C. known as Shanhai jing (Jay, 220). This is a land surrounded by water in the west. The women who lived there would bathe in Yellow Pond in order to become pregnant however any male children born would perish by their third birthday (Jay, 220). Historians dismiss this work as an unreliable source (Jay, 220). Despite this being considered unreliable the location of the kingdom of women was integrated into institutional histories. The second kingdom of women found in Chinese histories that was located in the eastern sea and was only populated by females.
Both of these kingdoms are described in a similar manner especially with regards toward procreation not involving sex and the absence of any adult male in the area (Jay, 220). While these are two examples of stories available in Chinese literature they fall into the same category as legends due to the fantastic nature of the stories. While there are other legends that refer to kingdoms of women located in remote geographical areas they maintain similar characteristics. Another similarity in these writings is the authors were entirely men, this indicates that there was a wide spread fear of what would happen if females were to gain power. The writings of the women indicated weariness with the current methods of government and the restrictions in which women faced. These writings were shared only with other females and were generally buried with the writer upon their death (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 72).
In order to promote the ideals to future generations several books were written and distributed that taught young women how to behave in the appropriate manner. These books were the only formal education that the women would receive since the other type of school was designed to assist students in passing the civil service examine and were only open to male students. The Lessons for Women consisted of 12 chapters and was written in order to extend the understanding of female virtues to typical everyday behavior (Wang, 327). Each chapter is separated into certain attitudes and behaviors. While it emphasized the ideal behaviors it cautioned the women from learning from women who refused to follow the ideals set forth by Confucius (Wang, 328).
Women followed the teachings of this book in the effort to avoid dishonoring themselves and their families. This book also had a greater influence on the women of common descent then the members of the aristocracy (Wang, 328). One reason for this is the women of the upper classes could see an impact of their words and behaviors on the political system while the women of the lower classes were restricted by the social norms of their village.
While the political process of the time revolved around men there were several instances in which females were able to gain power and influence the decisions of policy within the Tang dynasty. If a woman were the wife of a political leader then she would have the ability of assisting her husband during their rule. One of these individuals was the Empress Zhangsun of the Tang was one of these women who gained recognition for her assistance (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 93).
During specific situations the wife of a ruler could participate more openly in decisions of policy. These situations included the illness of the spouse or the elevation of a minor child to the throne (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 93). In these instances since the spouse or minor child were not capable of making decisions completely on their own due to their age or illness the wife or mother was expected to assist them through the creation of policies and actions that would reflect the values of the time.
One instance of a women-gaining power on her own merits or through the manipulation of the political system is the women known as Wu Zetian. In the year 690 B.C. the Zhou dynasty was formed under the leadership of Wu Zetian who is the only female in the history of China to have openly ruled (Jay, 228). Through various methods she ruled China for fifty years (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 93). In order to achieve this status she had to become incredibly ruthless even to the point where she killed her own daughter. She was compelled to look for additional power when she became one of the Emperor Taizongs concubines at the age of fourteen (Nosotro). In order to solidify her position and maintain her safety in the harem she looked for ways to increase her power through increased association with the Emperor. Upon his death she and other concubines were sent to live in a convent for the rest of their lives. Wu Zetian was removed from the convent at the request of the new emperor Kao Tsung (Nosotro). In order to protect her new status as the second concubine she strangled her own child and blamed the current empress for the death of the child (Nosotro). In response to the allegations the empress was banished and Wu Zetian was named the new empress. With her husbands illness she began to assume more control over the nation, with her husbands death she appointed her weakest son as emperor and then assisted his abdication after several years. After this she declared herself the emperor her husbands death she was able to gain control over the throne
While she ruled until her death in 705 she had no living child in which to pass the throne to and a male relative took over the throne (Jay, 228). This wife of the new emperor waited until her husband died in 710 and attempted to become ruler. The empresss mother in-law and her daughter were executed and their heads were publicly displayed in order to deter further attempts to overthrow the male leaders (Jay, 228).
Due to the constraints of the government in China before and after the Zhou dy related to the emperor could only rule from behind the scenes if their husband was ill or for their minor children until they reached the age of majority (Jay, 228). Wu Zetian was able to establish her claim to rule with the assistance of the Buddhist temples, imperial rituals and the declaration of a new dynasty (Jay, 228). Her rule was short-lived and is considered to be an anomaly by Chinese historians.
A second method in which a female could participate in politics was through marriage to another clan (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 93). These women were considered peaceful envoys that promoted friendly alliances with other clans or to increase the social progress of that particular clan. One of these princesses was the Princess Wencheng of the Tang dynasty (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 93). These women were sent away from their home in order to continue to gain support and allies for China. Through their education in the Four Confucian virtues and proper court etiquette they were able to influence their new husbands in areas of culture and some maters of religion.
A third method for a female to gain power was through inciting peasants rebellions in which a female could declare herself king ((Mow, Tao and Bijun, 93). These rebellions were intended to remove a corrupt court using a slogan that indicated that the will of heaven had changed and the individuals in power no longer had the heavenly authority to rule. The Mandate of Heaven is the divine favor shown to an emperor of China. Should an emperor be overthrown then it was said that they had lost the Mandate of Heaven and that he was unable to govern the people so heaven had displayed its displeasure.
Chen Shuozhen of the Tang dynasty managed to create an official bureaucracy using a beginning form of government (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 93). The government only lasted for several months but had an influential effect on later rebellions (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 94).
A fourth example of how a female could participate on her own merits in this male dominated society was by hiding the fact that she was a women and continuing through life dressed as a male. This allowed her to be treated with increased respect and pass through the civil service entrance exams and gain a position in the government. One of these females was Huang Chonggu (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 94). While she passed the civil service exam and was competent in the execution of her duties once it was discovered that she was not male she was dismissed from her post and returned home in disgrace (Mow, Tao and Bijun, 94).
The women who chose to force themselves out of the Confucian ideals promoted by the Tang dynasty either used their influence on the political process from behind the throne as advisors or regents to the ruling individual, through marriage, through an open declaration of war against the ruling classes or by hiding their femininity and posing as a male. In very few circumstances could a female obtain power or recognition for their own abilities during this dynasty. However when females stepped outside of their assigned roles they were creating precedents that were able increase the roles women were allowed during the next dynasty.
The period of time known as the Tang dynasty enforced policies that were restrictive to women of all classes living during that time. These restrictions were based on the teachings of the Confucius. However at the end of the Tang dynasty with the onset of Neo-Confucianism the brave actions of those women increased the freedoms and opportunities enjoyed by the women of that dynasty.
After the Tang dynasty ended the Song dynasty was the next ruling system. The dominant religious, philosophical and political force in China from the Song dynasty of the tenth century until the end of the imperial system in the early 20th century was Neo-Confucianism (Huang, 14). The first Song ruler asked the reemerging Confucian literati to help him bring stability to his administration. Following their recommendations he removed the Taoist and Buddhist texts from school classes and reestablished the Confucian classics. While many Chinese individuals continued to follow the popular religious cults that included elements from Daoism and Buddhism, individuals that made up the scholarly and ruling classes returned to the 5 classics to develop new theories of government and a satisfying way of life (Huang, 14).
Neo-Confucianism blended the old Confucian way with Buddhism. While it pulled the moral principles from Confucianism, it also pulled the concept of ultimate reality from Buddhism (Huang, 2). Neo-Confucianism sought properly order, harmonious relationships that were reflected in rule-governed behavior, but they incorporated the Buddhists teachings that all thought, experience, and performance of ritual are based on an ultimate reality (Huang, 12).
The goal of a properly ordered life in Neo-Confucianism is the attainment of ultimate Li. Ultimate li means reason, principle, and order. While traditional Confucian classics had used it to refer to the orderliness of life, in Neo-Confucianism li had become a metaphysical reality. They described it similarly to the Buddha nature as empty and tranquil yet with all things present.
Neo-Confucianisms continued to place a high value on ritual being the pattern that harmonious human relationships were built on proper behavior which originated in an ideal realm of Li (Huang, 6). This realm was only approachable through inner experiences that would be found through meditation. In contrast to their Confucian predecessors the Neo-Confucianists were interested in probing the human mind for insights into how it operates (Huang, 6). One of the paradoxes that they considered was how was it possible for the mind to be tranquil while being active. They solved the paradox by seeking tranquility in activity.
While Neo-Confucianism was seeking an understanding of the human condition for males it was decided that having ones emotions be over stimulated the connection between ones inner nature and outward life would become unbalanced. To assist the male population in controlling their emotions the moral code of women was transformed from a restrictive but balanced combination of virtue, personal cleanliness and domestic work to an obsessive preoccupation with chastity (Huang, 14).
While the women were still expected to be chaste in action the options available to them increased with the new order. Without the struggles and sacrifices made during the Tang dynasty these changes experienced by the women in the Song dynasty would not have received the decrease in the restrictions of their movements. While the changes made after the Tang dynasty was not sweeping social reforms they increased the freedoms and women in China have continued to build on that foundation to this day. Without their efforts it is possible that the women in China would still be experiencing these types of restrictions and limitations on their movements.
Works Cited
Croll, Elisabeth. The Movement to Criticize Confucius and Lin Piao: A Comment on The Women of China. Signs. 2.1 (1977): 721-726.
Ebrey, Patricia. Women and the Family in Chinese History. New York: Routlege, 2002.
Huang, Siu-chi. Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.
Jay, Jennifer W. Imagining Matriarchy: Kingdoms of Women in Tang China. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 116.2 (April 1996): 220-229.
Mow, Shirley, Tao Jie, and Zheng Bijun. Holding up Half the Sky: Chinese Women Past, Present, and Future. New York: Feminist Press, 2004.
Nosotro, Rit. Web.
Twitchett, Denis C. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 3, Sui and Tang China, 589-906.
AD, Part One. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Wang, Robin. Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre-Qui Period through the Song Dynasty. Hong Kong: Hackett Publishing Company, 2003.
This paper summarizes the main points of the Mencius, as translated by David Hinton. The paper begins with a brief introduction of the Asian philosopher Confucius, whose teachings formed the basis of the Mencius, followed by a brief introduction of Mencius the philosopher. The essay then separates the main points of this philosophical work Humanity and Duty.
Confucius
Confucius remains a shadowy figure of which little survives that can be directly attributed to him. The Mencius therefore stands as a testament not only to the teachings of Confucius but to the character of the man himself. Confucius or Master Kong as he is sometimes referred to was born in the fifth century BCE.
Confucianism, the theory of intellectual and social history attributed to his name, traces its origins the Analects, a group of proverbs and biographical elements of indeterminate origin. Asian History scholars differ largely upon the source and quality of the surviving Analects, however this document essentially constitutes the only source about the life of Confucius and his philosophy.
Confucius understood society in terms of familial hierarchy; social roles remained rigidly defined in his philosophy with little sense of the inner self deemed applicable to the teachings on the whole (Hinton ix).
Confucianism tended to view society as a structure of human relationships and his philosophy marked the culmination of a 1000 year transition from a spiritualist to a humanist culture following the dissolution of the Chou culture (Hinton x, xv). Confucius and later Mencius set about redesigning society more along the lines of rational empiricism, providing a secular basis for society to operate from (Hinton xv).
Mencius
Mencius is the Westernized name for Mang tzu, born in 370 BCE in the Shantung province. Shortly after his birth Mencius father passed away, leaving him exclusively under the care of his mother (Legge n.p.). Mencius mothers influence shaped him greatly and may have contributed to the distinctive heart centered philosophy that he brought to the teachings of Confucius (Hinton ix).
Mencius became the second sage belonging to the tradition that Confucius began, and he went on to counsel the monarchy located in the state of Chi (Legge n.p.) Later in life Mencius traveled to numerous other states in China to offer his advice on governing according to the principles set down by his master (Legge n.p.)
Mencius enjoyed considerable prestige and was richly compensated for his counsel, however after the passage of 15 years he began to understand that though he was a respected man, the advice he offered to the princes consistently fell upon deaf ears (Legge n.p.) Mencius lived during an exceedingly warlike age ruled largely by a tribal culture that concentrated power in the hands of a celestial lineage, the Shang Emperors (Hinton xi).
These kings and princes predominantly sought power, pleasure and conquest and cared very little about the theories of ethical government (Legge n.p.) Mencius as a result went into seclusion and focused his attention on philosophy and putting together the compilation we now know as the Mencius (Legge n.p.) The philosopher lived a long life and died at the age of 84, reputedly after having finished editing the complete works of Confucius (Legge n.p).
Humanity and Duty
In the Analects Confucius the Master said, If a man be without the virtues proper to humanity, what has he to do with the rites of propriety? If a man be without the virtues proper to humanity, what has he to do with music? (Confucius n.p.). Mencius inherited the theory and philosophy of Confucius, and set about to expand upon this idea of humanity and its place in the social order.
Hintons introduction credits Mencius as the purveyor of the profound inner dimensions of human being that enriched the teachings of Confucius (Mencius ix). Mencius asserted that the place of Heaven actually resided in the human, and his philosophy began to equate humanity with the divine and in effect to endow humans with elements of the divine through the recognition of the profound inner dimension (Hinton xix). Mencius then extended this divine power to hold sway over matters of state (Hinton xx).
As opposed to the long held belief that privileged kinships should hold the seat of power, Mencius pointed to the power inherent in all humans by virtue of their divine origin. The philosopher proposed [that] humans belonged to the primal cosmology.
Hence, citizens [were] all of equal value in and of themselves simply because they [were] all endowed with that vast reach of Heaven (Hinton xx). The net effect of this shift in thought meant that duty took on a spiritual hue; regular citizens were as beholden to affect spiritual and political duty by virtue of their divine humanity.
Mencius believed that any man with a mind could not bear to witness the suffering of another man. The ensuing sense of commiseration, Mencius understood, gave rise to a host of other feelings: shame and dislike, the feeling of modesty and complaisance, and the feeling of approving and disapproving (Legge n.p.)
These feelings in Mencius philosophy were part of the vital nature of the human being, and the master argued that the feeling of commiseration itself represented the righteous principle of benevolence. The emotions of shame and dislike composed the principle of righteousness. What Mencius called modesty and complaisance made up the principle of propriety, while the desire to approve and disapprove of others represented the principle of knowledge. In Menciuss words:
and so also of what properly belongs to man; shall it be said that the mind of any man was without benevolence and righteousness? The way in which a man loses his proper goodness of mind is like the way in which the trees are denuded by axes and bills. Hewn down day after day, can it the mind retain its beauty? But there is a development of its life day and night, and in the calm air of the morning, just between night and day, the mind feels in a degree those desires and aversions which are proper to humanity, but the feeling is not strong, and it is fettered and destroyed by what takes place during the day (Hinton 276).
This so called fettering happens over and over, and in Mencius philosophy the restorative influence of the night is not sufficient to preserve the proper goodness of the mind; and when this proves insufficient for that purpose, the nature becomes not much different from that of the irrational animals, and when people now see it, they think that it never had those powers which I assert. But does this condition represent the feelings proper to humanity? (Hinton 276).
The metaphor lends itself to the idea of nourishment essentially the philosopher argues that without proper thoughts to nourish this sense of divine humanity, the mind the will remain similar to that of a beast. Nothing lives without nourishment, and likewise, if it receive its proper nourishment, there is nothing which will not grow.
If it lose its proper nourishment, there is nothing which will not decay away (Hinton 276). This idea echoes the same thought from Confucius, who said Hold it fast, and it remains with you. Let it go, and you lose it. Its outgoing and incoming cannot be defined as to time or place. It is the mind of which this is said! (Confucius n.p.)
Not surprisingly, Mencius also applies the sense of humanity and duty to the same familial sense of social roles rigidly adhered to by Confucius. The substance of humaneness consists of serving ones parents, [and] the substance of righteousness consists of obeying ones elder brother (Hinton 161).
Harkening back to the empirical view of the family as the microcosm of sacred, ritualized society that Confucius trumpeted, Mencius believed that wisdom was the natural reward for understanding the divine inner dimension as a manifesting through propriety: taking care of the family, and fulfilling ones preordained duty in accordance with ones own humanity.
Mencius also extended the ideas of humanity and duty to the political realm, which made him more of a threat to the rulers at the time. Mencius believed he had a sacred mission to guide the political elites of his time, and sincerely hoped that his ideas would be adopted and so lead to a more humane society (Hinton xx). However his ideas were too radical for his time, and though Mencius argued that the great man understands that humanity and duty underpin justice, and that the common people are the noblest.
Next come the gods of soil and grain. The sovereign matters least. Thats why a person must win over the people to become the Son of Heaven these ideas threatened to shake the foundation of power jealously guarded by the monarchy during Mencius time (Hinton 261). Mencius as previously mentioned enjoyed social status and renown, and many rulers signed on as his benefactors, however few if any implemented his ideas not showed much inclination to put them into practice (Hinton xx).
However, in later years Mencius status grew apace with his power, and for generations after he was considered almost as important as his master Confucius. The Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127) recognized the Mencius as one of the classic texts of Confucianism and elevated its status almost level with the Analects (Legge n.p.)
Likewise the Northern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) compiled both the Mencius and the Analects, as well as The Greater Learning and The Center of Harmony into The Four Books. Beginning with the Song Dynasty (960-1279) straight through to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), The Four Books lived in an exalted sphere, considered crucial reading for all aspiring philosophers (Legge n.p.).
Considering the time he lived in, Mencius egalitarian thought certainly must have rattled some cages. Mencius remains one of the earliest philosophers to understand and promote the idea of the inner dimension of human power and spirituality.
Works Cited
Confucius. The Analects of Confucius. Trans. James Legge. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1893. Print.
Mencius. Mencius. Trans. David Hinton. New York: Counterpoint, 1998. Print.
Legge, James. The Chinese Classics, Volume II: The Works of Mencius. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1895. Print.
Medieval Japanese Confucianism is a unique phenomenon, which spread across the whole nation. The main reason for its popularity in the country of the rising sun is the fact that Japanese neighbors such as China had been practicing Confucius teachings for centuries before it got to the island. Japan was first introduced to the teachings of Confucius back at the beginning of the fourth century CE and deeply integrated into its religion, culture, and, even, politics. Japanese state was formed with the aid of Confucius teachings. However, its role in the early history of Japan was quite limited, compared to the influence of Confucianism on medieval Japanese society. From the twelfth to sixteenth centuries CE, Japanese society experienced significant changes, which helped Confucianism strengthen its cultural influence in the country. This can be seen through the trans-religious and trans-national features it gained.
To understand the factors, which shaped medieval Japanese Confucianism, one must look at the background of the Japanese state. Historically, Japan was surrounded by other countries such as China and Korea, which shared the same culture and religion. The former had a major cultural and political influence on the East Asian states. For example, before the Choson dynasty invented the Korean alphabet, they used the Chinese graphs despite having a completely different language. Furthermore, some Koreans saw this invention as a betrayal, including Choe Malli, who argued that replacing Chinese writing was a barbarian matter (Source for PSA 4). Chinese dictated the East Asian culture throughout the whole medieval period, so it comes as no surprise that countries like Japan adopted Confucianism.
However, there were also internal factors unique to Japan, which shaped the adopted Confucius teachings into medieval Japanese Confucianism. During the Middle Ages, Japan experienced a series of political changes. It all started from the downfall of the aristocratic grip on power and its subsequent passage into the hands of shogunates. Therefore, the teachings of Confucius stopped being the one of the Imperial state (Paramore 38). This inevitably led to Confucianism becoming a rather cultural phenomenon, with all its rituals losing their political and religious significance.
There is a variety of factors, which indicate trans-religious features of medieval Japanese Confucianism. The rise of the Five Mountains (Gozan) Zen culture is one of them. This is the system where the Imperial government supported various Buddhist monasteries. Gozan Zen culture originated in China and then, shortly afterward, was replicated by the Japanese. In combination with the Japanese interpretation of Confucius teachings, Zen resulted in a much more creative approach to Buddhism and Confucianism, as earlier Japanese Confucianism was limited by the bureaucratically structured government. It left a heavy mark on Japanese secular and religious literature, art, and education. The role of the Five Mountains Zen culture in politics should not be underestimated either. According to these teachings, retired politicians often found their new place as monks in one of the Buddhist monasteries next to Kyoto, which they had closed ties to. This helped Japan mitigate the consequences of the downfall of aristocratic power and smoothly transfer into the rule of shogunates (Paramore 34-36). Therefore, the integration of Confucianism into Buddhism in Japan is evident as it gave birth to a new culture known as the Gozan Zen.
The trans-nationality of Japanese Confucianism can be seen by building a parallel with its Chinese counterpart. The Five Mountains Zen culture did not originate in Japan. The entire phenomenon of Japanese Confucianism was imported from China, where it was developed based on the teachings of Confucius. The comparison can be made by looking at the Chinese version of the Five Mountains Zen structure. Just like in Japan, Chinese Buddhist monasteries had to be granted a governmental license by the Song and later dynasties to operate (Paramore 36). Additionally, when the Gozan lost its political influence in medieval Japan, it still held its dominant position in Japanese culture and literature. Many sources and books providing new interpretations of the Confucius teachings kept being brought into Japan from abroad. For instance, metaphysical literature of the Yinyang thought was imported from China in the thirteenth century CE and laid the foundation for the Japanese version of Neo-Confucianism known as Shinto (Paramore 38). This shows that medieval Japanese Confucianism did not originate in Japan. In fact, the entire culture was adopted from China, indicating that it was a rather trans-national phenomenon.
In conclusion, the teaching of Confucius had a significant influence on medieval Japanese society. Medieval Japanese Confucianism is a unique phenomenon created under the heavy influence of the Chinese culture, which was the dominant one among the East Asian countries. Despite its trans-national features, Confucianism in Japan was also formed by a variety of internal political factors. Moreover, it is deeply integrated with the religion of the country of the rising sun. The signs of Confucianism can be seen in the religious rituals performed by the Gozan Zen and the various Shinto sects. Overall, the Japanese version of Confucianism is a mixture of political, religious, and cultural factors, which was imported from China and then modified to fit the standards of medieval Japanese society.
Work Cited
Paramore, Kiri. Confucianism as Cultural Capital (mid-first Millennium CElate Sixteenth Century CE). Japanese Confucianism: A Cultural History. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2016., pp. 16-40.