In the world there have been many conflicts in human interactions. These usually result from struggle for getting access and control over various natural resources such as land, minerals and water among others and due to differing political interests. There are usually disagreements between the parties involved which sometimes lead to wars.
When these wars arise, sometimes the member parties require external intervention in bringing it to an end. There are various means of preventing arise of conflicts. The method of approach to each conflict is usually different from each other.
This is mainly due to the root cause of the conflict in reference to internal and external factors and the possible consequences of the intervention to the parties involved, citizen and the world as a whole. Thus in undertaking any intervention, it is good to observe the best way out of the conflict.
This paper seeks to look into peace and conflict resolution taking critical analysis of the cases in Rwanda and Libya. It is to evaluate whether intervention by external organizations such as the UN was necessary citing the similarity and differences in both cases.
Rwanda Genocide
The Rwandan genocide was as a result of conflict between the Hutus and the Tutsi. There had been power competition in Rwanda with the tribe in power being oppressive. It was easy to identify the ethnicity of a person from the national identification card. There had been other conflicts before the genocide that left many people dead. They played significant role in dividing the people in ethnic lines.
Rwanda was a dictatorial country by the end of 1980s. There were even regulations restricting interaction between the Hutus and Tutsi for example in the military forces. There were many refugees outside Rwanda who were denied access back to their mother country.
This led them to organize themselves into various groups and find their way back. These troops such as the Rwandan patriotic front attacked Rwandan government from outside the country in 1990-1992. This led to the rise of more ethnic tensions, displacement and the death of so many Tutsi.
The death of the Rwandan president in 1994 from an assassination led to the eruption of the massacre. The Hutus attacked the Tutsi killing them. In response to the attacks, the Rwandan patriotic front fought for about three months to overcome the Hutus. This led to more than half a million people dying. There were meeting on how to settle the disagreement in Tanzania before the genocide.
France was observed to take side in support of the government. The international intervention to stop the genocide was not present despite the information about the planning. This led to the killings of many civilians in respect to the tribe they belonged to. This was because there was information about the planning of the massacre yet nothing significant was done.
Libya Crisis
Muamar Gaddafi has been the leader in Libya for over forty years. During this time he has strengthened his political strength by appointing selected member to be in charge of crucial sectors of his government. There has been uneven distribution of resources and power. This led to the emergence of rival groups. The country is well developed.
There have been the revolution movements in most of the North African nations aimed at initiating change in the governance but stopped when it landed on Libya. There was a delay in provision of housing by the government to the citizens and allegations of misuse of power that led to the protest.
In response to the protest Gadaffi used his military on the civilians. The rebels on the other hand started fighting aiming to capturing the oil towns. This has led to the death of many in the struggle for power.
The civil fighting in Libya has attracted the intervention of the western country. These countries have deployed military intervention in Libya to help in calming the situation. The military intervention was backed up by the United Nations. This intervention has led to the destruction of many properties.
In the case of Libya, other means of solving the problem could have been used with the military intervention being the last option. Despite the intervention bringing peace in the country, there are many other repercussions that follow. This is evident in cases of Iraq and Afghanistan.
There have been intentions by the some countries arming the rebels with more weapons. This step is not right as it is likely to encourage the continuous persistent and development of the war. This means that more people are to lose their lives and that this will create more and more separation (Simpson 1).
The civil wars in Rwanda and Libya have similarity. In both there were specific persons who were at power and denied the others their rights. This led to the emergence of opposition and eventually civil war which caused loss of lives to many. In the Rwanda genocide, there was no intervention by the United Nations despite the information about the planning. In the Libya crisis, the United Nation intervention was very fast.
It has taken sides and though intervention is good, on the other side it has its repercussions. The bloodshed in Libya is less than that of the Rwandan genocide with both parties armed with warfare machinery such as grenade and missile launchers.
The intent of civil war in Rwanda was due to ethnical differences which is not the case in Libya. There are argument that the quick intervention is based on the oil that is present in Libya and the lack of cooperation between Gaddafi and the west.
Non-violence is a form of protest, philosophy and a way of life. The term non-violence refers to the negation of violence. Non-violence is a way of resisting and relates to conflicts and not peace. Many countries have embraced the non-violence approach to conflicts (King 1958, p.24).
Countries accept non-violence as an international means of protest applicable in most conflicts. There had been several non-violence protests in the world. Some of them were successful, while others failed.
However, the most successful and long-term non-violence protests against oppression were the Indian Independent struggle led by Mahatma Gandhi against British colonial government.
The other renowned non-violent protest was the African-America civil rights movement in the United States of America. The movements involved non-violent protests method. Their approach included non-violence philosophies and ideologies.
In contrary, very many non-violent revolutions lasted for a short duration. This shows that non-violence approach by social movements and campaigns are not simply a way of solving any societal conflicts. Non-violence approach to conflict has mechanisms and dynamics aspects as its necessities (Curry 2002, p.34).
Non-violence approach to conflict depends largely on the nature of the conflict referred to and the cultural behaviours of the protesters (King 1986, p.12). The rarity of success of non-violence approach to conflicts is a clear indicator that there is the need for further analysis of both the failure and success of non-violent movements.
The analysis of non-violent movements and campaigns can occur from different perspectives such as the philosophical, religious, ethical, moral and pragmatic points of views. Martin Luther king and Mahatma Gandhi are the two leaders in the world history who successfully led long-term non-violent approach to conflicts.
It is therefore important that we analyze the approach that the two leaders used in relation to non-violence as a means of solving conflicts.
However, other prominent personalities led long-term non-violent movements against oppression such as Nelson Mandela of South Africa, Doris Day, Cesar Chavez, Abdel G. Khan among others (Franzen2010, p.245).
The application of non-violence as a tool by protestors towards their stronger opponents normally upsets the opponents tactics of violence. This allows the protesters, who are weaker compared to the opponents, to set the pace of the conflict.
Non-violence acts as a means of dislocating opponents psychological and physical balance and strength (Merton & Mattingly1965, p.44). This has proved to be a vital tool to a successful attempt to overthrow the enemy from power. Supporters of non-violence argue that it is more superior to violent approach to conflict.
Non-violence is a perfect tool to eliminate social evils such as racial discrimination in the African-American civil conflict during Martin Luthers time, oppression by the British colonies in India during Gandhis time. Martin Luther king described non-violence as the best worlds alternative to war and destruction of lives and property.
Non-violence approach tends to seek a peaceful resolution to conflict and avoids destruction at all cost. Non-violence contributes to positive change and economic development in a society.
Luther King argued that non-violence was the most potent asset and force that were available to cub oppression of the blacks by white Americans in their struggle to obtain freedom. Mahatma Gandhi referred to the non-violence approach to conflicts as the best philosophical approach to human needs including freedom.
Mahatma Gandhi believed that violent approach to conflict automatically fails to address sensitive issues at stake. The main aim of non-violence is not to destroy, defeat, or humiliate the opponent.
The main aim of non-violence is to embrace the diplomatic approach so that issues at stake are addressed in a sober manner. The major aim of most non-violent activists is to reconcile and create a beloved society and peaceful coexistence of people with different ideologies (Attenborough 1982, p. 85).
Necessities of non-violent approach to conflicts
The non-violent movement by the civil rights society in the United States was one of the most successful reform movements, not only in the United States of America but also in the world at large.
One of the major necessities of non-violence is its dynamics. Dynamic is the ability of a non-violent protest action or movement to spread to other regions (Forsythe 2000, p.443). Dynamic aspect of non-violence approach to conflict aims at attracting the attention of media and public opinion.
Because of its positive publicity, non-violent movement may draw financial support from donors into the movement or campaigns. If the non-violent protesters do not achieve their aim of mobilizing more people to gain a strong political and financial ground, then the protesters may turn to violence as a desperate attempt to solve the conflict.
For example, political success by civil rights movement in the African-American conflict helped the movement to enjoy a greater legitimacy in 1965.
The success of their non-violent campaigns and protests actions was the decisive factor that enabled the protester in the African-American conflict to negotiate with the federal government of the United States. Another necessity of non-violence is the mechanism of its success.
It is important to note that the survival of a non-violent protest or movement relies on their ability to demonstrate success. Mechanisms of success have a huge psychological influence on the non-violent protesters, media and public opinions, and the longevity of the movement.
For the public and other interested parties to believe in the non-violent movement, the protestors must believe and show the society that it is possible and realistic to succeed in attaining the freedom.
Non-violence would be unnecessary and irresponsible if there was no strong belief that there could be success at the end of the conflict (Carson 2003, p.78).
Conclusion
For any non-violent movement to succeed, the protestors must focus on three major aspects. These include believing in the outcome at the end of the conflict, being able to convince the public to join the movement, and being able to gain both political and financial grounds within the society.
A non-violent movement must advocate and portray to the society that its success is eminent in order to convince more people to join the movement to gain political ground. Once the movement gains the political power, the opponents will have no otherwise but to accept to negotiate terms with the protesters.
Non-violence is the best way of solving conflicts because its aim is not destructive. The property and lives of the protesters are not at risk, as opposed to war and violent way of solving conflicts. Non-violence only affects the psychological mindset of the enemy.
By influencing the public to engage in the movement, the opponents reasoning and power weakens. Non-violent movements have impacts that are more positive to the society compared to violent ways of solving conflicts.
There is assurance concerning the security of communitys resources. There is no reconstruction of infrastructures at the end of the conflict as in the case of violence and civil wars.
References
Attenborough, R. (1982). The words of Gandhi., Newmarket Press: New York
Carson, C. (2003). Reporting civil rights. Literary Classics of the United States: New York.
Curry, D., Mercer, H., & Mattingly, S. (2002). Prisoners of hope: the story of our captivity and freedom in Afghanistan. Doubleday: New York.
Forsythe, D. P. (2000). The United States and human rights: looking inward and outward. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln.
Franzen, J. (2010). Freedom. Farrar, Straus and Giroux: New York.
King, M. L. (1958). Stride toward freedom: the Montgomery story. Harper: New York.
King, M. L., & Washington, J. M. (1986). A testament of hope: the essential writings of Martin Luther King, Jr.. Harper & Row: San Francisco.
Merton, T. (1965). Gandhi on non-violence. New Directions Pub. Corp: New York.
Both Palestine and Israel hold the belief that they both have the rights to the same piece of land . In essence the Palestinians claim the claim that the Jews drove them out of their land. On the other hand, the Jews believe that the land belongs to them. This is based on historical and biblical times. In the current times, leaders from both countries have demonstrated the willingness to have peace. This has been characterized by how close the two sides have come to having a peace deal.
However, a lasting solution has not been developed. It is worth noting that Israel and Palestine have are quite different and unique from each other. This is because each country has got a unique culture and history. In addition, the official languages which are used in these two countries are different. In essence, Israel is largely made up of Jews while Palestine is made up of Muslims. Muslims are followers of the Islamic faith.
On the other hand, Israel is a very unique country because it is the only Jewish nation in the world. The Israeli Palestinian conflict is a conflict which dates hundreds of years back. This conflict has not been resolved to this day. Until this day, the clash between these two nations still ranges on. From the biblical history, the region which is currently known as Palestine was once known as Israel. This was during the reign of King Solomon. The Jews and the Arabs who speak the Semitic language have always lived in this region.
Thesis
The conflict that has existed between the Palestinians and the Israelis has hindered development between the two countries. This is because the suspicion that has been in existence between these two countries has brought to the fore retrogressive aspects which have limited progress. It is also worth mentioning that the history of this conflict has hampered positive relations among the young people from both countries.
The Palestinian Israeli struggle is an archetypical example of an intractable conflict. It is a protracted, violent, and drawn out struggle, wherein generation after generation is socially conditioned to continue fighting. The phenomenon operates as a destructive evolutionary mechanism subject to a general principle: almost every element that benefits the conflicts survives, while whatever operated against it becomes extinct.
Indeed, almost every attempt to solve the Palestinian Israeli struggle has created new problems, which in turn has led to failures and regression. To stop the destructive evolutionary progression, a revolutionary process is required. This paper seeks to establish the fact that cognition has played a major role with regard to exacerbating the problems that are causing the conflict.
The effect of the conflict
Any unstable political situation within any region in any part of the world is associated with negative outcomes within that region. This is because conflict is associated with retarded growth as well as limiting progress within a given setting. In essence, both states have faced hardships following this conflict. The Palestinian economy has stagnated and has been declining following the bottlenecks which have been associated with this conflict.
In addition, the constant state of conflict has brought with it negative impacts on the Israeli society. This has been especially so among the Israeli youth who in many instances have found themselves facing post traumatic stress disorders. This has been brought about by the indiscriminate fear which has resulted from acts of terror. Even more disturbing, however, is that Israeli schoolchildren are among the most violent in the world, a phenomenon believed to be the result of force being an accepted societal means of dispute resolution.
The culture of violence prevalent which is prevalent in Israel has had a dramatic impact on most impressionable members of the community: children. They grow up learning that physical force is an acceptable and even successful means of response in a dispute. An asymmetrical Israeli response to a Palestinian attack surely encourages a youth to a school bully by such rash means as carrying a weapon.
The purpose statement
The purpose of this study is to establish the causes and the consequences of the Israeli Palestinian conflict. This will shed more light into the mental attitudes that the Palestinians and the Israelis have with regard to each other. In essence, one of the reasons which has brought about this problem is on the basis that there are cases where one does not hold the political views of another thereby bringing about conflict.
In essence, this conflict can be controlled the moment that one is able to understand the causes and the effects of the parties who are under study. In this case, it is worth to mention the fact that our cognitive bearing with regard to a matter such as a perceived historical injustice can have negative implications in the way that people execute challenges.
Research questions
In order to obtain the findings which a researcher is interested in, it is important to set up the framework of questions which a person is interested in establishing. The question which this study seeks to address include (1) what is the relationship between the conflict and the attitudes of the conflicting parties (2) are there any measures which have been made with regard to establishing the peace process (3) what are the measures which can be made in order to have an impact on the attitudes of the conflicting parties. Theoretical framework
There are several theories which are going to be used in this study. In essence, we are going to be using the geopolitical theories. These theories will serve as a guide which shall be used in the attempt to understand the issues which are underlying the conflict between Palestine and Israel. In essence, the Jews were dispersed across the world after they suffered for a long a time. However despite this, they did not lose their identity.
They were able to maintain their initial identity and culture. However, upon returning to their land, they forced the Palestine to be displaced. In this case, Friedrich Ratzels Organic State Theory is classic with regard to seeking to understand the expansion of Israels territory.
This expansion covered some of her neighbors and led to the conquering of majority of the Palestinian lands. This theory expounds on this subject by explaining the fact that states were seen as organisms. In this case, the Palestinian state was seen as an organism which occupies territorial space. Based on this fact, states seek an opportunity to extend their territories based on the fact that the vastness of these states depicts the power of these states.
Some of the concepts that this theory holds include nationalism and the right to self determination. This can be applied when it comes to understanding the strained relationship between Israel and Palestine. The conflict that exists between these two nations is based on the nationalistic ideology that is held by both nations.
That is, both countries believe that they have the right of owning the land which is in contention. In essence, nationalism contends the right of a people within that nation being served by nations which hold similar views or serve their interest. Nationalism has played out clearly on the basis of the fact that both nations have laid hold of the dream to regain their sacred homeland.
Internationally, there are rights which respect a nation or a states right to self determination in pursuit to its survival. This determination has been held by both Israel and Palestine thus fueling the conflict. This is as a consequence of the fact that both parties hold the claim that the establishment of the states is based on their ability to recover their land.
The second concept is the power urge. This concept is based on the opinion that conflict mostly arises from the states when nations seek to assert the urge to assert their power. This stance has been taken by both Palestine and Israel and has resulted in both parties not arriving at a consensus thus fueling the conflict much further.
Literature Review
The Jews and the Muslims consider some key cities and towns within the Palestinian territory to be holy cities. During the first century A.D, the Roman Empire took over the area that they came to call Palestine. Essentially, the Romans were pagans and they clashed with the Jews thus forcing them to flee from the area.
During the nineteenth century, Britain, France, and the Turkish Empire controlled most of the Arabian region. The Turks controlled Palestine, from 1517 to 1917. It was during this time that the Jews who had been forced out this region began to return. During this Ottoman Empire, the Jews and the Arabs lived together in peace.
The story of the Israeli Palestinian conflict is rooted in the last decades of the Ottoman Turkish rule over Palestine. The ottomans ruled over Palestinians for hundreds of years. During the last decades of their rule they attempted to bring change to their reign instead of prolonging their stay.
Although they had different ethnic backgrounds their common Islamic faith held them together thus their coexisted well with their counterparts. Consequently, this held the region together in stability. The common unity of the Muslim faith between the Turks and the Arabs was continually being challenged due to the foreign infiltration. Eventually, this led to rivalries and contests that existed between this empire and the European rivalries.
The Ottoman Empire began to fall in the early twentieth century. During the First World War, the British and the Arabs fought together and defeated the Turks in Palestine. From 1920 until 1948, the British took over the control of Palestine. They worked on a plan to rule Palestine until Palestinians could rule themselves.
Following this defeat, the British promised the Palestinians independence now that they had helped them to defeat the Turks. Despite this promise, the then foreign secretary Balfour Arthur had drafted a declaration for the Jews promising them to establish a homeland for them.
Application of the theory
Looking at the map, one cannot fail but realize or notice that the map of the Israel state has been changed a lot with time. From a geographical perspective, the nation of Israel is found right at the center of the Arab states. These states have been aggressive to the Israel states thus Israel feels insecure.
This is because the Arab states have depicted the notion of taking back what was once their land that belonged to their sister state, Palestine. Due to this, there have been many wars which have been fought against Israel. Unfortunately for the Arabs they have lost these battles. This has confirmed that they Israeli army is well equipped to defend her boarders from any state which might try to take her land.
According to Ratzels organic state theory, Israel ate up other states in order to set herself up as a sovereign state in the 1940s. However, the subject of land rages on. This is because as the populations of both states grow, there is a constant need for each state to put up measures to ensure that she is able to meet the needs of her population. Analysis
In the process of analyzing this information, the researcher shall use analytical techniques in order to draw deductions from the information gathered. This is because working on this kind of project requires the researcher to be equipped with the relevant skills in analyzing information and data based on the critical thinking ability.
This is because people process the information about what they go through based on the way that the information is understood as well as the way the information was obtained in the previous times. In this case, the information that seems to be true, or hold the views and ideas that we have is preferred by a person.
The cognitive aspect ensures that people are able to go through the motions of the world without asking too many questions about the circumstances that they might be facing at a given point in time. Thus in this study, the researcher will seek to establish some of the cognitive frameworks which are held by the citizens in these conflicting states.
In this approach, the assumptions which shall be arrived at will require the review of the current analytic line as they exist in the present, articulate the beliefs which are held by the opposing parties and then challenge the assumptions which are held by these parties. This will enable the analyst or researcher to be in a better position to stand by a fact which is prevailing. Thus the information gathered shall portray what is the cognitive framework of the parties involved in conflict.
Conclusion The Israel Palestinian conflict is a conflict which is rooted between two peoples. In this case we have the Jews and the Palestinian Arabs. These two people claim the ownership of the land under dispute. They are both fighting for this land in order to be able to obtain some form of liberation from the challenges that each state is facing. In the past, the United Nations has failed to act as an arbiter in this conflict.
Consequently, this has led to the worsening of the ties and the escalation of the conflict between these two states. The vague detractions which have been established have also not borne any fruits from the conflict which is raging on. This strained relationship between these two states has caused this region to be in a state of recurrent conflict.
The effects have been felt in both states. In this case, Palestine has faced economic hardships that have prevented her from economic growth. On the other hand, Israel has faced persistent threats from her neighbors, thus they are always living in fear. It is worth to mention that these states of affairs have aggravated the perception that people have towards or with regard to this conflict. Most people have cognitively accepted this state of affairs as the natural way of life.
On the other hand, the probability of reaching an amicable position has been compromised due to the fact that these parties have held each other in utter suspicion. This has led to the belief that nothing good can be obtained from any peace talks which are being held. Thus it is important to first address the mentalities which are held by both parties so that one can be able to work towards establishing lasting peace in this region.
Bibliography
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Dershowitz, Alan. The Case for Peace:How the Arab-Israeli Conflict Can be Resolved. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2006.
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Ross, Dennis. The missing peace:the inside story of the fight for Middle East peace. London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
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The world history is characterized by various conflicts which are caused by various issues of social, political or either economic origin. The conflict between Israel and Palestine is a major one especially due to the fact that it has been in existence for a long time. It is complicated as it emanates from many factors such as control of Jerusalem, border disputes, security, freedom of movement of Palestinians, water rights and settlement of Israel, to name just a few.
The conflict is an issue of international concern due to the fact that it has resulted to a lot of violence. In consequential, various actions have been taken especially against the parties concerned but little has been realized from the same. The problem became worse after the Oslo peace records collapsed in September 2002. There may have been many factors that may have led to the failure of Oslo, but most studies illustrate that culture played a great role in the same.
This is due to the fact that it influences the preferences and the strategies of various political leaders, determines domestic politics as well as affects the perception, behavior and intentions of the parties involved (Finkelstein pp. 127). The conflict is wide and multifaceted and therefore, this paper shall discuss more about the problem, its history, causes, as well as various measures that have been taken to curb the problem. In addition, the paper shall also cite some viable solutions to the problem.
History of the Palestine Israeli conflict
As highlighted in the introductory part, the conflict has been in existence for a long time. Moreover, it has been taking place in different phases and each phase has been characterized by different events. For instance, towards the end of the nineteenth century up to 1917, the main conflict that existed was caused by Arabs who were in the Ottoman Empire.
On the same note, it is important to mention that most of conflicts and dispute by then had not reached a national level as they were religiously influenced. From the early twentieth century to the mid twentieth century, the region which was known as Palestine was being ruled by the British. During that particular time, the conflict which was known as Jewish Arab conflict resulted from the dispute of the land of Palestine. Therefore, the conflict was mainly a land issue by then (Finkelstein pp. 170).
The next phase of the conflict ranged from the year 1948 to the year 1967-a phase that was marked by the time the state of Israel was declared and the time the six days war took place.
By then, the region was divided in to three political regions; West Bank under the control of Jordan, Gaza Strip under the Egyptian rule and lastly the State of Israel. From the year 1967 to the year 1993, both Israel and Palestine was being ruled by the state of Israel.
However, afterwards, State of Israel coexisted together with Palestinian Authority. The period between the beginning of the 2nd Intifada and the year 2005 was marked by the arresting operations conducted by Israel in West Bank. From the year 2005, Israel withdrew from Gaza Strip and as a result, the Hams took control over the region after wining the election.
Currently, both parties believe that the other party is not interested in ending the conflict but on going on with the conflict. The issue of Jerusalem continues to be disputed because Palestine claims part of the city while Israel believes that the city should not be subdivided.
Since Palestine has been violent against Israel, it is considered as a terrorist not by Israel but also by other states like United States. Consequently, for security purposes Israel has allowed other nations to come to its rescue. Palestine has been violent not only in Israel but also against other countries.
For example, Europeans and Americans have been victims of the Palestinian military attacks. Therefore, there are many issues that characterized the conflict and most of the major causes are political in nature. Having gotten an over view of the history of the conflict, it is important to look at the major causes of the conflict. However, before then, it is important to mention that conflict has been marked revolts, disputes, wars, and uprisings to name just a few (Harms and Ferry pp. 100).
Some Underlying causes of the Palestine- Israeli Conflict
Although there are many causes of the conflict culture has played a great role and it can be considered as the underlying factor. Studies indicate the presumed origin of each country is also an important contributory factor to the conflict. For example, Palestinians suppose that Israel came about due to crimes which were committed by Hitler. Therefore, they believe that they are not supposed to shoulder the responsibility that was as a result of the Western colonial era.
Additionally, Palestinians view themselves as victims of the Nkaba which took part in the year 1948 and 1949 and they have continued to harbor bitterness especially due to the loss that was incurred during that particular period. Palestine continues to hold Israel responsible for the loss and have much trouble with the stand of Israel of not allowing the refugee from Palestine to return back to their homeland (Congressional Quarterly, inc pp. 240).
Religion, which is part of culture, has a vital role to play not only as the source of the conflict but also an obstacle to various negotiation processes. Nonetheless, the region has got only there religions which include Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Since Jerusalem city is significant to the three religions, conflict arises since both countries seek to retain Jerusalem for religious purposes. Palestine has been claiming all the parts of Jerusalem that were not initially part of Israel before 1967.
United States proposed a plan which was aimed at resolving the Jerusalem conflict in the year 2000 and 2001. The plan had proposed that the Jewish parts of the city were to be retained by Israel while the Arab parts were to be retained by Palestine. Even if both countries had accepted the proposal, the summit failed and the conflict was not resolved (Burge pp. 120).
Ethnicity in reference to Palestine and Israel contributes to the conflict greatly and hinders some attempts aimed at resolving the same conflict. Israel consists mainly of Jews while Palestinians consist mainly of Arabs and the two ethnic groups have got different political views and principles.
For example, Palestinians believe that they have suffered greatly from Israel violent attacks and continue to be victims up to date. On the other hand, study of the history illustrates that Arabs from Palestine have been conducting various violent attacks not only in Israel but also in other places especially after the establishment of Oslo records. Palestinians believe that they only get involved in wars as a result of Israelis aggression (Lerner pp. 128).
Steps that have been taken to resolve the Conflict
Given that there are many initiatives that have been taken; the paper shall only discuss the major ones. To begin with, the popularly known OSLO records took place in the year 1993. It was instituted by both Palestinian and Israel leaders. Arafat recognized that Israel had the right to exist and therefore, to bring about peace, the country was supposed to stop controlling some of the Palestine territories. However, the two parties failed to reach an agreement and did not achieve their initial objective.
Camp David Summit is yet another proposal that was convened by the United States president by the name Bill Clinton. Although the offer of the president was meant to favor both states, it was rejected and even after that, Arafat did not come up with any other proposal. Although United States was pushing for a proposal to end the conflict, the proposal which was developed was not appreciated by the members concerned.
The Road Map for Peace is yet another initiative by Russia, United States and United Nations but was not successful. Finally, there is the Peace Initiative which was established in the year 2002. It proposed solutions to the conflict and has been both supported and criticized by the concerned leaders (Congressional Quarterly, inc pp. 120).
Conclusion and Recomendations
Study has indicated that despite the fact that the conflict is an international concern, it might persist unless appropriate solutions are sought. It is not possible to underestimate the contribution of various programs and summits that have been established.
Nevertheless, it is important to take into consideration the cultural contribution to the conflict since various studies have demonstrated that ethos contributes greatly to the same. Each party has got its own society beliefs that are a major hindrance to resolving the conflict. Any peace mission should be aimed at changing the beliefs of every society especially concerning the goals of the conflict.
Therefore, cultural beliefs ought to be changed to focus mainly on peace building. Lastly, it is important to create a change that will allow for establishment of trust, respect as well as sensitivity of each partys needs. Such a step is very vital as it can give room for negotiation which can eventually lead to reconciliation.
Works Cited
Burge, Gary M. Whose land? whose promise?: what Christians are not being told about Israel and the Palestinians . Cleveland : 2003, Pilgrim Press. Print.
Congressional Quarterly, inc. The Middle East. Washington: CQ Press, 2007. Print.
Finkelstein, Norman G. Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. New York : Verso , 2003. Print.
Harms, Gregory and Todd M. Ferry. The Palestine-Israel conflict: a basic introduction. London : Pluto Press , 2008. Print.
Lerner, Michael. Healing Israel/Palestine: a path to peace and reconciliation. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 2003. Print.
The world is changing rapidly and the changes are likely to lead to a global conflict in the future. The world population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in the developing world. The high population needs more resources to meet their basic needs yet the resources are scarce. Therefore, people have to scramble for the scarce resources. Eventually conflicts arise as people try to get a piece of the resources.
The poor will get into violence as they try to get resources from the rich. The high levels of poverty will continue to increase with the social inequality that is prevalent in many countries. Just as Karl Marx urged the proletarians will stage an uprising and overthrow the capitalist class. Thus, the likelihood of future global conflict is high.
Globalisation will also lead to conflicts in the future. The trend has brought countries closer through trade, commerce and communication and at the same time the world is falling apart. The world has become one and with it nationalism is disappearing as people become global citizens thus it will be difficult to identify people according to culture or religion. The American culture has spread across the globe rapidly through films and television programs.
The loss of an identity will create a problem as some countries try to resist getting lost in the larger world and maintain their identity or avoid influences from other countries. This will lead to small wars that will put tribes against tribes as people seek to redraw boundaries in a world that has become increasing borderless. In other worlds old rivalries that existed will be renewed.
The clash of civilizations will also lead to conflicts in the future. Civilizations are at the highest kinds of grouping and share things like language, religion and customs among others.
People use civilizations to define identities and over time the identities go through redefinition. Today the world has become a global village due to the improved interactions between people from different civilizations.
Consequently, the interactions have led to an increase in civilization consciousness. People are more aware of their civilization similarities and differences. The awareness will rekindle the animosities that existed between the civilizations in the past and each will seek to become dominant.
Eventually wars might breakout between civilizations as they fight to maintain their identity and avoid domination by the others. Civilizations that are seen as a threat will face hostility from the threatened ones hence creating animosity instead of peace and togetherness.
The animosity between the west and the Arab world will continue to exist. The reason for this is that civilizations call upon people and states with similar perspectives to join hands and work together. An attack on one member of a civilization is taken as an attack on the whole civilization.
For example Americas Iraq occupation has been taken as an attack on the Islam civilization and that is why we have tension between Arab nations and the west. The fact that the western civilization dominates the world economically it is seeks to control other aspects such as weapon acquisition of other countries because it seeks to protect its welfare.
A conflict will arise because the non-western countries feel they have a right to acquire whichever weapons they deem fit for their security. For instance Iran is at loggerheads with the west for its nuclear enrichment plan and it has vowed to carry on despite of the sanctions.
Moreover, the Arab world has been reluctant to embrace globalization because it has been equated with Americanization. Religion has also been used to spread hatred against the west and the two civilizations will conflict in the future due to their different ideologies unless something is done to remove the animosity between the two by helping them to understand one another and maybe work together.
Finally, the world was safer twenty five years ago than it is now due to the fore mentioned challenges facing the world in the 21st century. Twenty five years ago, the world population was lower but with the current trends in fertility, rates especially in the developing world are very high.
The available resources cannot sustain the population with the challenge of global warming. Furthermore, many people are becoming radicalized by some religious affiliations and would not hesitate to commit crimes in the name of religion. Consequently, with low levels of safety in the world today, future global conflicts are inevitable.
The world security is at a threat today. The threat of terrorism remains great in many countries across the world as groups seek to kill or instil fear in others in order to fulfil their ideological or political goals.
For instance, some people have been intercepted carrying bombs in aeroplanes like the Nigerian man on an American plane. Not long ago a parcel carrying a bomb was incepted in Dubai in a plane from Yemen. Osama bin Laden still issues threats and the last one was against Europe.
The insecurity in the world today is further promoted by globalization and advancement in technology. For example, people can hack into security databases making countries vulnerable to attacks. Furthermore, sensitive information can be spreads across the world in a flash through the World Wide Web.
I have learnt that the more things change the more they remain the same. This is because in the past, the world was insecure and conflicts led to deaths of many people in conflicts such as the first and second world wars then came the era of cold war.
Today, the world is interconnected and countries dependent on one another however, this has not reduced the threat of conflicts because the countries are still weary of one another. More needs to be done to ensure world peace by addressing the reasons that are likely to lead to future global conflicts.
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a contemporary conflict that deserves to be included in a series of historical works entitled Contesting the Past. Although, amidst disputes, this war has been considered the single most bitterly contentious communal struggle on earth today. Any attempt to recount its main events in chronological order is bound to be contested by someone. This is despite the fact that the account may be neutral in intent, purged of any editorializing, and without passing judgment on motives, causes, or effects. There exists a wide range of ways of understanding and representing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
These efforts, whether in the realms of politics, lobbying, media, academic, or the general public, are often reflections of the highly contentious conflict itself, including its bitterness and complexity. A familiar pattern is the presentation of one sides true account as against the other partys lies, myths, or propaganda (Salinas 86). This essay documents the chronology of the current Israeli-Palestinian conflict through an overview of the major events that led to the feud. The scope of the essay also examines the justification of the rationales for violence cited by Israelis and Palestinians. The essay will also look at the validation of the deployment of violence by either side.
The modern conflict is usually linked to a number of events that took place in the mid twentieth century. It began on 29 November 1947, after the passing of a resolution to divide Palestine into two self-governing states-one Jewish, the other Arab (Milton-Edwards 144). Jerusalem was to be held under an international rule, with its inhabitants given the right to citizenships in either of the two formed states. Thirty three members of the UN agreed with the resolution while thirteen voted against, and ten abstained. Among those who abstained included Great Britain, which had ruled Palestine since the early 1920s.
To the Jews, this was the accomplishment of a longtime desire for national renaissance in the familial land of their birth. For Arabs, it was an absolute calamity, an act of disloyalty by the international community that gave up a vital part of the Arabs to invaders. Israelis celebrated in their cities streets. Contrary to this, violence broke in the Arab capitals. The latter marked the beginning of the Palestine war. This war is considered the most significant Middle Eastern armed conflict since the demolition of the Ottoman Empire. The war was divided into two stages (Gunderson 32).
The first phase commenced at the close of November 1947. This was exactly a day following the implementation of the Partition Resolution. The first phase of the war ended on mid May 1948. This was after the end of the British Mandate. The war was basically civilian in nature. It was conducted under surveillance and irregular involvement of the British Mandatory authorities. The second phase started on the night of 14 May 1948 (Milton-Edwards 150). This was shortly after the declaration of the state of Israel. It entailed a determined assault by the armed forces of a number of Arab countries such as Syria, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia, on the budding Jewish state. This phase came to completion towards the end of July 1949. This was after the signing of the last agreements between Israel and its Arab neighbors (Ashdown).
At the close of the war, Israel had lost a great number of its population. However, it suppressed the Arab effort to demolish it at its birth. In addition, it managed to affirm its power over greater jurisdictions than those initially allocated by the UN. On the other hand, the Palestinians were greatly affected. This is because a large number of their population became refugees. The political cost of this war is evident throughout the Middle East. Before the war calmed, a number of political figures were overthrown or assassinated. These include the president of Syria, King Abdallah of Jordan, and the Prime Ministers of Egypt and Lebanon. Up to date, inter-Arab politics are dominated by the problem of Palestine as the Arab states and the Palestinians seek to undo the consequences of the Palestine War and bring Israels downfall by military, political and economic means.
The Israel-Palestine feud is both a war of arms and words. Both parties have branded each other titles. The Palestinians refer to Israel as a tyrant and an occupier. On the other hand, the Israelis usually brand Palestinians as terrorists. As such, stereotypes, prejudices, and hatred are widespread phenomena among Israelis and Palestinians. This has become a major barrier to peace. In my view, such labels are only harbored by extremists, who although much fewer in number, can carry the day because of their willingness to sacrifice life and plant terror (White 83). Although it is easy to brush the name-calling aspect of the Israel-Palestine feud aside, the reality is that it does not exist in a vacuum. It is the result of a combination of socio-cultural influences with individual characteristics that become the fertile ground for extremists to emerge (Salinas 112).
These extremists have rejected the mainstream values and adopted willingness for personal sacrifice. This, coupled with the ability to cause great amounts of pain and misery to the out-group, has had a great influence on the course of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. One of the main factors affecting the emergence of extremism and radicalism in any society is related to the socio-cultural context of the particular country. A society in which bloodshed is seen as acceptable because of social circumstances or because of cultural values is much more likely to be fertile ground for radical, violent organizations. Unfortunately, this has been the case with Israelis and Palestinians. This does not imply that the use of violence by both sides is justified. It happens because the cultural values of both parties view such deeds as heroic and even adore those who sacrifice themselves in the course of the war (Wilkinson 23).
In conclusion, as the Israeli-Palestine conflict raged on, the international community did not remain numb on the feud. A number of interventions meant to bring peace in the two war-torn countries were initiated. Key among this was the Oslo Declaration of Principles of September 1993 (Gunderson 47).
This initiative came under severe terrorist attacks from the Palestine extremists. Israel responded by threatening to suspend implementation of the peace accords. Israel also went ahead to expand housing projects in east Jerusalem. This meant that Israel did not honor its promise of withdrawing her forces from the West Bank territory. Simply put, Israel was initiating a peace process in the daytime, and planning for agitation at nightfall. Such a hide-and-seek policy cannot work for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In order to solve the feud, there is a need for round-table discussions where both parties stick to their promises.
Works Cited
Gunderson, Cory Gideon. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. Web.
Milton-Edwards, Beverley. Contemporary politics in the Middle East. London: Polity, 2006. Web.
Salinas, Moises. Planting seeds of hatred: the psychology of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. Web.
The battle of the Holy Land. Dir. Paddy Ashdown. 2007. Web.
Wilkinson, Paul. Terrorism versus democrasy: the liberal state response. London: Taylor & Francis, 2006. Web.
White, Jonathan. Terrorism and Homeland Security. New York, MA: Cengage Learning, 2011. Web.
The law consists of a set of rules and regulations, enforced by a ruling authority, to govern behavior. The rule of law consigns all individuals within a given community under the same regulations and constraints. This promotes safety and a greater sense of freedom as the community works to promote the generally accepted social good. The obligation to obey the law arises from the fact that individuals in the society have agreed upon a set of rules to offer a general sense of direction that results in the greater good.
The law forms the basis that forms states. Every citizen who enjoys the advantages proffered by the state is therefore under obligation to obey the law. To assess cases where we can disobey the law, it is important to analyze what justifies the rule of law. I will argue that individuals have the right to disobey the law under three conditions. First, when the duty to obey the law goes against a generally accepted universal moral code. Secondly, when the disobedient action has an apparent and socially accepted reason and can improve or amend the existing law. Third, when moral and social rewards exceed the cost of disobeying the law.
Over the years, many theorists have debated the reasons why individuals should obey the law. According to Kramer, the obligation to obey the law has four characteristics. The first characteristic is the universality of this obligation. This means that the duty to obey the law applies to all the individuals that exist within the jurisdiction of the law (Kramer 2005).
The second characteristic, that the duty is content independent, means that the obligation to obey the law is not dependent on the goals or motivations of the individuals but exists simply because it is the law. The third characteristic is that the obligation to obey the law is comprehensively applicable, laws should be obeyed in their entirety and individuals cannot pick which parts of the law to obey. The final characteristic is that it is a prima facie duty. This means that while the law is binding under normal circumstances, certain moral considerations can overrule its authority (Rawls, 1971).
The duty to obey the law forms the foundation of states and liberal democracy. Individuals living within a centralized political structure are obligated to conform to their laws. All individuals within a given state enjoy protection and benefits because of their citizenship. This implies consent, either explicit or tacit, to obey the laws of the state. According to Horton, laws outline the terms of association within a polity, hence obedience to laws promotes the welfare and interests of the polity (Horton 1992).
Laws, being universally borne, ensure that individual acts in a manner that is socially acceptable by the majority of the state. Hume however argues that many individuals within a given jurisdiction have no power to consent voluntarily to the rule of the state (Hume 1953). Since these individuals do not take any action or inaction to acquire the obligation to obey the state, they thus do not have a duty to obey the laws. In the late 1950s and the 1960s, Martin Luther King engaged in civil disobedience geared to promote social equity in America. He was involved in civil rights movements to promote the rights of African Americans in issues such as desegregation, labor laws, and voting.
The laws at this time focused on promoting the values and rights of white Americans at the expense of the rights of other races. Since African-Americans came to the country as slaves, they did not have the power to consent voluntarily to the authority that the state exercised over them. While the obligation to obey the law is universally borne, this situation shows that in certain circumstances, individuals have a right to disobey the law.
Martin Luther King argued that promoting order over justice is wrong and that negative peace might signify the presence of justice (King, 2013). Slavery, segregation, and violence against fellow men due to the color of their skin can all be considered ills against the universal moral code. In this situation, an individual has a right to disobey the law either to highlight this injustice or ensure that the law is removed or amended.
The duty to obey the law is considered as content-driven. This means that individuals have a moral obligation to follow legal directives simply because of their status as the law and not because of their content. This justification can frustrate individuals when the law cannot answer some questions about the restrictions enforced. According to Joseph Raz, the practical authority that the state claims over its citizens is justified only if the citizens can achieve better moral and rational ends than when acting on individual rationales (Raz 1985).
While an individual may like to drive at high speeds to achieve certain personal goals, the state imposes speed limits under the assumption that the potential for accidents negates individual time constraints. Content-driven justifications also assume that the state has experts who have considered all eventualities of law and are best able to guide the actions of its individuals. This rationale insists on a political rationale to obey the law without an independent moral justification.
The apartheid system in South Africa promoted the white minority rule while curtailing the movements, associations, and rights of the black majority. The National Party (NP) set legislation that ensured racial segregation and enforced these laws. Before 1960, most of the countries in East and Southern Africa were colonized by European countries. Colonization was therefore socially acceptable during this time.
With education, People began questioning whether the current laws promoted their rights and well-being. Civil disobedience resulted when the black majority realized that the laws were limiting their freedom without offering a sufficient balance in terms of benefits. According to Raz, some individuals have enough knowledge or skills to realize that they could do better by relying on their judgment rather than relying on the state (Raz 1985). Individuals may also realize that the laws of another nation better reflect his situation and his conviction. To change the laws of his nation, or to raise awareness on the failure of existing law, civil disobedience is a justifiable course of action.
Mahatma Gandhi promoted the idea of non-violent civil action to promote his messages. Gandhi held that British rule in India only existed due to the cooperation of Indians. Their rule did not exist without the sanction of Indians, and the laws that oppressed Indians to promote the welfare of Britain were flawed. The obligation to obey the law should be comprehensively applicable. All individuals should be subject to the same laws and should obey the law as is.
The obligation to obey the law is dependent on a sense of fairness and a belief that obedience respects the basic rights of other individuals (Lefkowitz 2004). Rawls (1971, 96) argues that to justify the duty to obey the law, just institutions should exist in society. He argues that civil disobedience should target violations of equal opportunity and liberty. A just society can at times promote unjust laws. Individuals, therefore, have a right to disobey laws that betray the principles that govern equal and fair social cooperation. Mahatma Gandhi acted in defense of the Indian population, Africans, and even women, all considered as second-class citizens by the ruling powers (King 2013).
All major philosophies agree that individuals have a moral obligation to help others avoid significant harm that would reduce their ability to lead a worthwhile life. Individuals can, therefore, disobey the law when in pursuit of social fairness and equality for a marginalized and oppressed group.
The duty to obey the law is a prima facie duty. Smith (1973, 974) argues that there is no obligation to obey all the laws of a government. While the law is at first glance assumed inviolate, the presence of other moral obligations may necessitate disobedience of the particular law. According to Raz (1985, 154), the law is dependent on the moral autonomy of those under its jurisdiction. Without the issue of morality, obedience to the law will only be dependent on self-interest or the fear of repercussions.
While the law prohibits over speeding in certain areas, surpassing the speed limit to save a patients life can be justified. An individual is therefore justified in cases where the moral and social rewards exceed the cost of disobeying a law. The individual should however be willing to account for his action and pay the price if need be.
Conclusion
Justification of the duty to obey the law faces various conceptual difficulties. Theorists have argued that individuals within a state have to obey the laws of that particular state simply because they are the law. However, individuals must have an individual drive or moral reason to follow the laws of the state. In some states, segregation may result in the feeling that the state does not promote the well-being of one group over another. In this case, civil disobedience is justified if it leads to social fairness and equality.
The content of the law can also at times fail to cover the needs of citizens within a state. In some countries, the law forbids women to vote while also dictating what they wear. These women are not part of the legal process and have wants and needs that have been largely neglected. In this situation, the women have no obligation to obey the law and their actions can only be assured by the threat of punishment. Individuals also have a moral obligation to help others and to this end, have the right to disobey the law if it threatens others.
The paper argues that while individuals have a political obligation to obey the law, they are not under any moral obligation to do so. Obeying the law will depend on the circumstances at the time and any universal moral obligation that applies to the situation. The paper thus argues that an individual can disobey the law when in pursuit of social fairness and equality within a society and in cases where the substance of the law cannot answer pertinent questions regarding a given situation.
References
Horton, J 1992, Political Obligation, Humanities, Atlantic Highlands, NJ.
Hume, D 1953, Of the Original Contract, in David Humes (ed), Political Essays, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis, pp. 17-42.
King, M 2013, Mohandas K, Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.s Bequest: Nonviolent Civil Resistance in a Globalized World, in Lewis V. Baldwin and Paul R. Dekar (eds) In an Inescapable Network of Mutuality : Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Globalization of an Ethical Ideal, Wipf and Stock, Eugene, OR, pp.168 -171.
Kramer, M 2005, Moral and Legal Obligation, in Martin P. Golding and William A. Edmundson (eds), The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, pp.179-190.
Lefkowitz, D, 2004, The Nature of Fairness and Political Obligation: A Response to Carr, Social Theory and Practice, vol. 30, no.1, pp. 1-31.
Rawls, J 1971, A Theory of Justice, Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA.
Raz, J 1985, The Obligation to Obey: Revision and Tradition, Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics, and Public Policy, vol.1, pp. 139-155.
Smith, M 1973, Is There a Prima Facie Obligation to Obey the Law? Yale Law Journal Vol. 82, pp. 950-976.
Conflict of generations is a phenomenon in human relations that has existed as long as people live on the earth. Misunderstanding between the young and the old result from a vast variety of reasons, and the search for the suitable resolution of generation conflicts has been one of the topics attracting not only practical psychologists but creative minds as well.
How do we forgive our fathers? is the question asked by one of the characters in Chris Eyres movie Smoke Signals, and in search of the answer to it one may also turn to the short story Two Kinds by Amy Tan. The way the characters of both the movie and the short story forgive their parents for painful experiences of their childhood is through forgiveness, understanding, and acceptance of their parents the way they are.
The almost week-long journey of the main character in Smoke Signals, Victor, to collect the belongings of his deceased father, Arnold, may be seen as a symbolic depiction of the long spiritual way he covered to forgive Arnold for leaving his family. Obviously addressing the young generation with the message of understanding and reconciliation, the movie is set in a form of narration that highlights the key stages in the process of accepting the fathers mistakes.
One of the most efficient rhetoric strategies employed in Smoke Signals for showing the connections between the past and the present conflicts within Victors soul is the narrative technique of flashback. Reminiscences of the fire scene serve both to show Arnolds mistake of striking the fatal fire and to demonstrate his dedication to correcting his mistakes and saving the baby from that fire. A symbolic parallel can be drawn between the fire scenes and the scenes where Arnold drinks heavily and mistreats his wife and son.
The destructive impulse of maltreatment scenes is compensated by the constructive idea of rescuing the baby from the fire. A parallel idea to the latter is Arnolds eternal desire to come back to his family and save it from the destructive fire of disruption. Thus the key message of balance between the good and evil is delivered through the techniques of flashback, symbolism, and parallel ideas.
In order to realize the complex ways of the tensions between generations, it is demonstrative to turn to another example of generation conflict in Two Kinds , a short story by Amy Tan. The main character of the story, a Chinese immigrant girl called Jing-Mei, is pressured into becoming a prodigy by her mother who believes that anything is possible in America.
The spheres where Jing-Mei should excel are chosen by her mother quite haphazardly, on the basis of articles about prodigies she reads in popular magazines. Jing-Mei is hurt by the fact that her personal desires and interests are not reckoned with, and protests first latently by sabotaging piano lessons and then openly by confronting her mother and wishing she had never been born if she is not respected (Tan 186). Her mother never mentions playing the piano after that incident.
However, she gives Jing-Mei a piano for her thirteenth birthday and still believes the girl could become a genius if she wanted. Jing-Mei had not played it until after her mothers death, and it is only then that she understands how good her mother actually meant.
As it is obvious both from the film and from the short story, conflicts between generations emerge due to lack of insight into the true motifs that cause parents actions. The way Victor sees his father is quite limited: in his sons perception Arnold is represented as a violent man mistreating his wife and son. This image of his father is revealed by Victor in a conversation with his friend Thomas: Did you know that my father was the one that set your parents house on fire? Did you know that my father beat my mother? Did you know that my father beat me too? (Smoke Signals). Victors aversion to the way his father gave up his family is seen in the way he is reluctant to go for Arnolds ashes and belongings.
The authoritarian way Jing-Meis mother treats her in choosing the ways her daughter should shape her future is the cause of the girls rebellion. Having experienced a number of failures in becoming a prodigy, Jing-Mei does not receive any emotional support from her mother. Tired of cramming for unrealistic achievements, Jing-Mei realizes that her mother wants to see someone else in her, and not the simple girl she actually is.
This understanding of rejection of her true self by her own mother is the reason for Jing-Meis protest against such hurting of her self-esteem: I wont let her change me, I promised myself. I wont be what Im not (Tan 182). In her resolute confrontation, Jing-Mei becomes withdrawn and does not see the true reasons for her mothers attempts at making her successful.
The way to resolving the generation conflict is through gradual realization of the motifs behind the parents behavior. In case with Victor, this realization and ultimate forgiveness come through learning about the real life circumstances that provoked Arnolds behavior. Victors friend Thomas attempts to reveal other, more positive and humane sides of Arnold to his son embittered by Arnolds betrayal of his family.
Thomas turns out to have understood Arnolds tragedy much deeper than Arnolds own son: All I know is that when your father left your mother, he lost you too (Smoke Signals). Additionally, Victor gets the opportunity to learn about the way his father felt from Suzie, the girl who has witnessed Arnolds final years.
Suzie tells of the real reasons why the fatal fire emerged on 4th July when Thomas parents perished. The burden of fault for their deaths had haunted Arnold his whole life and led to his alcoholism and family disruption. Gradual understanding of his fathers motives for drinking helps Victor accept the situation and forgive Arnold.
The situation of misunderstanding between Jing-Mei and her mother continues long after the open confrontation. The girl confesses she failed her [mother] many times, each time asserting [her own] will, [her] right to fall short of expectations (Tan 186). The moment of understanding comes unexpectedly, as Jing-Mei returns to her parents home in order to arrange things after her mother dies. The piano she received for her birthday stands as a reminder of her mothers ambitions, and Jing-Mei had it tuned for purely sentimental reasons (Tan 187).
However, as she sits down to play a long-forgotten piece, she realizes that actually playing the piano was not that difficult and she could easily manage it, had she taken enough effort. Hampering her true talent, her mothers authoritarian attitude was simply a wrong strategy to let the girl develop her natural talent, and the only reasons her mother appeared so misunderstanding and distant was the national tradition of parent diktat over their children.
As it becomes apparent from the movie and the short story, conflicts between generations result from misunderstanding of the true motifs inspiring parents action. The key to harmony among the generations lie therefore in attempting to realize the background of each others ideas.
Works Cited
Smoke Signals. Dir. Chris Eyre. Perf. Adam Beach, Evan Adams, Gary Farmer, and Irene Bedard. ShadowCatcher Entertainment, 1998. Film.
Tan, Amy. Two Kinds. Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing. Ed. Edgar V. Roberts. 4th compact ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2008. 180187. Print.
Critical infrastructure sectors (CIS) are assets and systems needed by the government to ensure the proper functioning of the economy and society. The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) defined 16 critical sectors, among which healthcare, food, commercial facilities, nuclear, energy, and government facilities are the most important ones (CISA, 2020). In general, the failure or destruction of every facility from this list may have an adverse impact on public health, security, and the US economy. Global and regional conflicts always have the potential to endanger some critical sectors by terroristic attacks, means of war, and sabotage.
International cooperation plays an essential role in fostering the efficiency of national security measures. In order to deal with cybercrimes involving CIS, states developed such treaties as Budapest Convention on Cybercrime written by the Council of Europe, which aims at improving law enforcement collaboration on cybercrimes to avoid stealing of information, money, and disruption of operations (Fidler, 2016). The convention encourages the prohibition of actions required to undertake modern cyber attacks by national law that should be harmonized. Countries very often use mutual legal assistance treaties (MLATs) and extradition agreements to facilitate information exchange in criminal issues. The International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings is an example of an international agreement that outlaws terrorist actions and improves mutual judicial and police cooperation. International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism enhances collaboration in preventing and prosecuting threats of nuclear terrorism (Fidler, 2016). International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation are among the 19 universal anti-terrorism instruments that prevent terrorist attacks worldwide.
Moreover, the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) includes tools that allow international cooperation with partners to protect such vital sectors as information technology, communications, and energy. The establishment of Critical Five in 2012 that consists of the UK, US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, helps to improve critical infrastructure security in the region and enhances the cross-border approach. The US-Canada cooperation is also crucial as it develops resilience and CIS security of both countries.
References
CISA (2020). Identifying critical infrastructure during Covid-19. Web.
Fidler, D. P. (2016). Cyberspace, terrorism and international law. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 21(3), 475-493.
Even in times when nations are making significant efforts to establish peace throughout the world, the scarcity of natural resources and basic laws of human nature continue to fuel the threat of future armed conflicts. Many potential conflicts, in fact, are aimed at undermining the positions of current superpowers and changing the political constellation of forces to shift the balance of power and gain some advantage. As a global economic leader, the United States needs to define a set of guiding principles to prepare for future international conflicts. Drawing from credible studies, the essay explores three areas of concern: cyberspace safety, space weapons, and mental issues among military servicemen.
Develop Strategies to Defuse Cyber-Attacks
During the most devastating armed conflicts of past centuries, opportunities for warring nations to synchronize their armed forces were limited due to the lack of communication circuits capable of real-time information sharing. Nowadays, rapid technological advancement in some countries is giving rise to security concerns regarding cyberspace, and ensuring cyberspace data protection should be among the key priorities of the United States.
Jabbour and Ratazzi acknowledge that the country has become vulnerable due to its increasing reliance on cyberspace (42); therefore, strategies that will make cyber-attacks against the United States more costly are obviously necessary. Cyber-attacks have the potential to become an important component in future international conflicts, in part due to the anonymity and complexity of cyberspace (Kern 91). The degree of technological development in the United States encourages obvious and hidden adversaries to attack the country in the realm of cyberspace to disrupt the operations of financial institutions, government websites, or law enforcement agencies.
Strategies for making the country less vulnerable in cyberspace should be aimed at reducing the potential gain foreign adversaries might enjoy from cyber-attacks against the United States, as well as causing such attacks to become more costly (Jabbour and Ratazzi 46). Many researchers believe that the country needs to shift its focus from neutralizing small groups of cyber-criminals to compartmentalizing data to prevent significant information leaks (Ricks).
Decrease the Vulnerability of Satellites to Attacks
Taking into account the degree to which different industrialized nations have developed modern technology, adversaries of the United States are likely to use both malicious software to conduct cyber-attacks and weapons capable of destroying satellite systems. Thus, the second guiding principle refers to the necessity of allocating more resources to satellite protection. The ability to design powerful anti-satellite weapons promises a competitive advantage over key adversaries since satellites provide the means for mobile communication, GPS systems, Internet access, and the functioning of stock exchanges. In addition, the use of anti-satellite weapons can help aggressor countries to disrupt communication between military drones and drone operators, thereby rendering nuclear attack alerting services useless (Klein).
While the importance of space safety was highly emphasized during the administration of Barack Obama, this focus did not help the government to eliminate the threat of space attacks (Klein). Many modern researchers are concerned about the fact that China and Russia are constantly improving their anti-satellite weapons, creating a significant threat to the national security of the United States if there is a further decline in trust between these three countries (Haney 5). According to Klein, the space strategy of the United States remains unclear; many US citizens believe that traditional principles of warfare have little applicability to war in space. Currently, researchers all over the world are widely discussing the concept of space safety because the idea of attacking a countrys satellites promises an easy way to win a competitive advantage over adversaries.
The need for new strategies to help make the US satellite system less vulnerable to attack is a topic that began to command attention more than seven years ago. For example, in an article written in 2011, Smith states that satellites in low Earth orbit are vulnerable because they do not even need to be destroyed to stop working properly (43). The threat becomes even more significant given that in the modern world, adversaries of the United States have access to physical weapons such as kamikaze satellites or lasers that explode satellites. Furthermore, satellites launched by the United States can be deactivated by exposure to certain types of electromagnetic frequency impulses, a form of electromagnetic brute force attacks (Smith 43). The identified guiding principle that the United States may need to take into account to prepare for potential conflict involves numerous tasks, ranging from decreasing the costs of manufacturing and launching satellites to hardening systems against potential attack.
Prepare Soldiers for Stress
The United States can expect to be required to employ a variety of resources to ensure the safety of its citizens and infrastructure in cyberspace and to reduce adversaries opportunities to conduct successful attacks in space. However, in its attempts to prepare for potential wars, the United States should not underestimate the importance of psychological preparedness for war. In fact, the impact of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and other mental issues can become a significant threat in terms of preventing soldiers from performing concerted and effective actions to protect the civilian population.
The detrimental impact of mental health concerns dictates the importance of including strategies for dealing more effectively with stress in military personnel among the guiding principles to be used in preparation for further conflicts. Researchers recognize the necessity to build psychological stamina in the United States Army, including Barno and Bensahel, who admit that filling this strategic gap presents a challenging task due to its nature. The rising suicide rate among soldiers is but one example of the significant threats associated with mental unpreparedness for war and PTSD (Ursano et al. 747).
It is obvious that the lack of effective strategies for assessing the risks of suicidal behavior and preventing or dealing with the development of PTSD in soldiers can have a negative impact on the combat capabilities of service people. Failure to strengthen soldiers psychologically and help them become more able to resist stress can be expected to add more ammunition to the adversaries of the United States. Therefore, it is important to pay close attention to this issue when preparing for future conflicts with other countries.
Conclusion
In the end, a number of problems threaten to make the United States more vulnerable in the face of potential armed conflict, and the guiding principles that inform preparatory measures should reflect a focus on these issues. First, those principles central to the national security strategy of the United States should be tied to threats associated with cyber-attacks. Second, it will be vital to anticipate potential attempts to destroy the countrys satellite network. Lastly, since armed conflicts involve a war of willpower, it is essential to develop and implement new strategies that will help make soldiers better able to resist stress and reduce the prevalence of mental health problems in the United States Army.
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