Category: Conflict

Post Conflict Reconstruction

Post-conflict generally describes the period after intra or interstate hostilities have ceased, although violence may continue. Post-conflict usually follows a cease-fire or the signing of a formal peace agreement, whereby the major warring factions register their commitment to end hostilities and begin the process of reconstruction. External actors can play an important role in a post-conflict environment. That role is the subject of this backgrounder.

The concept of security sector reform, despite its laudable intentions and notwithstanding the fact that it is predicated on noble normative principles, is currently largely Eurocentric in origin. This should not, at a philosophical level, disqualify it from being introduced into the political discourses of the developing world.

Indeed, its normative content, emanating largely from the centre-left discourses of the Nordic countries, the European social democracies, the Democratic administration in the USA, the Canadian government, and the New Labour government in Britain, is remarkably similar to the vision of an African renaissance being articulated by former Presidents Thabo Mbeki, Obasanjo, and others on the African continent.

A rigorous and strategic indigenization of the concept is going to be required on the African continent if any semblance of local ownership is to be achieved and any potential discrediting of the concept, most notably from certain opportunistic and predictable political quarters, is to be avoided.

Practically, this will require a series of strategies to determine how security sector reform (SSR) will be internalized within the political and institutional discourses of the developing world in such a manner that it is both consistent with the indigenous traditions of the African continent and supportive of the ongoing attempts by Africans to take control over the political processes of which they are, inseparably, a part of.

This begs a series of partnerships with legitimate actors within the recipient countries to ensure that SSR succeeds. An initial step towards such an indigenization process is to refer to the restructuring of the security sector as a ‘‘security sector transformation’’ process. The term ‘‘reform’’ has many pejorative connotations within the African environment. Politically it is often associated with the implementation of policy decisions from ‘‘above’’ without any attempt to secure the broader participation and consultation of non-state or legislative actors.

Many of the ‘‘reform’’ strategies adopted by diverse African countries have had as their objective the legitimization of unpopular regimes, and have failed to alter meaningfully the existing balance of power within both state and society. Transformation, for its part, is a wide-ranging concept that encompasses a variety of interrelated fields. Transformation processes, if thoroughly pursued, have an effect on virtually all aspects of an organization’s existence, and as such require astute management if the success of such processes is to be ensured .

Understanding External Intervention in Violent Conflict

INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia is known to be located at the Horn of Africa because it has had prolonged violent conflicts that had an immense impact on the people who live there and is very alarming and it is in the northern part of the Sub- Saharan Region and also happens to be one of the poorest countries in Africa. Ethiopia is a federal democratic republic composed of 9 national regional states: namely Tigray, afar, Amhara, Oromia, Somali, Benishangul-Gumuz, Southern Nations Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR), Gambella and Harari and two administrative states (Addis Ababa City administration and Dire Dawa city councils).

Since the cold war, the battlefield had been silent and no country ever went head to head (interstate conflicts) for absolute dominance unlike before. Rather a new sensation or approach came around that had to do with intrastate conflicts (conflicts between ethnic groups). Then, there was an interstate conflicts which was rare and it was between Somalia and Ethiopia over a region that was controlled by Ethiopia called the Ogaden region. This was however, the first of its kind nobody had ever thought such an event would occur and it has been eight years since the conflict and I can say for a fact that there are still diverse consequences that have taken a toll on the people who live there. Ethiopia was an empire that was ruled by King Solomon and it is believed that Hailee Selassie is also from King Solomon’s lineage so basically a ruler from God.

There are numerous countries found within the African region but why does Ethiopia get a spotlight? To answer that will be very easy, no other country had drawn so much attention to itself by going into two civil wars than Ethiopia which had two civil wars in the horn of Africa which has brought about the emergence of new countries namely: South Sudan and Eritrea. These figures is probably more than two million civilians had lost their lives. Many questions come to mind as to what will account for the drastic downfall into poverty which has led to ethnic conflicts, since there were never colonized or despite the fact that, it was never colonized back in the precolonial times. It seems fair to say that, the issues that will be discussed will have nothing to do with foreigners but rather indigenous tribes.

In view of this this paper, I will first, discuss the consequences that led Ethiopia into the twenty-five- year prolonged conflict that they face till date. Secondly, I will have a look at the secessionist movement that took place in Africa with special attention to the country: Ethiopia. And lastly, look at the responses that was given to address the conflict at hand.

Body

First and foremost, one will need to know the history of Ethiopia to be able to know the context of the nature of conflicts. One could find the Ethiopian highlands which dated back to the earliest centre of African state formation (Freund, 1988, p. 24). Now, the first Ethiopian state that can be identified was Axum, with its capital in the province of Tigre near to the Eritrean border. The countries found at the Horn, on a normal day find itself in even more violent events than countries in the rest of the continent.

A) Determinants of conflict

The Horn of Africa has been Africa’s hotspot for over 100 years. Domestically, conflicts have been almost dangerous in most of the countries in the Horn. More also, the secessionist conflicts in Ethiopia, the problems of southern Sudan and later the almost disintegrations of Somalia are some of the major portrayal of the problem. There was a recorded succession of states that dated back long ago around the valley of the Blue and White Niles meet, wide enough of the Sahara for rain fed agriculture to flourish away from the

As Ethiopia’s economy moved toward capitalism in the 1960s, considerable social unrest among the intelligentsia and in the provinces undermined the national consensus. Indeed, the Eritreans rebelled, claiming that they were a separate people largely because of their experiences under Italian and British colonial rule. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the authorities resorted to police or military repression to keep Ethiopia intact clients to bolster its administration, as in the case of the Ogaden. Haile Selassie’s government was overthrown in 1974 and replaced by an ideologically driven inclusivist state determined to extirpate any competing civil society or ethnic activity”(Marcus,2008,p.2).

As it is always said, one will need to know the society in which an author lived in before, one can actually understand the literature devices and diction that he/she uses in their book, the same goes for the understanding the nature of the conflict in Ethiopia. As the story goes Ethiopia had challenges; the challenges that Ethiopia faced if history is to be any indicator, would serve as a reminder that “such a development will give way inevitably to renewed national unity as the logic of geography, economics, tradition and political culture become a recap to dominate politics” (Marcus, 2008, p.3).

First and foremost, one of the nature of conflicts in Ethiopia (the horn of Africa) is that there are a lot of misunderstandings. There were disagreements about the possession or use of the land, grazing land or water resources, and about the settlements, regional hegemony, access to state resources and language policy in education and administration (Taylor, & Young,2017,p.. One problem which baffles much of the readings on the state in Africa is that authors of all influences tend to go with one way distinction between states and tribes without rulers or stateless societies in interest of easing colonial administrative problems. Instead of solving the issue of Africa’s colonial administrative presence and taking control of their own affairs, they look onto unimportant problems and leave the circumstance that need attention.

References

1. A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991. (2019). Ohio University Press • Swallow Press. Retrieved 22 November 2019, from https://www.ohioswallow.com/book/A%20History%20of%20Modern%20Ethiopia,%201855%E2%80%931991
2. Everts, N. (1991). Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1974. Eastern African Studies, London (James Curry Publishers) 1991, 244 pp. Price £ 9.95 paper, £ 25.00 cloth. Itinerario, 15(2), 126-127. Doi: 10.1017/S016511530000646X
3. Marcus, H. (2008). A history of Ethiopia (p. 3). Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press.
4. Taylor, P., & Young, J. (2017). Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia. Review of African Political Economy, 23(70), 531–542.
5. Bahru, Zewde (2002). A history of modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991. Athens (OH), Addis Ababa and Oxford: Ohio University Press/Addis Ababa University Press/James Currey. 2nd Ed.
6. Bahru, Zewde (2006). “Ethiopia and Eritrea, in quest of the culture of peace and dialogue”. In: Leenco LATA (Ed.). The search for peace: the conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea. Proceedings of Scholarly Conference on Ethio Eritrean Conflict. Fafo Report. Oslo, Norway: Fafo Information Office.

Conflicts And Conflict Management

Introduction

Conflict is not an unnatural phenomenon among human beings of any background. It is very normal for us to sometimes have oppositions and struggles when relating with each other. As long as people interact as the social beings we are, conflicts will occur on occasion. Knowing that there is no way to avoid running into conflict with people, it is important to be informed on ways to manage them when they occur. It is also important to know how to handle conflict because it can reflect our relationships with others and our frame of mind at times.

Because of the uniqueness of every human interaction, each conflict is different and not all of them can be handled the same way. Conflicts that occur in a classroom setting, work place and even between friends cannot be handled the same way. Managing conflicts takes a level of thought and finesse. The only people we truly and completely understand are ourselves. We can only understand other people to a certain degree through personal feelings and social perception. So that is why it is important always make an effort to get to know people so we can understand things from their vantage point.

Dealing with conflict often times requires some form of confrontation which maybe calm yet difficult to have. There are different strategies one may adopt, which then depends on the scenario in which conflict occurs. Some of these strategies take a more confrontational approach such as assertiveness and compromise. Some strategies require a third party’s involvement. This is often known as arbitration.

When managing conflict, it is important to avoid being aggressive in order to not come off as disrespectful and mean-spirited. People often confuse being assertive as being aggressive. Assertiveness involves expressing your position, needs and feelings in a respectful yet direct manner. Using authoritative command is when. For instance, at a firm, Joy is the head of the accounts department and has been ordered to submit a detailed summary of the firms spending that month which is to be submitted before the end of the week. Her She tells a subordinate, Julie to collate figures for the report and submit before next morning. On one account, Joy sees Julie goofing off and not doing the needful. She then politely asks her to get to work. Julie takes her tone for granted and continues ignoring her work.

This sort of behaviour would typically anger anyone and cause a dispute but it is important to keep cool and try to be respectful regardless. If Joy simply confronts her in an assertive manner, expressing how it is important she gets the work done and remind her of the consequences of not finishing her work in due time. This a better bet than, attacking her or being excessively authoritative and demanding.

Another confrontational approach when managing conflict is compromise. Compromise entails negotiation which ends in an agreement or settlement of disputes were the parties involved end up making concessions. In a scenario concerning a married couple, Jess and Jamie where they both have plans for a night out and conflicting interests, a compromise must be reached. Jamie has a business dinner at his potential future employers house. He knows how important it is for his boss to see him as family man so he invites his wife, Jess. Jess expresses that she can not the dinner because she too has a meeting with her boss concerning a promotion. They get into a little squabble and Jess accuses Jamie of being selfish for wanting her to miss her meeting. He then understands how important this meeting is to her and decides to make a compromise by placing his dinner at a later time so his wife can go for her meeting and make it in time for the dinner. By doing so, both parties do not lose anything. It is important to be willing reach a compromise in any relationship. There are always alternative ways solving situations.

Sometimes, conflicts are best handled by an unbiased third party. In a lot of disputes it is always healthy to hear from a third party whose judgement is not clouded. Take for instance, Jade’s desk is right next to John’s at work. He brings his dog to the office everyday and it sometimes pees under Jade’s desk. On several accounts, she told him how frustrating it is to smell pee while she works. He always says that his dog is being trained and apologises. One day, Jade gets frustrated and reports the matter to the Head of Human Resources, Jonah. Jonah then sends out a memo about how to conduct Dog Conduct in the Office along with a formal complaint. Because of this, John decides to not bring his dog to the office till it is properly trained. In situations where one party, or both, don’t feel heard and aren’t willing to listen to each other, a third party is most helpful.

Today, there is a whole segment of entertainment that glorifies and profits off conflict between people ( Reality Television and Entertainment News), but we must note that we can’t live our lives constantly getting in a fight every time we get frustrated. That it is important to learn tactics for conflict management.

The Aspects and Importance of Managing Conflict

Conflict isn’t essentially unhealthy. It will facilitate raise and address issues that are required to be corrected and also the organization can take pleasure in that. It will facilitate inspire staff to participate within the decision-making method, as a result of typically debating over problems will cause attention-grabbing facts that others might not of completed or may not of although was a necessary. Conflict can even facilitate people to learn the way to acknowledge and take pleasure in their variations, as a result of then they’ll perceive wherever another workfellow is returning from. the sole time conflict is a nasty things, is once it’s poorly managed or not understood at intervals the work, and also the ‘obvious’ results in violence.

Conflict comes in many different scenarios with family, friends, enemies, or strangers which can lead to violence, silence or arguments. This is how people experience their feelings when they come to a disagreement of two different interests about a topic. There are five parts to conflict; expressed struggle, interdependence, perceived incompatible goals, perceived scarce resources, and inevitability (Alder et al. 327-328) . A part of conflict is both sides must know a problem exists, but an expressed struggle doesn’t have to be verbal. For example, my sister and I would give each other the silent treatment or avoid talking to each other after a disagreement. In many conflicts people tend not to rely on their interdependence. Such as, if you’re playing on a team and there’s an issue amongst the girls. There needs to be a way for it to be resolved-to have the ability to say, “we can win this, if we work together”. For an old volleyball team I played for there were many conflicts and it took us awhile to understand to leave everything off the court, because we couldn’t win if we weren’t able to communicate. When there is an argument, both sides want to win and not lose. Such as, if there was a couple who have been dating for a couple of years-the girl wants to start a family, but the boy doesn’t. This causes a conflict in their relationship because they both want something different. There are no solutions for either side because not both people are able to receive what they want. However, the couple can always communicate about the situation to achieve what they both want. Unfortunately, people don’t think about mutual satisfaction-people aim for what they want. Timing is an important factor to conflict-school, events, friends and family. People often blame the fact that there isn’t enough time in the day to plan. At the end of it, conflicts will eventually happen. Conflict can happen between strangers, roommates, friends, family, etc… Everyone attempts to avoid conflict, but the reality is; are people able to get through it. In every disagreement people come to the census of defending themselves before finding a solution. This can lead to poor mental and physical health due to both parties do not comprehend what each other are saying and ignore what the other person has to say (Alder et al. 327). Again, my sister and I would get into arguments. Instead of finding a solution we defend how we feel rather than listening to each other.

Everyone has different styles to approach a conflict-the individuality of a person when their needs are not similar to what others want. The habits we continue to use can work in some situations, it may not work in other conflicts. One conflict style is collaboration-it consists of concern for each other and the self (Alder et al. 332). The intention isn’t about you or me, but our. Collaborating leads to a win-win result. The solution satisfies everyone’s needs in the problem. Partners typically avoid blaming one another, but also they work together to find a solution in which both goals are met rather than settling. Collaborating is when people want to find a winning resolution for both sides in an argument-there’s an increase of both opinions being heard (Alder et al. 333). My boyfriend and I work well at collaborating. Whenever there’s an issue or something on our mind we give each other a chance to say how we feel as well as give our opinions. However, a win-win approach will not always happen or pan out correctly. According to Adler, Rosenfeld, and Proctor ll-collaborative problem solving can be quite time consuming, and some conflict decisions need to be made quickly. Adding on to that, being able to have a win-win situation is time consuming… Collaborating is vital to everyone in their relationships. At first with my boyfriend, our collaborating was not as strong as it is today. We worked on our cooperation in order to be successful to meet both of our needs and wants.

Some conflicts can damage a relationship terribly that it ends up breaking a bond. There are four forms of communications; criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling (Alder et al. 339-340). First, criticism slanders a person’s character or personality rather than the behavior. This is the first behavior that occurs most betweens couples. For example, there’s a difference between paraphrasing the language of “I or me” and “you”. It frustrates me when you don’t help around versus you’re so lazy. Using “I” or “me” statement targets your significant others behavior without using criticism. Secondly, defensiveness is when a person protects their presenting self by turning down responsibility. Such as; you’re funny, you think I would do that versus you’re not as good as that than I am. However, self-protection is acceptable yet problems will build up when a person is not paying attention or acknowledging the other person’s concerns. Being defensive causes you to tune everything out which causes you to blame your partner and not take responsibility for your actions in the conflict. Third, a comment becomes a despise. For instance, it can be a form of verbal name calling; you’re stupid or oh, that was smart. Contempt isn’t just verbal it can be from physical appearances-eye rolling or disgusted face expressions. Paying attention to your behaviors is a big key-you don’t want to get off topic and forget about what you are truly upset about; don’t be aggressive, just explain how you feel. Although, it may be difficult-in the long run it will make the relationship stronger. Lastly, stonewalling is when one person from the relationship detaches themselves from the issue-this can lead to a breakup or divorce. They do not seek to find a solution to the problem for mutual satisfaction. Men stonewall due to the fact that they become overwhelmed and women want to talk it out that makes the partner want to leave because the topic is being more stressed than it needs to be. During the stonewall phase you are simply pulling yourself away in the relationship rather than fixing it. All couples engage in criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling (Alder et al. 339-340). If you and your significant other cannot approach the conflict in a healthy manner and continue to use the four horsemen, it’s time to seek help.

There are seven skills that are helpful to conflict management in practice. Define your needs: understand what you want and need. Sometimes what you want and need would be evident, however your needs and wants won’t be clear, its needed to think about the issue on its own. Sometimes talking to another person can help sort your thoughts (Alder et al. 345-346). Sharing your needs with someone else: after you recognize your needs, you start to share with your partner. Before you talk to your partner to make sure the setting to talk is appropriate. If your companion is tired or busy, then the concern from him/her won’t be received the way you want it to be. Along with that make sure you are in the best spot for speaking. If you are angry and upset and attempt to talk, you may say something you might regret later on. Also, if a problem is shared use the “I” language. You’ll describe your reaction to someone’s behavior, taking responsibility for your statement while not expressing judgement. This is often the way to clear your thoughts, feelings, and wants. According to Raider et al., they recommend to start off with ritual sharing-which is casual talking. This helps with creating common grounds (Alder et al. 345). Next off is listen to the other person’s needs: when you address your own needs and wants, it’s time to discuss your partners needs and wants. This is the time to paraphrase so your significant other knows you heard he/she said as-this will require listening skills. This isn’t a quick process it will take time to find solutions, both people need to come to a conclusion they’re both satisfied about being heard and all issues have been addressed. This would possibly embody exploring however previous problems like past relationships are poignant to how they’re acting with one another concerning this conflict (Alder et al. 346). Fourth is generating possible solutions: both you and your partner find solutions to grattify both needs and wants. Brainstorming with your partner will help create more solutions. Avoid judging each others ideas because an idea that sounds out of the ordinary may be the best one. Ideas aren’t ones property, you can modify each others intentions. Selfishness of partners will fade away and being able to work together will be easier due to the fact that a solution will be made regardless whose idea it was (Alder et al. 347). After that is evaluating the possible solutions and choose the best one: once there are multiple suggestions it’s time to decide which one is best for both of you. If you both continue to stress about the same thoughts, that’s when it’s time to come to a conclusion. You review all the different solutions to lead to everyone’s goal in the relationship. Picking the best one can be combining ideas (Alder et al. 347). Implement the solution: trying out the solution will determine if it does satisfy everyone’s needs. Although, an idea will sound good at first-it necessarily doesn’t mean it will work. Which will lead to the follow up… practicing a solution will feel like forever and most relationships will continue on with the same solution. As always people change and soon enough the effectiveness of it can increase and decrease (Alder et al. 347). As reported by Roloff et al., people can walk away from a conflict session believing they agree on a resolution, when in fact they don’t. It’s good to plan a time to meet with your partner to go over things. There could be a possibility of changing or rethinking the issue (Alder et al. 347).

In conclusion, I believe that the foremost vital issue to recollect once you are managing over one person, you wish to know every other’s management designs moreover as understanding that not most are constant. Conflict merely comes from differing viewpoints. managing conflict as a manager takes special components to manage “not” to or, conquer the things which will arise between you, others, or the organization.

Handling Diverse Conflict Resolutions

Introduction

Globalization has allowed millions of individuals to seek new challenges and better job opportunities and futures. The melting pot has allowed workforces to become filled with many cultures, in which, has benefited many organizations, but does raise new challenges. Since the world is becoming so culturally diverse, it has raised the requirements and skills for conflict resolution strategies.

Over the past few decades, business’ have been progressing and improving at a rapid rate which makes the workers have to adapt. Society’s view on conflict has vastly change as it previously had an authoritative approach but has swiftly changed direction toward a more cultural approach and being aware of other individual’s beliefs and values.

With business plans consistently changing to better success, researchers are always researching for new strategies focused on individuals’ values that drive their actions and understanding of other cultures to provide healthier work environments. With the rapid changes to business’s structures we will look at the challenges in a diverse workplace, managing diversity, and Thomas and Kilmann’s model to focus on conflicts.

Diversity Workplace Challenges

Before discussing the cause of diversity workplace challenges, we need to define diversity, which is “acknowledging, understanding, accepting, valuing, and celebrating differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, gender, physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, spiritual practice, and public assistance status” (Green, López, Wysocki, and Kepner, 2002). It is crucial for individuals to use their emotional intelligence and other skills to understand the people they are working with. Individuals in workforces need to focus on the dissimilarities of the people around them which will help minimize conflicts. Conflicts that are handled professionally can actually drive an organization into a better direction or could cause an organization a lot more problems.

Managing Diversity

Managing diverse cultures is not easy and takes effective decision making. When dealing with conflict it can be difficult to develop a solution, but the process is quite simple. Individuals need to recognize the need for decision, generate ideas and alternatives for conflict, analyze each idea, and then put it into place. After implementing the alternative, it is always important to collect feedback to evaluate the outcomes of chosen alternatives (Jones & George, 2014). It is crucial for individuals to have a good sense of diversity awareness so they can find different alternatives or change their attitudes and behavior for certain individuals and in result create a more motivating and conflict reduced environment.

For individuals managing diverse workforces, they need to take that extra step of empowering employees to challenge conflicts before they rise and reward them for effectively managing diversity. This extra step for managing diversity will create a domino effect and help create better leaders and keep the values in place when management is not there.

In reality, these steps might help leaders in the creation of a non-stop diversity management, even when the managers themselves cannot participate directly.

Not being able to recognize cultural differences in values can be detrimental to organizations; however, having a clear understanding on other cultures can greatly impact the organization’s reputation, morale, and motivation. Being culturally informed is one part of dealing with diverse individuals, but then there has to be a strategy that is used toward the conflict.

Conflict Resolution Strategies

Throughout history there has been many conflict resolution strategies created, but for this topic we are referencing Thomas and Kilmann’s model. The model uses five resolution strategies that individuals use to handle conflict, including avoiding, competing, accommodating, collaborating, and compromising.

The first strategy discussed in Thomas and Kilmann’s model is avoiding, which is “when a person neither pursues his/her own concerns nor those of the other individuals” (Kilmann, 2007). When it comes to situations that use avoiding, one of the parties does not have interest in developing a solution. When individuals use this tactic, it can be hard to negotiate because they are not paying attention and they would rather just brush the issue to the side as if it never happened rather than fixing it.

The second strategy discussed in Thomas and Kilmann’s model is competing, which is “when an individual pursues his/her own concerns at the other person’s expense (Kilmann, 2007). This strategy tends to use a more forcing and authoritative approach. Since an individual believes they hold more “power” of another, they are more forcing and demanding on their approach to satisfy their needs and desires. Many instances this strategy is used to get things done in a time constraint and lacks the awareness for other individuals.

The third strategy discussed in Thomas and Kilmann’s model is accommodating and is defined as giving into one individual’s interest or demands for progression. This conflict is used when both parties are corporative and are willing to help the other party out by giving up something. This conflict can be just as bad as avoiding if a party is giving up something just to keep harmony or avoid a bigger situation.

The fourth strategy that Thomas and Kilmann use is collaborating, often called “win-win” is when the solution benefits or satisfies the parties. For a collaborating strategy to be successful all parties must be informed and hear the concerns of others to develop a solution that has a beneficial outcome to all.

The fifth and final strategy that Thomas and Kilmann use is compromising, in which develops a solution to the conflict that meets partial satisfaction of the parties. This strategy usually only “band-aids” the problem as the result can create issues overtime. With this strategy all parties give up a little of what they want, and no party gets everything they want.

Conclusion

Handling conflict is not always easy, especially when it includes diverse individuals that all have different values and personality types. It is important for individuals to have a strong awareness when it comes to others. The conflicts in a diverse workforce are not always clear and there are many ways to focus on managing diverse conflicts, but Thomas and Kilmann’s model covers almost all situations that an individual might face, and they will need to adapt to that. The goal for managing diverse cultures is to create a positive change that considers all cultures and to find a solution to the conflict that will better the individuals.

References

1. Green K. A., López M., Wysocki A., Kepner K. (2002). Diversity in the Workplace: Benefits, Challenges, and the Required Managerial Tools. University of Florida, HR# 022. Retrieved on August 26, 2014, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hr022.
2. Jones G. R., George J. M. (2014). Contemporary Management, 8th edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
3. Kilmann, R. H., Thomas, K. W. Interpersonal conflict-handling behavior as reflections of Jungian personality dimensions. Psychological Reports, 2007, 37, 971–980.

Intergroup Conflict and Technological Mediums

Abstract

Intergroup conflict analysis in political psychology has identified ways that groups form their perceptions towards the outgroup and different reconciliation methods have been suggested as a means for conflict resolution. This paper combines essential theories of communication and psychological theories to argue that the internet can be used as a tool for reconciling groups in the 21st century and years to come. It will first look at why the ‘medium’ through which intergroups interact is a crucial component with an analysis on the Rwandan Genocide and then it will demonstrate why the internet should be used as the medium for reconciliation processes to take place between groups in conflict or in the process of intensifying conflict. It will simultaneously identify the issues with traditional reconciliation process whilst establish how the internet over comes these issues. The possible negative implications and complications that will be faced by using the internet will be explored, however, it will be concluded that the internet has more potential, in comparison to previous reconciliation mediums, for positive progression as to how different groups interact with one another.

The Internet as A Progressive Reconciliatory Medium

“For the “message” of any medium or technology is the change of scale or pace or pattern that it introduces into human affairs” (Marshall McCLUHAN, 1964)

Internet mediated communication is the key to solving intergroup conflicts because traditional methods have become trivial. Internet mediated communication as a means for intergroup conflict reduction is a progressive tool for the following reasons; groups are exposed to a considerable amount of out-group information that will challenge negative views, the factor of anonymity enables groups to interact with one another and change their beliefs and finally, it eliminates the physical distance between groups; online you can reach different people no matter your location. By analyzing various case studies from 20th and 21st century intergroup conflicts and their use of different mediums, this essay will not only expand on the reasons why internet mediated communication is best, but will also identify the mediums used in 20th and 21st century intergroup conflicts and their purpose and the effectiveness of mediums used in 20th century, in comparison to 21st century mediums, as a means to reconcile groups. In this way, arguing that reconciliation processes are more likely to succeed in the 21st century because of the way intergroup interaction functions online.

In this essay the term ‘traditional reconciliation methods’ will refer to psychological conflict resolution methods that rely on face to face communication between groups as a means to change in group perception of the out group; such as the reconciliation methods used after the Rwandan Genocide.

Group Identity and Social Identify Theory (SIT)

by ‘intergroup’ and technological mediums. The term intergroup has basis on social identity theory; which is a theory that distinguishes the way humans interact with one another. Humans can form their own groups in accordance to “gender, religion and nationality” (Brewer chapter 11). Another definition for intergroup, as stated in Merriam-Webster dictionary is an “existing or occurring between two or more social groups”. In this way, when referring to intergroup conflict, this means one group fighting against another group. Furthermore, the term technological medium refers to different technologies, specifically radio, media, the internet; anything electronic that can be used as a means to pass a message or propaganda hence why they are technological mediums.

It is equally important to note that mediums can be used for both good and bad, which is something that is demonstrated in the paper, when talking about 21st century conflict initiation; the internet plays a crucial role in the way groups interact. Although there is space to do harm online, there is even more potential to do good and solve issues between groups on the internet because of the features available online, which did not exist in 20th century intergroup conflict; hence why reconciliation processes pre-digital age were limited and narrow.

What is a ‘medium’?

As stated earlier this paper will combine communication theories with political psychology in order to understand how modern intergroup conflicts can be resolved online. In communication theory, Marshall McLuhan puts emphasis on the medium that a message is sent through and concludes the medium can also be the message;

“In a culture like ours, long accustomed to splitting and dividing all things as a means of control, it is sometimes a bit of a shock to be reminded that, in operational and practical fact, the medium is the message. This is merely to say that the personal and social consequences of any medium—that is, of any extension of ourselves— result from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension of ourselves, or by any new technology.” (McLuhan 1956 pg. 1)

This is significant and relevant when understanding intergroup dynamics and reconciliation because the way through someone is address or spoken to, will give the message a different understanding and meaning. Furthermore, different mediums impact different sense experiences; using face to face mediated message, all senses are used whereas, when it comes to radio, only auditory senses are used, and different senses will be used when a digital medium is used. In this way, depending on the medium used between groups, their stereotypes can either be enforced or changed because of the sense experience provided through the medium and message.

Comparative analysis and identifying mediums and reconciliation methods in intergroup conflict

As stated earlier, the medium is significant in shaping the way society thinks, and in this case; how a group thinks about the other because the medium is a “result from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension of ourselves, or by any new technology”(McLuhan, 1956, pp 1). In many intergroup conflicts (such as the Rwandan Genocide), there is use of different technological mediums and some of these mediums have helped incite violence between groups. In this section, the medium used to incite violence will be identified to demonstrate why speaking about the medium is relevant and then it will also identify the reconciliation processes that took place to resolve such conflict and through which medium it was done through.

The Rwandan Genocide was an intergroup conflict that occurred in the late 20th century after the death of Hutu president. This conflict was between the Hutu’s and Tutsi’s. The Tutsis were the minority group that was massacred by the Hutus for a span of 100 days in 1994; in which 800,000 Tutsis died. There were series of political movements that tainted the Tutsi image in the eyes of Hutus, especially considering that the president condoned this hate towards the Tutsi; which inevitably lead to the massacre of Tutsi minority in 1994 (Des Forges, 2007, pp 42). Despite both groups being ethnically similar, the Hutu lead government was able to spread a narrative that would upon the negative collective memory that Hutu’s had of the Tutsi’s by gaining control of the radio; Radio-Television Libre des Milles Collines (RTLM). The medium was used to incite violence, and this also demonstrates the importance of picking a specific medium (McLuhan). Considering that “a large number of Rwandans could not read or write”, picking radio as a medium was a vital tool for the Hutu community to spread their hate speech and propaganda that justified the killings of Tutsi, by claiming it as self-defense (Forges, 2007 pp,42). RTLM used various hate speech that further demonized the out group by underlining the “inherent differences between Hutu and Tutsi, the foreign origin of Tutsi” and not only blamed many socio-economic differences on Tutsi civilians but also reminded many of “the horrors of past Tutsi Rule” (Forges, 2007, pp45). It is clear that intergroup conflicts were encouraged through radio as many Hutu’s were dependent on “radio stations to incite and mobilize, then to give specific directions for carrying out the killings” (pp47). As explicitly demonstrated, the radio as a medium to incite violence was crucial in the Rwandan genocide because not many could read the newspaper; the radio was a medium that the Rwandan society understood and connected with. In this way, it is clear that the radio did more damage than good in resolving intergroup conflict.

On the contrary, the reconciliation process that took place in Rwanda used the oral medium. The oral medium is the use of basic face to face communication; speech. At the surface, immediate level, it seemed to resolve all issues in regard to the intergroup conflict between the Tutsi and Hutu’s. This reconciliation method was somewhat unorthodox in comparison to different conflict resolution processes that were used in the 20th century. Both sides told their stories and although, it may seem that both sides were able to end the conflict. This form of reconciliation process, because of the medium used, caused a lot of PTSD in those who took part in this process. (Karen Brounéus). What this means is that in Rwanda, the victim and perpetrator had to face one another, and this need to be physically there, in front of someone who had hurt you in irreversible ways, solved the conflict but damaged many Rwandans psychologically in the long run (this will be explored later within the paper).

Intergroup exposure to challenging information

Groups in conflict can gain immediate access to information that challenges their view of their ‘enemy’. The internet is a very flexible platform that not only enables communication between in group and out group but also makes the groups accessible to different narratives. As stated earlier, people form and rely on their group identity because of their self-esteem; belonging to a group increases the persons sense of security and purpose (Tajfel__). This sense of security and boost in self esteem can also stem from interacting with the out group online and understanding the outgroups perspective. What is meant by immediate access to information is that online an individual is able to access a variety of websites and even games, that would put them in direct, or indirect, contact with those that they perceive to be the ‘enemy’. With this access, an individual from the outgroup and one from the ingroup will be able to see their mutual interests. If people rely on group identity to feel secure, the ease of finding mutual interests between one another online (especially those in conflict), would decrease the negative perception between these groups because their relationship online would be based on their “mutual interests…[which] is likely to enrich their individual identity significantly” instead of their negative group identity (Amichai-Hamburger, 2010, pp 183). Furthermore, the internet, especially social networking platforms, provide people with news articles, forums and even videos that promote different perspectives to a conflict or perception of a group of people. This is significant because it can lead to the breaking down of strong stereotypes towards the outgroup. This breaking down will not happen instantly, but it will weaken the need to cling to these stereotypes. The news and radio are outdated mediums and does not have the same reach, which is another key aspect that will be discussed later in the paper. An example of stereotypes being broken down are prevalent in the ‘Israel Loves Iran’ social media movement. This movement began online with the agenda of breaking the stereotype that Iranians had of Israelis. The message it promoted highlighted the similarities between the two groups and emphasized that Israeli citizens have compassion and love towards Iranians and that the conflict is between governments not citizens; the impact that this has, is that it creates a neutral platform for groups to not only find out their similarities but also catalyzes a cognitive process that will change the way groups understand one another.

Anonymity, Face to face and PTSD

The internet is the platform for reconciliation because of the factor of anonymity and non-physicality reduces intergroup stereotype because it makes individuals from either group feels secure. The environment that an individual experience online is less stressful than the physical, real life environment because there is the element of anonymity. When it comes to facing your attacker or someone you do not feel ‘secure’ being next too because of the negative narrative that has been fed by the in group, the ability to just create a fake username and avatar limits the need to reveal group characterization and thus further promotes communication between the out group and in group; without either sides knowing at first. Once an online relationship is established based on their mutual interests (as argued above) through anonymity, it will be easier to

Although, it can also be argued that when you see the other person face to face, the reconciliation process, although it maybe be harder, it will be more significant than when it is done over the internet

PTSD Symptoms

• In 20th century intergroup conflict resolution, they stuck to basic communication reconciliatory method which did help some victims get past the trauma and hate towards the other group however,
• Another point is that anyone can use it, it does not have to rely on traditional reconciliation processes.
• Not only at an intergroup level, but also at a international level, different nations can reduce tensions by sending a simple tweet

Bridging distances

Not only does the internet provide security and prevent future PTSD experiences for those who were attacked, but also it makes reconciliation and stereotype perception between groups easier to change because it eliminates the physical distance between groups; online you can reach different people no matter your location.

• Online; no need to be present
• Can create things together
• Games
• Yair Amichai Hamburger paper

Find examples where 20th century reconciliation was limited and narrow

Possible complications

There are three possible complications regarding the use of internet as a reconciliatory medium or platform. Firstly, not everyone has access to the internet, secondly, the internet can also be used to incite violence, and finally social media algorithms create an echo chamber.

Limited Access to Internet

Although the internet in it self is an all encompassing medium and has the potential to reach millions of people in different parts of the world, there still are those people who are unable to use the internet. According to the World Atlas, as of 2018 there are 13 countries that do not have access to the internet either because of censorship from the government or because of lack of infrastructure to set up broadband (World Atlas, 2018). This would not only prevent them from being part of the internet community but would also leave them out of reconciliation opportunities that are offered online and thus stick to their main source of information; which is most likely a source that feeds their ingroup narrative about the evil out group.

Inciting Genocide

Considering that the internet is a medium that anyone can use, it could also attract different hate groups to spread their messages online. In the same way that radio was used in Rwanda to incite violence. In the 21st century, there are many examples of different terrorist organizations, political parties and hate groups using the features that the internet provides (anonymity and wide reach), in order to fuel action in real life. For instance, the ongoing genocide in Myanmar that has targeted Muslim Rohingya locals; one of the culprits for this genocide was social media.

Echo chamber; could have the opposite reaction. A news coverage by The New York Times reported that “Myanmar military personnel… turned the social network into a tool for ethnic cleansing” which is a fact that former police and researchers have confirmed (Mozur, 2018 pp, 1). These military personnel “posed as fans of pop stars and national heroes [and] said Islam was a global threat to Buddhism”, along with more explicit fake stories of Muslims raping Buddhist women (Mozur, 2018, pp 3). Furthermore, the ability for anyone to be a content creator also leads to fake news and photoshopped images; hence showing the “power of the platform”. It such a dynamic medium that one could argue is hard to control how an individual will use its features. However, this is not an issue that will impede groups from changing their perception of the out group. Facebook was able to track down these negative and false narratives; it took time and the damage was done, but the ability to administer and remove content or fake hate profiles shows the potential for intergroups to positively interact. Amichai-hamburger agrees with this idea and suggests that in order for the internet to create a positive environment for both groups there should be an “Online Anti-prejudice leadership” (2012, pp 190). This would be a program that would give participants the necessary tools to control and manage how intergroups communicate between one another; the participants would “fights against stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination in the virtual world” (2012, pp 190).

Echochambers

This phenomenon is only seen online because the internet, especially on social networks, has algorithms that are created to feed the user with information that they like. Once the user ‘likes’ a certain page or visits certain websites, the algorithm will feed the user more of what they have liked or visited. This results in spread of information that further confirms their negative view towards the out group because there will be no alternative information directly available. The user would have to search up a different narrative then the one he is used to, in order to change the way, the algorithm feeds information. In this way, the quest to preventing and solving intergroup conflict online would have to rely on the change in algorithms; to make it a more neutral platform of information and make every website reachable despite what the user might favor.

Concluding remarks

Internet mediated communication is the key to solving intergroup conflicts because traditional methods have become trivial. Internet mediated communication as a means for intergroup conflict reduction is a progressive tool for the following reasons; groups are exposed to a considerable amount of out-group information that will challenge negative views, the factor of anonymity enables groups to interact with one another and change their beliefs and finally, it eliminates the physical distance between groups; online you can reach different people no matter your location. It would be ignorant not to highlight that solving intergroup conflict is no easy feat. There are years of psychological research to suggest that intergroup conflict will always arise because of how our brains function, we need to survive and if we stem our sense of self from those that we identify with. However, offering a much more modern approach, such as the internet, for a modern generation, a modern conflict and progressive era will definitely ease understanding between groups. The way that society has developed, it is prevalent that many people can relate to different things over the internet because of the environment that the internet offers; a secure and neutral environment that moves people away from negative group identity and towards a more personal identity that was built online and thus promotes positive outlook to the ‘out group’ due to the strength in self-esteem, which is what causes people to form negative stereotypes towards and out group in the first place.

References

1. Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2012). Reducing Intergroup Conflict in a Digital Age. In The Handbook of Intergroup Communication (pp. 181-191). Abingdon: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203148624
2. Bilali, R. (2014). Between Fiction and Reality in Post-Genocide Rwanda: Reflections on a Social-Psychological Media Intervention for Social Change. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 2(1), 387-400. doi:10.5964/jspp.v2i1.288
3. Brounéus, K. (2010). The Trauma of Truth Telling: Effects of Witnessing in the Rwandan Gacaca Courts on Psychological Health. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 54(3), 408-437. doi:10.1177/0022002709360322
4. Elcheroth, G., & Spini, D. (2011). Political Violence, Intergroup Conflict and Ethnic Categories. In Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: A social psychological perspective. New York: Psychology Press.
5. Finkel, E. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2010). Advanced Social Psychology: The State of the Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.rproxy.tau.ac.il/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=324042&site=ehost-live
6. Forges, A. D. (2007). Call to Genocide: Radio in Rwanda, 1994. In The Media and the Rwanda Genocide (pp. 58-71). London: Pluto Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt18fs550
7. Hogg, M. A., & Levine, J. M. (2010). Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations. New Delhi: SAGE Publications, Inc. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.rproxy.tau.ac.il/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=474340&site=ehost-live
8. McLuhan, M. (1964). The Medium is The Message. In Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Retrieved April 18, 2019, from http://web.mit.edu/allanmc/www/mcluhan.mediummessage.pdf
9. McLuhan, M. (2005). The medium is the message. Corte Madera: Gingko Press
10. Minah, M. (2018, May 09). Are There Countries Without Internet Access? Retrieved April 21, 2019, from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/are-there-countries-without-internet-access.html
11. Mozur, P. (2018, October 15). A Genocide Incited on Facebook, With Posts From Myanmar’s Military. Retrieved March, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/technology/myanmar-facebook-genocide.html
12. Staub, E., & Pearlman, L. A. (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict: A commentary. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 588-593. doi:10.1037/a0014045

Effect of Work-family Conflict on Commitment Organization

Humans are one of the resources needed to run an organization or company. As the main factor that runs the organization system, humans hold the role of crisis (crucial factor) which will determine the success or failure of a company. In a hospital industry, health workers are human resources who play an important role. A hospital, with abundant capital accompanied by sophisticated technology will not be able to advance without being run by qualified health personnel and having a strong commitment in running every his duty.

The commitment of health personnel organizations is one of the key factors that determine the success or failure of a hospital to achieve its goals. Health personnel who have a commitment to the organization usually show a work attitude that is attentive to their duties, has the responsibility to carry out tasks and is very loyal the institution where he works. The existence of a high organizational commitment to health workers will make them avoid negative organizational behaviors such as defaulters, moving to another hospital, leaving work hours and so on.

According to Kaswan (2012), organizational commitment is a measure of the willingness of employees to stay with a company in the future. Whereas according to Robbins and Judge (2015), organizational commitment is the level at which a worker identifies an organization, its goals and expectations to remain a member. In carrying out work, often health workers face many demands for work. High job demands certainly have an impact on the personal life of the health worker in question. For health workers who have a family, the high demand for work can certainly have an impact on the neglect of tasks that must be done for the family that can trigger the emergence of conflict in the family. As one part of the family, a health worker must be able to manage the time he has.

Conflict between work and family can occur in both women and men. According to Apperson’s study, et al in Buhali and Margaretha (2013), there are several levels of role conflict between men and women, that women experience role conflict at a higher level than men. This is because women view family as their main obligation and must get more attention than the role of their workers. Whereas according to Martins et al, in Amelia (2010), work-family conflict is a condition that occurs when one’s work affects or disrupts his family’s life. Stress can be interpreted as something that makes us experience mental stress or the burden of life, an force that is urgent or gripping, disrupts balance due to problems or demands of adjustment. According to Mangkunegara (2007), work stress is a feeling of distress experienced by employees in the face of work. Excessive stress will adversely affect individuals to deal with their environment normally. As a result, their performance is bad and indirectly affects the organization where they work.

In dealing with various problems in the world of work, every employee in this case the health worker should recall his role as a human being created by God to serve Him in a way that has been determined in accordance with his beliefs. Every human being has religious values that make him always feel close to his God and believe that everything that applies to him is a provision from God. This made him believe that every problem in the world of work must have a way out for God’s help. Religiosity is the internalization of religious values in a person. This internalization is then actualized in daily actions and behavior, including work. In Islam, for example, work is an inseparable whole, starting from the intention to work that is not only seeking material abundance in the world but also seeking rewards to end later. Nashori and Mucharam (2002) in Rohayati (2014) conclude religiosity as how far knowledge , how firm is the belief, how the worship is carried out and the rules and how deep the appreciation of the religion they embrace.

Latersia Binjai Hospital is one of the private public hospitals in the city of Binjai, and the only General Hospital in East Binjai District, stands on an area of 29 x 146 m2. Latersia Binjai Hospital starts from the General Clinic which was founded by Dr. Robinson Sembiring on June 19, 2004 and since March 13, 2012 the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia has established Binjai Latersia Hospital as a Type C Hospital. As a general hospital that is still categorized as a new one, Latersia Binjai Hospital always strives to provide the best service to patients starting from the physical facilities of hospitals and qualified health personnel. Health personnel are those who are devoted to the health sector and have knowledge and skills through education. in the health sector, which for certain types requires authority to carry out health efforts. Based on Law No. 36 of 2014 which is meant by health personnel consisting of medical personnel including doctors, specialists, dental doctors; nursing staff includes various types of nurses; midwifery staff; pharmacy staff includes pharmacists and pharmaceutical technical personnel; and others.

In hospital operations, all health workers have an important role in handling patients. In addition to adequate hospital facilities, doctors who are reliable in handling patient complaints, the role of nurses in serving patients, especially hospitalized patients, is the reason for patients to choose hospitals (interviews with hospital patients, 31 July 2018). So, the role of health workers in the progress of a hospital must be of particular concern by the management of the Hospital. Health workers are also expected to have a good commitment in carrying out each of their duties. One form of organizational commitment by health workers can be seen from the loyalty of health workers to survive and become part of the hospital where they work. The following is a table that shows the development of the number of health workers at Latersia Binjai Hospital in the period 2013 to July 2018.

This research is descriptive causal, namely a study conducted to investigate the causal relationship by observing the consequences and the possible factors (causes) that cause these effects. The study was conducted at Latersia General Hospital located on Jl. Soekarno Hatta Km.18 No.451 Binjai. Population is a generalization area consisting of objects and subjects that have certain qualities and characteristics determined by the researcher to be studied, then drawn conclusions. The population in this study is all health personnel of Latersia Binjai Hospital consisting of general practitioners, specialist doctors, dentists, pharmacists , there are 66 nurses, midwives, laboratories, nutritionists, radiologists and pharmacists.

Determination of sampling is as follows: if less than 100 is better taken all until the research is population research. If the number of large subjects can be taken between 10-15% or 20-25% or more, (Arikunto, 2013). Based on the explanation above, because the population is less than 100, this study uses the census method, which is the entire population into the study sample.This study used a questionnaire (questionnaire) which was distributed as many as 66 copies of the questionnaire with the number of samples being respondents in this study as many as 66 people. Questionnaire statements were all answered by respondents consisting of five statements for work-family conflict (X) variables, nine statements for organizational commitment (Y2), eight statements for work stress variables (Y1) and eight statements for religiosity (Z) variables.

Data collection techniques are ways that can be used by researchers to collect data. The data collection techniques used in this study were interviews, questionnaires / questionnaires and documentation studies. In this study data collection used a Likert scale. The Likert scale is a scale to measure an attitude where the respondent is faced with a statement and can choose one of the five alternative answers ‘strongly agree, agree, doubt, disagree, and strongly disagree’.

Work-Family Conflict Has Positive and Significant Effects on Stress Work

Based on the research, the results show that work-family conflict has a positive and significant effect on work stress. This means that work-family conflicts will have an impact on work stress. The more problems in the household that trigger conflict will increase work stress on health care in the hospital.

As many as 79% of the respondents in this study were women. It is known that women are creatures that prioritize emotions. Based on the results of several studies it is also known that women tend to experience stress more easily than men because the differences in hormones and genetics that women and men have differ. Job demands that make women undergo several roles will also trigger stress. In the family, women have a very important role, namely as a wife who serves the needs of a husband and a mother who regulates the needs of all family members, especially in the care of children. Women workers must be able to share time and attention between family and work. When both roles require him at the same time, he must be able to choose and make a priority scale. Therefore, the role and support of the extended family is very important. The inability of women to share roles well can lead to work-family conflicts. The inability to manage conflict properly results in a woman who experiences conflict will tend to experience work stress.

Age and age of marriage is also a factor of health workers who experience work-family conflict experiencing work stress. Most of the respondents in this study were young. As many as 51% of respondents aged 26-30 years with the most dominant marriage age between 1-5 years were 62% of respondents. Ages 26-30 years are included in the category of early adults where they are not yet in the mature enough age category. At that age, generally a person still prioritizes emotions and ambitions, hard on principles and ideology. At the age of 1 to 5 years of marriage, generally a person is still going through times to get to know their spouse and extended family. So at a young age and marriage age that still tends to be young, every couple generally will encounter several conflicts in the early life of marriage. In-family conflicts can occur due to several reasons, one of which is role conflict caused by the imbalance of the roles undertaken by husband or wife in work and family life. The inability to manage work-family conflict for young couples will cause work stress.

As health workers who have sworn to professionals in work, namely by prioritizing the interests of patients, they are required to understand the importance of the presence of health workers in handling patients in any difficult conditions. The professional demands of the health workforce should also be known by the extended family of health workers. In this study, for example, the most respondents were nurses and midwives who had work shifts that always changed from time to time. Likewise in the profession of specialists who must be prepared to carry out emergency operations that can come at any time until they must be willing to leave the family to prioritize patient safety. Families who are not prepared for this condition can cause conflict within the family and cause work stress for health workers if it cannot be managed properly.

The length of work of health workers is also a factor in work-family conflict influences work stress. As many as 77% of the respondents from this study were health workers who had just worked for a period of 1-5 years at Binjai Latersia Hospital. The longer a person works as a health worker, generally the more accustomed to undergoing a profession with high work mobility and many job demands. Conversely, a short period of work may be the reason why health workers are not yet familiar with various conflicts that arise in work and family to cause work stress. Therefore, the initial period of working as a health worker in a hospital is a period of adaptation in working and managing conflict in work.

From respondents’ answers regarding work-family conflict, 37.9% of respondents felt they did not have time with family and as many as 10.6% felt they had very little time with family. Reduced time with family can cause a lack of interaction with family. As many as 34.9% of respondents also answered tiredly after work causing them to have less time to interact with their families. Lack of interaction with the family can cause a lack of relationship between family members, this is due to the lack of interaction that can lead to prejudice and distrust among family members to cause conflict.

Conflict experienced by a health worker can increase work stress, so the higher the conflict experienced by a health worker, the higher the stress of work. This research is in accordance with the results of research conducted by Sihaloho (2016); Nart and Batur (2014), Jamadin et al (2015), Siahaan (2018), and Rusmewahni, et al (2018) which states that work family to conflict has a positive and significant effect on work stress. While the results of this study contradict the research conducted by Agustina and Gde (2018) which states that work family to conflict does not significantly influence work stress.

Work-Family Conflict Has Negative and Significant Effects on Organizational Commitment

Based on the research, the results show that work-family conflict has a negative and significant effect on organizational commitment. This means that conflicts in the family will have an impact on decreasing organizational commitment. The more problems in the household that trigger conflict will reduce the commitment of health personnel organizations. Health workers who experience work-family conflict will find it difficult to harmonize their role in the family and at work and will lead to a lack of commitment to the hospital where they work.

When compared between women and men in prioritizing family interests, women will be more concerned with family. This is because women have a major role in taking care of domestic household needs, while men have more to fulfill family needs in terms of responsibility as the main breadwinner by working. Women, even though they have obligations as workers, still have to take care of the needs of family members consisting of husbands, children and personal selves. Her presence as a mother who is the primary caregiver for her children also cannot be replaced by anyone. Therefore, when experiencing work-family conflict, women generally will prioritize their family’s interests which impact on the organization’s commitment to work. Higher work-family conflicting experiences will reduce organizational commitment.

In health workers who are generally young at the age of marriage who are also still young, undergoing roles as family members and health workers need good adaptation to avoid conflict. This is because health workers have high work mobility, so they often leave their families. In the statement ‘I don’t have enough time to be with family’, the average respondent answered in doubt with the details 10.6% felt very agree, 37.9% agreed and 6.1% doubted. Lack of time with family can be one of the causes of work-family conflicts that can result in decreased organizational commitment.

From the respondents’ answers to work-family conflict, as many as 18.2% of the respondents felt that working hours made them rush to finish their homework, as many as 12.1% of respondents also felt strongly in agreement with the statement. This shows that there are still health workers who have not been able to condition their home tasks so they are not in a hurry to enter work during predetermined working hours. The inability to complete domestic domestic tasks properly can lead to conflicts within the family and will impact on their commitment in the organization they work for.

This research is in accordance with the results of research conducted by Sihaloho (2016); Puspitasari (2012); Isnaini (2018); Nart & Batur (2014); Malik, et al (2015); Li, et al. (2013) and Hatam (2016) which state that WFC has a significant effect on organizational commitment. However, the results of this study contradict the research conducted by Rantika & Sunjoyo (2015) and Nwuggballa (2016) which stated that WFC had no significant effect on organizational commitment.

Stress Work Has Positive Impact Not Significant towards Organizational Commitment

Based on the research results obtained stating that work stress has a positive and not significant effect on organizational commitment. This means that work stress does not trigger a decrease in organizational commitment to health workers at Latersia Binjai Hospital.

In this study the results showed that the average of the respondents consisting of health workers Latersia Binjai Hospital did not experience work stress. If there are respondents who experience work stress then it is still categorized as light work stress. In general respondents did not experience symptoms of work stress, physical symptoms consisting of headaches, rising blood pressure, and stomach pain. Respondents generally did not experience psychological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, and decreased job satisfaction. Respondents in general also did not experience behavioral symptoms of work stress such as decreased performance, low motivation, absenteeism, and movement.

The insignificant effect of work stress on organizational commitment can also be caused by health workers being a profession that gets high work pressure every day. Health workers are accustomed to or accustomed to facing various work pressures in hospitals, facing various patient complaints, to face various failures to save patients’ lives. All work stresses that involve emotions are usually faced professionally in accordance with the profession oath. Because of that, no matter how heavy the work pressure in the hospital that results in work stress can be overcome because it must commit to save the lives of patients, also to be able to continue the next work that has been awaited. Choosing a profession as a health worker must be packaged with mental readiness facing the pressure of work coming and going quickly in order to maintain commitment.

Chong in Khan (2014) states that employees with high organizational commitment will be happy to be in the organization. One reason for the high commitment of the organization is the low work stress. High levels of work stress will trigger employees to get bored in work and over time will find other jobs that are more comfortable. However, the stress level will have no effect if the employee can control himself in his attitude at work. The need for work is also a consideration to remain in a workload that is prone to stress. There are only 9 hospitals in the city of Binjai, and RSU Latersia is the only hospital in East Binjai District. The reason for domicile is a consideration for health workers who have married, especially women, to remain committed and stay in Latinoia Binjai Hospital.

This research is consistent with the research conducted by Viktorius (2013) which shows that work stress does not have a direct and significant effect on organizational commitment. The research was conducted at the RSUD dr. Soedarso Pontianak. Lazarus and Folkman in Viktorius (2013) stated that stress arises due to the relationship between individuals and their environment, which individuals perceive as exceeding resources and endangering health. Individual ability to overcome problems, whether stress occurs or formed coping, depending on how to interpret or perceive and measure with environmental events. Perception is an individual reaction to a potential source of stress that can cause stress. This study contrasts with the results of research conducted by Sihaloho (2016) and Nart & Batur (2014) which show that work stress has a negative effect on organizational commitment.

Work-Family Conflict Influences Organizational Commitment through Stress Work

Based on the research, the results show that work-family conflict directly influences organizational commitment. In this study work stress variables do not function as intervening variables, which cannot mediate the influence of work-family conflict on organizational commitment. This is because in the partial test the results show that work stress has a positive and insignificant effect on the commitment of the organization of health workers at Latersia Binjai Hospital.

In this study it was stated that work-family conflict had a negative and significant effect on organizational commitment. Health workers who experience work-family conflicts will directly reduce their organizational commitment without having to experience work stress first. This is contrary to the research of Sihaloho (2016) and Divara and Agoes (2016), but according to Isnaini’s research (2018).

Psychological Approaches to the Study of Conflict

Introduction

The following essay is going to critically discuss the applicability of the psychological approaches to the study of conflict. Psychological approaches are one of the theories of social conflict. There are various approaches or theories under the psychological approaches. These theories are based on the idea that; conflict and aggression are inborn of human behavior. Some of there approaches are not mainly based on the psychological approaches, but rather they focus on the biological explanations of human behavior.

Conflict because of Humankind’s Aggressiveness

By understanding the evolutionary and the genetic aspects of behavior, then human’s life can be understood. The idea that explanations depend on social experience are only necessary to the point where evidence shows humans are not already having difficulties with aggressiveness at birth. In Houdini’s term, aggression already be in humans at birth, which state that aggression is an inborn. All the theories that depends on the influence social environment to explain how humans are aggressive, starts with the condition that humans are blank slates (Ranger, 2010).

Frustration usually occurs when people feel that they are not getting to achieve their goals that they have set for themselves. People get frustrated when their computer crashes while they are writing an important document, when they feel that their social relationships are not going well, or when their schoolwork is going poorly. “However, Jane Goodall’s (1986) intensive and well-known study of primates, humankind’s closest biological relatives, observed a variety of acts of aggression, including rape, conflict amongst males over copulation rights, and raids by one band of chimps on another band over territory. An alternative to the blank slate approach is to consider aggression as an inborn, evolutionary significant strategy, which humans carry forward” (Ranger, 2010).

Humans are born with the neurobiological structures and biochemical processes that produce the fight part of the flight response (Gray, 1991, 1994). The history of five thousand years ago leaves no doubt that such normative action did play a part in decreasing humankind’s potential for aggression. Hostility and violence have been a problem that much of civilizing effort is homo sapiens successful attempt to control the liking to attack our own kind (Salter, 1998).

There are three types of aggression, the first one is the Accidental Aggression is not like other forms of aggression, it is some sort of a mistake due to carelessness. The Accidental Aggression mostly is mostly seen in children playing in adults too. For example, if someone is running to catch a bus, that person happens to accidently hurt someone. The second one; Expressive Aggression, is an act that you are aware with, but with no purpose of causing any harm, here you express your feelings. The third one; Hostile Aggression; this form of aggression that has intentions on harm psychological, rather physical harm[endnoteRef:1]. [1: https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/aggression-violence

The Frustration-Aggression Theory

Frustration is an emotion that is evoked, when someone is preventing you from achieving your goal, this can cause you from being frustrated to being aggressive. Aggression is the behavior that is intended to harm others. Aggression is both learned and an inborn. For example, when you have failed a test, then you become frustrated, but if someone provokes you like saying, “you are such a loser, why didn’t you pass that easy test” that’s when you become angry and aggression takes place you can even kill the person, because mow your stored frustration is driven to aggression (Radwan, 2017).

How is Aggression an inborn?

Aggression is the sign of the healthy course development, and it is an inborn. Aggression behavior is mostly shown at the very young stage and we continue to learn if how is to handle conflict more effectively. People can channel their aggression, rather than to react with aggression. For example, a child lashes at his/her parents in a store (Bennett, 2019).

How is Aggression learned?

Aggression is learned and is a behavior that is meant to harm other individuals. Aggression behavior happens many forms, for example verbal, psychological or physical. Research in the past, has focused mainly on physical forms of aggression, such as instances of hitting, pushing, kicking or throwing objects, all this with the intentions of harming another person. More recently, research has been on the focus of non-physical forms of aggression that also have intentions of harming another person. For example, verbal aggression entails outbursts or language used in social settings hurts an individual’s self-concept or cause psychological pain (Seel, 2012).

Humans Needs Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in psychology, having a five-tier model of human need. Needs that are on the lower down of the pyramid in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. In the pyramid, from the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are; physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization (McLeod, 2018).

Conflict because of misperception and miscalculation

Conflict as misperception

Conflict as a misperception, is the way we see others through a lens distorted by our wishes, needs and experience. Such misperception surely can be a base of conflict, for our actions follow our perceptions, and if we perceive others as evil and act accordingly, we will generate responses in kind. White (1966) have investigated, and had argued that wars, especially the conflict in Vietnam, are a result of misperception (Rummel, 1977). The importance of misperception as a cause of international conflict, especially war, is commonly accepted. Whether as primary determinant, misperception has been linked with most 20th century wars, including both world and the cold war (Stein, 1982).

Conflict as miscalculation

Conflict as a miscalculation, in Pakistan is one of the examples, the conflict was to internationalize the conflict and remind the World of the outstanding UN resolutions that India has failed to adhere to in order to resolve the conflict in this region (Iqbal, 2018).

Conclusion

In conclusion, psychological approaches to the study of conflict are many. There are Aggression and Frustration theories, which states that humans become frustrated before they become aggressive. Also, aggression can be an inborn or can be learned depending on different personalities. Another cause of social conflict in psychological approaches is through human needs theory, where individuals require certain needs and as a miscalculation or misperception.

References

1. Bennett, T., 2019. Aggression is inborn, but worsened or improved by one’s environment(Updated). Counselling News, 19 March.
2. Iqbal, S., 2018. Miscalculation: Risks of Inadvertent Nuclear War. s.l.:s.n.
3. McLeod, S., 2018. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. SimplyPsychology.
4. Radwan, M. F., 2017. Frustration-Aggression Theory, s.l.: s.n.
5. Ranger, T. A. A. a. A. S. ed., 2010. Arguments, Aggression, and Confict. New York: Routledge.
6. Rummel, R., 1977. Misperception, Cognitive Dissonance, Righteousness, and Conflict. Understanding Conflict and war: Conflict in perspective, Volume 3.
7. Salter, I. E. a. F. K. ed., 1998. Ethnic Conflict and Indocrationation. New York: Berghahn Books.
8. Seel, N. M., 2012. Learned Aggression in Humans. Encyclopedia of the Science of Learning, p. 103.
9. Stein, A., 1982. When perception matters.

The Seeds of Discord: Antecedents of Conflict

Introduction

To understand and manage conflict well, we first must understand what conflict is and its sources or causes. Conflict[footnoteRef:1] can be defined as a serious disagreement or argument, to be incompatible or at a variance, a clash. Everyone experiences conflict at some point in their lives. Conflict is especially prevalent on and among teams. In this context, conflict happens when there is the “perception of incompatible interests between workplace participants” (Donais, 2006). [1: It is important to note that conflicts and disputes are different. Disputes represent an outward manifestation of conflict and are considered a by-product. ]

When we think about conflict as an abstract idea, words like negative, anxious, aggression, and disagreement are probably among the first to come to mind. However, when managed effectively, “conflict in groups can be a transformative element of the group experience and provide much of the energy in group work” (Doel & Kelly, 2014, p. 21). Conflict can encourage group members to consider ideas from different perspectives and even lead to the generation of new ideas. Conflict can be a counterbalance to group think and can lead to important questions about the work of the group. Finally, conflict can lead to group cohesion by opening minds and strengthening relationships between group members and between groups.

Conflict can arise from many sources and knowing the where the conflict originated is the first step in successfully managing the conflict. There are a multitude of reasons for conflict on teams. This chapter will discuss four broad categories of conflict: Style Differences, Trust, Goals and Values, Change and Ambiguity; and provide examples of how these types of conflicts can occur.

Style Differences

Everyone has their own unique style of working and communicating. Some people are proactive, some reactive, some are assertive, and others are more laid back. You will probably work with people whose personalities run the gamut from introverted, harmonious, and agreeable to extroverted, challenging, and assertive. It is this special blend of personalities that can produce great things in terms of group work, however the many personality types and the behaviors they inform can be misunderstood by others, resulting in conflict (LinkedIn Learning, 2018). If positive, these clashes can result in productive cognitive conflict (Walker, Machold, & Ahmed, 2015). This refers to the “discomfort one feels when [their] beliefs, values, or behaviors contradict one another”, represented as process gains (McCarson, n.d.). On the other hand, differences in personality and personal style can lead to an increase of interpersonal animosity, called affective conflict (Burnett, 1993). This conflict is more disruptive to the collaborative nature of group work and can come from areas of personal bias such as socio-economic status, social norms and mores, political leanings, and religious, ethnic, and philosophical values (Burnett, 1993). Leaders can mitigate conflict stemming from clashes of personality by having a sense of their personality and the personalities of their team members. Using one of the multitude of personality assessment inventories, leaders can learn more about their subordinates and more strategically place players with complementary and supplementary personalities and skills, putting the best person or persons in position to do the best job (Schumacher, 2009). Understanding the personalities and styles of a team is key to regulating a supervisor’s leadership style. Left to their own devices, more harmonious personalities tend to sense less conflict within a group while those prone to extraversion “are more likely to use integrating, obliging, compromising, and avoiding styles”, making a leader’s style key to appropriately positioning players and managing team conflict for maximum productivity (Ayub, AlQurashi, Al-Yafi, & Jehn, 2017).

Trust

Trust refers to a reliance on the integrity, strength, ability, surety, etc., of a person or thing, in other words, confidence. When considered in the context of a working team, trust can be described in three key ways: competency-based, reliability-based, and vulnerability-based (LinkedIn Learning, 2018). Each of these aspects of trust plays a key role in the occurrence and management of conflict. Competency-based trust describes the confidence in a teammate to competently perform their duties to accomplish the team’s goals (LinkedIn Learning, 2018). Reliability-based trust deals with the confidence in a teammate to keep their promises and honor their commitments (LinkedIn Learning, 2018). Vulnerability-based trust, perhaps the most important facet of trust, is the confidence in a teammate to be their authentic self (LinkedIn Learning, 2018). Vulnerability-based trust, sometimes called affective trust, can have the biggest impact on team success as it is “developed through the mutual exchange of concern and care…” between teammates (Zhu, Newman, Miao, & Hooke, 2013, p. 102).

Trust is built in tandem with a relationship between individuals as they go through shared experience and learn about one another. Trust and distrust are compounded onto one another through these experiences. At the beginning of new relationships, many people show a propensity toward over-trusting those they are unfamiliar with as they have no data that gives a reason towards distrust. Other factors that can increase trust include similar personalities, reputation, and experience (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2014). These same factors can lead to distrust.

What happens when trust among teammates is at a good level then, someone on the team starts missing deadlines, making mistakes, or lying? Trust is broken. In the process of conflict management, trust is often the first thing to fall, being replaced with distrust. While trust can be repaired through apology, restitution, and a commitment to not repeating the violation in future, this process is more easily said than done (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2014). Rebuilding trust among teammates can often take more time than initially building trust as confidence in the violator’s competency, reliability, and integrity must be reestablished through additional shared experiences (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2014).

Goals and Values

Teams are often assigned goals and values by the organizations they find themselves in. These are delivered via organizational mission, vision, and values statements, strategic plans, and goals that the organization wants to accomplish in a given time frame. These items filter down through the organization’s hierarchical structure to the teams and individuals on those teams.

For example, a local burger restaurant may have a goal of selling one hundred burgers every hour. For every burger above one hundred that a waiter sells, they earn an extra .50₵. So, the waiter’s goal is to sell at least one hundred burgers, with the financial incentive to motivate them to sell more. The restaurant also has quality control checks to ensure that the quality of the product meets organizational standards. To meet their individual goal, a waiter may be tempted to rush through the quality check to quickly sell more burgers. The kitchen manager, who prioritizes quality over sales will ensure that quality checks are performed appropriately. Therefore, there is a certain amount of natural conflict that exists between these two teammates (LinkedIn Learning, 2018). This example of goals can be looked at through the lens of values where the waiter values expediency over quality and the kitchen manager values quality over expediency. When conflict expands into affective conflict, the differences between team members’ goals and values becomes even more pronounced and can serve to drive conflict to further levels of non-productivity (Dobewall & Strack, 2011).

Appropriately managed, the conflict can lead to higher earnings for the waiter and satisfactory quality checks for the kitchen manager. The wide range of literature on conflict management and resolution supports the supposition that “…communication and understanding” between parties is the key to resolving and managing conflicts where goal and value differences are the main force at play (Druckman & Broome, 1991). This open communication will allow team members to align individual goals to the goals of the team.

Change and Ambiguity

We live in a volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous world and these characteristics can bring about feelings of anxiety and stress, resulting in conflict through the activation of our fight or flight instinct. (LinkedIn Learning, 2018). This is especially common in organizations that experience restructuring or reorganizations as a result of major changes in their field of business, acquisitions and mergers, and changes in leadership. As a result of the activation of this survival instinct, team members can experience a multitude of conditions that lead to additional conflict. Work processes and decisions can take longer; team members can become disengaged or territorial about their projects; and role overload and ambiguity can lead to exhaustion or burn out (Dasgupta, 2012). Large-scale organizational changes often lead to feelings of “role ambiguity and job insecurity, which, in turn, are related to higher exposure to workplace bullying”, i.e. conflict (Baillien & De Witte, 2009). Additionally, ambiguity surrounding organizational change can lead to speculation and gossip, triggering additional conflict through misunderstanding.

ABC Corporation just closed a merge with XYZ Corporation. The employees of XYZ Corporation have heard whispers of the merger for several months, but specific information surrounding the change has not been shared. Workers speculate about the changes that may be implemented as a part of the merger. Since she first heard about the possibility of the merger, Sally has been more secretive about her projects and reluctant to share specifics about her work with anyone but her direct supervisor in an effort to alleviate her feelings of job insecurity. Her logic is that if she is the only one who knows how to do her job or complete her projects, she will not be let go when ABC Corporation takes over the company. During team meetings, she is asked about the status of her projects and becomes defensive and hostile when asked about it by her team mates.

In this example, a large-scale change (in the form of a corporate merger) is coming. Fueled by a lack of information being shared by leadership, employees are left to speculate about their futures with the company, ultimately resulting in feelings of job-insecurity, stress, and hostility between teammates.

Conclusion

Conflict comes in many forms and can be a source of productive, transformative energy or a source of stress and turmoil in the context of a working group. Conflict can well up from many places. Individual differences in personality and style can be serious points of contention, however when leaders strategically place employees with complementary personalities and skills, they can create synergy and productivity. Trust among teammates is paramount. Trust is based on the confidence in one’s teammates to be competent, reliable, and authentic. Initially easily given, it can be very difficult to re-establish if broken or damaged. A constant source of natural tension lies in the conflict between individual goals and values and those of the team or organization. This tension can be easily mitigated through open and honest communication and understanding. Finally, the volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous world we live in is a constant source of stress, anxiety, and conflict. Organizational change and role ambiguity, if not properly managed at the leadership level, can result in outward manifestations of conflict that include disengagement and hostility. Learning to recognize and understand the sources of conflict is the first step to successful conflict management whose ultimate goal is to strategically leverage conflict to be a source of drive for teams.

References

1. Ayub, N., AlQurashi, S. M., Al-Yafi, W. A., & Jehn, K. (2017). Personality traits and conflict management styles in predicting job performance and conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 28(5), 671-694.
2. Baillien, E., & De Witte, H. (2009). Why is Organizational Change Related to Workplace Bullying? Role Conflict and Job Security as Mediators. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 30(3), 348-371.
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4. Dasgupta, P. (2012). Effect of Role Ambiguity, Conflict and Overload in Private Hospitals’ Nurses’ Burnout and Mediation Through Self Efficacy. Journal of Health Management, 513-534.
5. Dobewall, H., & Strack, M. (2011). Cultural Value Differences, Value Stereotypes, and Diverging Identities in Intergroup Conflicts: The Estonian Example. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 5(1), 211-223.
6. Doel, M., & Kelly, T. B. (2014). Conflict. In A-Z of Groups and Groupwork (pp. 21-22). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
7. Donais, B. (2006, November). What are the Sources of Workplace Conflict. Retrieved July 9, 2019, from Mediate.com Everything Mediation: https://www.mediate.com/articles/donaisB2.cfm
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The Effect of Child Custody Conflict on Juvenile Delinquency and Psychopathy

Introduction

This paper will describe how custody conflicts have detrimental effects on children and it will create a link between psychopathic tendencies and juvenile delinquency when exposed to parental conflict.

Definitions

• Juvenile Delinquency. The habitual committing of criminal acts or offenses by a young person, typically between the ages of ten to seventeen.
• Offending. Committing an illegal act
• Psychopathy. A socially devastating disorder defined by a constellation of affective, interpersonal, and behavioral characteristics, including egocentricity; impulsivity; irresponsibility; shallow emotions; lack of empathy, guilt, or remorse; pathological lying; manipulativeness; and the persistent violation of social norms and expectations (Loving & Gacono, 2002)
• Joint Custody (JC). This type of custody can refer to either shared physical custody, with children spending equal or substantial amounts of time with both parents. Parents with joint custody share legal responsibility and authority to make major decisions affecting their children on such issues as education, medical care, religious practice, and other essential parental decisions. There has been substantial debate as to whether joint custody inherently signifies joint physical custody, an arrangement in which the child spends a substantial amount of time residing with each parent on some regular schedule, thus spending divided weeks, alternating weeks or some other arrangement of dividing time spent with parents. While joint legal custody may be ordered without joint physical custody the concept of joint custody would seem to involve the child’s spending a substantial portion of time with each parent, an aspect which is one of the asserted benefits of the arrangement. (American Bar Association, 2008)
• Sole Custody (SC). One parent, usually mom, has physical care and control of the child, plus the right to make any and all decisions affecting the child. (American Bar Association, 2008)

Literature Review

[The first two heading levels get their own paragraph, as shown here. Headings 3, 4, and 5 are run-in headings used at the beginning of the paragraph.]

Child Custody

Custody typically happens when parents’ divorce, but it is a common situation when the parents of the children had never wed. The court determines the child’s custody arrangements, and while determining where to place the child, the court and its employees have to make decisions in the “best interests of the child.” This decision requires the wishes of the contested children, the children’s parents or guardians, the children’s comfort in the home and mental and physical health of the parent or guardians.

Child Custody Conflict

Juvenile Delinquency

Juvenile delinquency has been a serious issue in the American society for a prolonged period of time. According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency (OJJDP), the delinquency rate has declined by 72% since 1996. Though, it is still one of the highest in the United States in comparison to other countries around the world. Discovering one single cause of delinquency is difficult, but one of the most important causes can be the child’s family life and their environment, “most researchers have observed that the social context of the family plays a role in the unfolding of juvenile delinquency” (Quinsey, Skilling, Lalumiére, & Craig, 2004, p.80)

Family Structure

There is plenty of research that examines the impact of family structure on juvenile delinquency. Family life can contribute directly to the development of juvenile delinquency. Studies have shown that the family environment can promote a risk or a protective factor. Children that are raised in supportive, affectionate, and accepting homes are less likely to become delinquent (Wright & Wright, 1994). There is a common belief that children need both a mother and a father and when conflict arises, such as divorce or child custody battles, it can be harsh toward the children involved. Children are torn between their parents and psychological issues can begin to arise. Child custody battles can create emotional conflict, academic stress, and other social related stress factors. A preponderance of research suggests that children exposed to family changes are put at an increases risk of experiencing problematic behavior such as conduct problems and juvenile delinquency (Fergusson, Horwood, & Lynskey, 2006). Previous research has suggested that a child’s exposure to family change and parental conflict are directly related to their risk of committing a crime, or offending (Fergusson et al, 2006). Thus, the risk of a child offending is also directly related to the level of parental conflict that the child is exposed to in the home or in their environment. Simply experiencing a family breakup does not constitute enough of a risk factor to predict later criminal behavior; however, when family instability existed, the family’s breakup constituted an event directly associated with later criminal behavior.

References

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