Interactions between people are followed by various situations, both negative and positive. Unfortunately, besides more optimistic ones, individuals are confronted by the issue of interpersonal conflicts. It is faced by various groups, such as families, friends, and colleagues at work. Understandably, depending on the nature of interpersonal conflict, a specific approach is required. The following text will review the idea of conflicts and depict a possible solution that can be used.
Interpersonal conflict is a rather common case in social interactions. It usually occurs when more than one individual is featured in the case. This situation is defined either by a negative or a controversial interaction between two or more people (Choosing Therapy, 2022). The unpredictable nature of the possible outcomes is what makes some people fear conflicts in interactions. Unfortunately, this fear motivates individuals to react irrationally to certain unpleasant or questionable moments in conversations and situations.
As mentioned earlier, the possible outcome of conflicts is extremely unpredictable, which causes anxiety in some people. In a positive case, it can help two or more individuals resolve a certain problem and improve the relationship. In a neutral case, they will peacefully abrupt the tension, allowing each other to accept their flaws. Meanwhile, in a negative case, conflicts may trigger extra stress and make the relationship unhealthy, thus leading to the latter being quite unhealthy and damaging for both sides.
Conflicts are caused by various reasons and can differ on the basis of severity, the groups affected and the event that triggered it. For example, this occurrence may happen due to differences in views and opinions between friends. A persons moral stance on the issue may be a serious contributor as well, as said difference may either encourage them to find a compromise or end the relationship altogether.
There are some strategies that can help with conflict resolution. One of them is withdrawing from a dispute, which is both questionable and reasonable, depending on the situation. It is done by ignoring the other side, aborting the discussion of the problem or invalidating it completely (Raypole, 2020). Although it may sometimes deteriorate the issue at hand, it can be useful in cases, such as minor conflicts and severe ones. In case of the former, it is done when the relationship matters more than the dispute. In severe conflicts, withdrawal can be used to calm down and rationalize the situation. Thus, further escalation and the possible deterioration of the issue may be avoided.
Some of the negative aspects of conflicts involve counterblaming and cross-complaining. The former happens when one side places the blame for the problem on the other side. This may lead to further escalations and self-defense instead of proper resolutions. The latter is defined by expressing irrelevant problems one person has with the other one. Not only does this not improve the situation, it deteriorates the argument at hand, making the other side feel too outraged to find a suitable resolution.
It is crucial to mention that ones character may be a factor in interpersonal conflicts as well. Ego conflicts are a valid example of that, as in those cases, one or both sides either see the situation as an insult to their rationality or use negative comments as arguments. This kind of problem may be seen as an escalation of a prior dispute, which may have not involved other peoples qualities in the matter.
In conclusion, conflicts are rather flexible in nature and may either strengthen a relationship or destroy it. The latter is what usually makes some people avoid disputes. However, sometimes, conflict withdrawal can prevent further deterioration of severe or minor disagreements. During such problems, people can either use counterblaming and cross-complaining, which does not resolve anything. Interpersonal differences are a large contributor as well, as they may trigger ego conflicts stemming from prior ones that were irrelevant to ones character. Thus, conflict resolution generally requires rationality and a flexible mind.
The rational choice theory presupposes that people are often individual actors in their social and economic lives. As its name suggests, the theory argues that human beings are generally rational creatures who often make decisions that best suit their interests (Piquero 2012). Thus, while many people may be faced with different options regarding different issues affecting their lives, the rational choice theory dictates that they would choose the most rational solution that helps them improve their welfare.
Although this theory hails from an economics background, there is evidence that it has been used in sociology (Piquero 2012). Different researchers, including Rodney Stark (as cited in Young 2016) and Oppenheimer (2012), say it has multiple implications in different aspects of life, including solving human conflict, understanding social interactions, and debasing criminal issues.
In this study, the rational choice theory would be used to explain religious conflicts. Such conflicts have manifested in different parts of the world and have often pitted different religious groups, such as Muslims vs. Christians, Hindus vs. Muslim, and Buddhists vs. Christians, against each other. Furthermore, these conflicts have been witnessed in different parts of the world, including India and Pakistan, America and the Middle East, Israel and Palestine and selected African countries.
The rational choice theory will be used in this context to explain such conflicts by demonstrating that religion is divisive in the sense that it creates a we vs. them mentality and bestows upon people the task of protecting what they believe in at the expense of others. In the same breadth of analysis, this theory would be used to explain how religion gives people a higher sense of purpose for their existence in a way that would make them sacrifice their existence for the greater good of a faith. This argument is explained below.
A Higher Sense of Existence
Many researchers who have used the rational choice theory to explain peoples religious affiliation have often pointed towards religion being a substitute for peoples problems because it gives them hope for a better future (Davie 2013). However, what is missing in their argument is the higher sense of existence that often influences peoples actions on earth, as opposed to how their actions are attuned to benefit from an afterlife. While the rational choice theory draws our attention to individual actions, as the basis for understanding human behavior, it is important to point out that religious beliefs are also part of the larger framework of human actions that are explained by the theory.
The higher sense of existence mentioned in this context is mostly enshrined in several religious doctrines, which give many people a strong sense of existence that is higher than their need to stay alive (Davie 2013). This explains why some radical religious groups often commit actions that are detrimental to their physical wellbeing. For example, some suicide bombers who commit atrocities in the name of religion fit this description because they believe they have a higher sense of existence beyond their time on earth.
For example, it is a commonly held belief among some sections of Muslims that dying in the name of religion could bring immense benefits in the afterlife in form of virgins or an elevated status of immortality. Such beliefs translate into individual actions where people make conscious decisions to partake in certain conflicts because they are doing it to fulfill a higher sense of existence.
Although no religion advocates for conflict, or war, recently, there have been episodes of religious leaders looking the other way when wars are waged. In fact, Basedau and Carlo (2015) say that, in some countries, priests act as part military personnel through the provision of chaplaincy services, while other religious figures ordain certain wars, provided they serve a higher purpose of promoting peace and tranquility in the world. In some extraneous circumstances, observers have witnessed cases where religious leaders call on their governments to wage war on others (Basedau and Carlo 2015). Instances where religious leaders advocate for war tend to legitimize them and prevent people from understanding the moral and ethical imperatives that arise when such wars happen.
In connection with the above analogy, Youngs (2016) application of the rational choice theory of religion views it as being a system of compensation for peoples frustration, or their lack of clear roadmap to achieve a specific objective. Therefore, religion plays an instrumental role in their lives by compensating for a physical lack. The similarity between this view and the above-mentioned cause of religious conflict is largely confined to the assumption that people who tend to suffer from an apparent lack of physical need or a frustrated goal tend to be more vulnerable to conflict.
Consequently, they believe in a higher sense of existence because their physical survival is frustrating or dissatisfactory. Therefore, religion gives them a strong sense of purpose, for which they fight. Stated differently, they finally have a strong sense of existence for which they can give meaning to their lives. This is a rational choice for most people who are in such situations because they prefer to give purpose or meaning to their lives through the pursuit of a higher sense of existence. This analysis is at the core of the rational choice theory because it draws our attention to peoples willingness to make choices that are based on what they think or believe is best for them. Based on this analysis, it is possible to see how the rational choice theory could help to explain religious conflicts.
We vs. Them
Religion, by its very nature, is divisive. It groups people into different religious outfits defined by what they believe about life and human existence. Thus, it is common to find people with opposing views clashing.
The rational choice theory helps us to make sense of this outcome because it makes us understand how a we vs. them mentality is fostered in such an environment. More importantly, the theory helps us to understand that when people are put in such divisive environments, they often gravitate towards standing with their people, or those they share similar views with. By doing so, they create an unfavorable environment for cohesion. Thus, conflict is rife. In this argument, it is important to point out that theories of identity have often been used to explain such phenomena because people tend to align with those they deem close to or that share similar attributes with them (Inkina 2017). By doing so, they alienate others and create conflict.
The choice to align with people of similar beliefs is easily explained by the rational choice theory because people often support actions that are beneficial to them (Inkina 2017). Therefore, those who share the same values believe that their collective actions would be beneficial to their interests. Thus, it makes no sense for people who have contrary views to support those who would not cater to their best interests. This analogy shows that religious conflicts are often defined by boundaries drawn in terms of religious differences because people often want to protect their lifestyles, beliefs and values (Piquero 2012). Regrettably, this often happens through armed conflict or aggravated tensions, as seen in the case of Israel and Palestine conflict where the two protagonists chose sides based on religious inclinations.
On one side of the conflict are the Jews who believe they are under threat from a predominantly dangerous Muslim population and on the other side are Palestinians who do not believe in the right of Jews to live in the Middle East. Tensions are likely to brew in such an environment because people have chosen different sides, based on religious differences. The cohesive force that pits these different groups of people together is a strong sense of belonging, which could easily be explained by the rational choice theory.
Opposing sides believe that their chosen defenses are justifiable, based on what they believe would be in their best interest. A cost-benefit dichotomy arises in this example because whichever side of a religious conflict one chooses to analyze it from, evidently, people make rational choices based on what they believe would be most beneficial to them (Piquero 2012).
Using the above example, we find that the Israelis believe that their government is justifiably an aggressor because it protects their interests, while the Palestinians believe that the actions of their government and other militant groups, like the Hamas, are justifiable because they are protecting what they believe in. Stated differently, the cost and benefit of supporting either side are justifiable based on what the people believe to be rational. Thus, the rational choice theory emerges as a plausible explanation for such conflicts.
Conclusion
The rational choice theory has been highlighted in this paper as the premise for understanding peoples behaviors, relative to their religious choices. The arguments espoused in this paper have been specifically designed to explain religious conflict as a measure of understanding how the rational choice theory could help explain peoples religious lives and beliefs. The arguments highlighted in this paper outline two points of view, which hinge on the same theory.
+The first point of view argues that religion gives people a higher sense of existence, which makes them partake in religious conflicts, regardless of whether they would be detrimental to them, or not. This view is partly confined in the assumption that most people who are physically lacking or are unable to meet their life goals are more vulnerable to such conflicts because it is relatively easy for them to support conflicts of this nature.
The second point of view is the we vs. them mentality, which naturally comes from the divisive nature of religion. This view largely stems from the fact that most people coalesce around common beliefs and attitudes, which create common religious blocks that alienate others. These divisions create room for conflict. However, as demonstrated through some of the arguments in this study, many people choose to maintain these divisions because they are personally beneficial to them.
In other words, people prefer to support groups that would cater to their personal interests, as opposed to the interest of others. This view is largely explained by the rational choice theory, which espouses the cost vs. benefits dichotomy. Stated differently, people make individual choices to support causes that are beneficial and not costly to them. Comprehensively, the we vs. them mentality and the higher sense of existence analogy, which is characteristic of different faiths, are two arguments that show how the theory could explain religious conflicts.
References
Basedau, Matthias, and Carlo Koos. 2015. When Do Religious Leaders Support Faith-Based Violence? Evidence from a Survey Poll in South Sudan. Political Research Quarterly 68 (4):760-772.
Davie, Grace. 2013. The Sociology of Religion: A Critical Agenda. London, UK: SAGE.
Stephen, Hunt. Religion and Everyday Life. London, UK: Routledge.
Inkina, Svetlana. 2017. Rational Choice, Game Theory and Institutional Design. An Analysis of the Nested Game Model. New York, NY: GRIN Verlag.
Oppenheimer, Joe. 2012. Principles of Politics: A Rational Choice Theory Guide to Politics and Social Justice. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Piquero, Alex. 2012. Rational Choice and Criminal Behavior: Recent Research and Future Challenges. London, UK: Routledge.
Young, Lawrence. 2016. Rational Choice Theory and Religion: Summary and Assessment. London, UK: Routledge.
Theory refers to any coherent description and explanation of an observed phenomenon that offers a testable, verifiable representation of social relationships. Theories allow researchers to speculate about future social activities and also predict behavior drawing on the inferences of explanations. The theory forms the interface of systematic investigation, including analysis of data and interpretation, and the cognitive ability of researchers (Strauss, 1990). The theory provides all concepts or constructs, definitions, and propositions that relate to a research inquiry or problem. It becomes the basis of the research inquiry or investigation. It explains or describes the phenomena upon which the thesis investigation or research hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream of knowledge.
Theory Building
Theories are not discovered in external realities. Rather, they are built through creative imaginations and individual cognitive abilities, which enable researchers to explore logical relationships and causal links between conceptual abstractions (Jaccard, 2009). There are different approaches to understanding theory building. In positivist tradition, theory building is explained as a process that involves formulation of hypotheses that relates variable, collection of data by observation, and data analysis to test the hypothesis (Garratt, 2000). It explores the relative importance of variables, examines cause and effect relationships, and formulation of theoretical statements that can be revised or rejected as new evidence emerges. Anti-positivist tradition depicts theory building as a process that involves selection and naming of the key phenomenon, examination of narrative data that relates to this phenomenon, data codification using classes and sub-classes, and development of ideas using theoretical memos (Kerssens-van Drongelen, 2001).
The Theoretical Framework
There exists much debate about the level of conceptual content or structure required to guide the initial stages of a qualitative research project (Strauss, 1990) There are two extreme positions: effectiveness, where pre-conceived notions are reduced and the researcher is maximally sensitive to concepts arising purely from the data; this implies a research design with little pre-defined structure; efficiency, where pre-conceived notions are used to focus research and the maximum reward is obtained from limited research resources (Milken, 2001). This indicates a research design with some kind of pre-defined theoretical structure. An effective investigative approach, such as grounded theory, may involve prolonged periods in the field, collecting huge amounts of data. On the other hand, an efficient theory may limit the researchers ability to respond flexibly to themes and insights that emerge from the data. Accordingly, qualitative researchers should strive to strike a balance between these two extremes (Marshall, 1995).
Theory and Practical conflicts
As researchers, we are used to justifying our research topics, methods, and findings. When doing so, we usually adhere to paradigms that exist relating to specific research goals, procedures, and practices. Rarely, however, are we as researchers required to explain our theory-building techniques, let alone account for cognitive processes that result in our products based on knowledge. This lack of challenge forms a primary cause of conflict between theory building and practice. this results in poor strategies in theory building, inadequate explanations and potentially causing dangerous policy implementation (Smart, 2006).
Naturally, there is always an existing gap between theory and practice. The problem with most theories is that many researchers find it a problem to make a connection between theory and practice. This leaves one wondering how derived theory relates to present practice. It gives researchers the burden of continually showing how each set of theories in previous research influenced its potential contribution to the existing knowledge base. Such connections between theory and practice must be made on time and early enough to avoid conflict. The second theory and practical conflict relate to the manner of theoretical presentation (Golby, 1995).
It is not always possible to observe every theory or aspect of it systematically. Often, theoretical characteristics remain unknown so that explanation, result, and prediction for a particular event cannot be accurate. An individual can only predict an event to happen if he understands all conditions and circumstances which cause the event to occur. In research, it is very rare to have all information leading to the occurrence of a certain phenomenon and thus explain with certainty this phenomenon. This makes the conversion of theory into practice difficult (Kettley, 2010).
Although theory building can and does result from mainstream approaches to research, criticism has and will continue to result in new insights and theories being developed. But criticism must be channeled in a logical form and any conflict that arises must not become personalized. What is worth mentioning, however, is that if a research student is prepared to think outside the box and face the consequences, the necessary safeguards must be in place (Jaccard, 2009). This means that the necessary supervisory support is provided as and when necessary. However, one must not be overconfident because the theory-building process can be a lengthy affair, and many pitfalls need to be overcome.
Conclusion
This paper intends to encourage further discussions on theory building in the management context and encourage more researchers. We need to keep in mind that we no longer assume that theories, models, and concepts that we have worked with in the past will satisfy what we expect in the future. This may be due to changing parameters. This does not imply that theories, models, and concepts have relevance, but we need to state that processes of globalization and interconnectivity have affected different forms of communication, decision making, and managing. These calls for new ways to procure data and information, and different instruments for analyzing and interpreting data that can assist researchers. Researchers will be required to be more ambitious about studying complex management situations. It is also important for academics to ensure that researchers are confident enough to experiment with different methodological approaches if that is a newly built theory (Connaway, 2010).
Reference List
Connaway, S., & Powell, R. (2010). Basic Research Methods for Librarians. California: Sage publishers.
Garratt, J., Overton, T., Tomlinson, J., & Clow, D. (2000). Critical Thinking Exercises for Chemists. Active Learning in Higher Education. Vol 1 No 2, pp. 152-67.
Golby, M., & Appleby, R. (1995). Reflective Practice Through Critical friendship. Cambridge Journal of Education. Vol 25 No 2, pp.149-60.
Jaccard, J., & Jacoby, J. (2009). Theory Construction and Model Building Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kerssens-van Drongelen, I. (2001). The Iterative Theory Building process. Management Decisions, Vol 19 No 7, pp. 503-12.
Kettley, N. (2010). Theory Build in Education Research. New York: Cengage.
During the period 1890 to 2010, America was involved in various armed conflicts notable ones being in Iraq, Kuwait and Afghanistan. American foreign policy has changed from isolationists to interventionists as well as to diplomacy. These changes were caused by factors such as economic factors among others. Many of these factors were not within the control of US, but essentially were caused by people or factors within the US.
The policy was led by economic motives such as the Open Door Policy applied in China, freeing Cuba from Spanish rule and annexation of Hawaii. The US got interested in Hawaii in the 1800s as a result of sugar demand. Many American missionaries visited Hawaii where they ended up being politicians and sugar planters. The Americans employed Chinese and Japanese in the sugar plantations. There were heavy tariffs that were charged on plantation owners a factor that made them call for annexation of Hawaii.
There was also the American Spanish war after a Spanish diplomat offended President McKinley. A US ship that sunk in Havana Harbor and examined by the navy was blamed on Spain and America declared war. All this was fuelled by economic motives as Hearst blamed the attack on Spanish.
President McKinley was forced to help Cuba attain their independence. US saw china as an important partner in commerce and economic progress as opposed to territorial expansion. While President Grover Cleveland turned them down, Cleveland successor, William McKinley, approved the annexation. This especially angered the men of the US (Goldstein, 2013) .
Economic giants in the US also affected its foreign policy. Firms such as J.P Morgan put pressure on politicians to change their policy on war from armed conflict to interventionist. They saw it as being business friendly by expanding business links with outside world. After US joined world war one, its trade with Britain tripled. The US had to involve itself with the rest of the world to make new markets.
The personal agenda of US president and politicians affected US foreign policy, such as the Boxer Rising in China in 1900. A good example is Roosevelt who was an imperialist with interventionists views. During his era, the congress passed the famous Platt Amendment that gave the US the right to get into the affairs of Cuba. President George W. Bush administration passed a resolution to attack Iraq and capture its leader. This was another change in policy since the US army was allowed to conduct attacks in Iraq.
This was seen as aimed at economic gains as Iraq was strategically placed and endowed with oil resources. However, the Obama administration followed a more diplomatic way in ending the wart in Iraq by passing a resolution to withdraw the US troops from Iraq. It led to foreign embassies in Beijing being besieged, and the US joined the international force that was formed with the intention of restoring peace and order in China.
When it became apparent that China may be divided amongst the European powers the US Secretary of State, John Hay, stet out Open Door policy, with the intention of preventing Chinas division and keeping the principle of free trade in China. John Hay had a huge influence in how the USA reacted to this event (Goldstein, 2013) .
The USA also engaged in diplomacy especially in the war between Israel and Palestinians. There are a lot of public opinions in these countries where elections are held. USA used diplomacy through the Clinton administration to bring sanity to these warring functions. It tried to bring together Ariel Sharon and the leader of Hamas group.
In conclusion, it can be seen that the US policy on armed conflict has changed from isolationists to diplomacy. In all this US aims at gaining economically, thus the foreign policy changes are motivated by economic desires.
Works Cited
Goldstein, Joshua. International Relations. 17 March 2013. Web.
Yemen has become nowadays one of these states, inner problems of which can threaten the stability of the whole world. After a chain of serious protests and even military conflicts, the President of Yemen had to resign, leaving his state in a horrible state, however, still trying to save it and moving to Aden1. Reaction to these events was different. A great number of states have their own point of view. However, it is important to understand the position of some of them as being Yemens neighbors, they influence its policy greatly.
Resting on these facts, it is necessary to analyze the position of the UAE as it is one of the most powerful states in the region. The first step of the government of the UAE was to stop any diplomatic relations with Yemen as its officials were taken as unconstitutional. However, having understood the importance of negotiations, the UAE reopened its embassy in Yemen.2 This step can be taken as a very positive shift in the relations of these two states. The UAE, of course, understands the weakness and instability of the new government3 however, its main aim is not to use military forces, but to try to solve this problem peacefully. In general, an attempt to regulate this question without using some brutal methods can be taken as the main guideline of the UAE in this region. It uses diplomacy as the main National Power to avoid another bloody military conflict in this devastated country and try to create some possible peaceful solution to this question. It is obvious, that the majority of the population does not support new forces, which now rule in Yemen. Moreover, a new conflict should not be provoked.
The UAE has a great number of different possibilities to influence the situation. Each state has four basic elements of national power, which can serve as remedies to control the present international situation. It is obvious, that the UAE should avoid usage of the military one as it will lead to new casualties. It is also clear, that now the UAE tries to use diplomacy as the main method and achieve success and mutual understanding. However, their attempts can also lead to the division of the country. Being not against the idea to make Aden the capital4, the Gulf and the UAE support the officials of the country who have their own interests5, forgetting about some problems which exist in the state. However, forces, which now have great power and influence in Yemen, also realize this need in negotiations6. Al-Quaeda released Saudi diplomat, who had been a hostage for several years7 This step can also signalize about the desire of this organization not to enter diplomatic relations.
Moreover, being one of the richest countries in the region and world, the UAE can also use its economic power to help Yemen and change the current situation. It is not a secret, that Yemen is one of the poorest states in the world and a great number of its problems are connected with extreme poverty. People are, of course, not satisfied with the current state of affairs and want some changes. That is why they are so aggressive and tired. Economic assistance can lead to the improvement of the existing situation and lowering of tension and aggression which exist between different layers of society in Yemen. Nevertheless, the informational element of the National Power of the UAE should also be actively used. International ties of the UAE can allow this country to highlight the situation, draw the attention of a great number of other countries to it and obtain new allies. Information rules the world and by using this element of National power the UAE can inform citizens of Yemen about the current state of affairs and gather their support, guaranteeing approval of any decision of the UAE in this conflict.
However, all these elements of National power should be interdependent and help each other to achieve a certain purpose. The informational element should be connected with a diplomatic and economic one. The UAE should not be the only side of negotiations and other countries of the region8 should be involved. Economic assistance can be suggested by some other countries, however, there are also should be some certain guaranties that this help will not be in vain and the situation could change for the better. Moreover, informing the rest of the world about the events which take place in Yemen, the UAE can get new allies and solve this problem faster.
Unfortunately, everything is not so ideal in practice. The problem is that each side of the conflict looks for its own benefits and is not ready to make a compromise and come to terms with some questions. However, it should be recommended that UAE not use the military element of national power, giving preference to diplomacy and economic ways of regulating the conflict. Further negotiations with all litigants should be organized in order to correct the existing situation. Moreover, economic assistance can help to improve conditions under which the majority of the population of Yemen lives.
Bibliography
All-Khameri, Bassam. Instability in IBB continues since Houthi control . Yemen Times. Web.
The Spratly Islands is an archipelago that is located in the South China Sea, and some islands are currently contested by six counties. It is paramount to say that the area is incredibly important because it provides populations in this region with resources and is critical from the geopolitical point of view (see map. 1).
Map. 1. The Spratly Islands.
It is necessary to note that currently, Vietnam is in control of 48 features, and China controls only eight (Austin par. 1). The conflict is getting more intense with every single year, and each party tries to provide enough pieces of evidence that that the territory should belong to them. It needs to be said that China has no rights to claim the area according to the United Nations Convention on Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) because some land masses are tidal islands. The dispute is so significant because participants are ready to take military actions. The territory is so important for China because the country will be able to take control of a vital trade route, and it has shown the most interest in the Spratly Islands. It may also be used to monitor shipments to other regions, and it is an advantage in case military conflict occurs.
There is also an incredibly high possibility that an enormous amount of oil reserves are contained in the floor of the area, and this is one of the leading causes of the conflict. It is necessary to address the fact that an incredible amount of resources will be needed to explore this area, and regional relationships are at risk (Brantly 371). Complete control of The Spratly Islands will make China much more independent, and energy security is another significant aspect that should not be disregarded. Vietnam suggests that China was not interested in the territory prior to 1940 and has no right to claim it ( Q&A: South China Sea Dispute par. 9). The fact that the country has controlled the archipelago and has the necessary documentation is quite important. The Philippines also participates quite actively, and its government argues that geographical proximity is a major factor that should be taken into account.
Some islands are also claimed by other nearby countries, and all participants of the conflict have their reasons. Also, it is paramount to note that some actions of China in this region were unreasonable, and international intervention may be necessary in this particular case. Construction projects are especially controversial and have led to tremendous tension in the area. The fact that the international tribunal has agreed to review this case is essential because it is evident that the behavior of China in the region is not acceptable (Sevastopulo par. 1). The United States is one of the countries that understand that it is imperative to address this issue to prevent any possible severe consequences.
In conclusion, there is no doubt that China shows the most aggression in this conflict because it views this as a significant opportunity for development. The dispute is long-standing, and it will be hard to address all of the current problems because it is complicated by numerous factors. However, this disagreement has drawn increased attention of the international community over the last few years, and it is entirely possible that it may be resolved in a peaceful manner.
Womack, Brantly. The Spratlys: From Dangerous Ground to Apple of Discord. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs 33.3 (2011): 370-387. Print.
Sudan has been involved in an unending civil war since it gained its independence from the British people. The main conflicting regions are South Sudan and Darfur. Through its military and support to some ethnic-affiliated militia, the government of Sudan has been a major factor throughout the warfare through its violent interactions with the rebels. These interactions have resulted in extrajudicial killings, destruction of property, splitting of rebel groups, and an increase in tribal warfare.
The rising tension due to government crimes has resulted in the formation of rebel groups such as SPLM/A whose initial goal was to fight the government to attain political power and justice. However, through government efforts, SPLM/A split due to ethnic differences between the Dinka and Nuer tribes, which were involved in tribal wars for over 24 years before the leaders of the group opted to join forces to fight the tyrannical government.
Conflict Cycle Map illustrating the Historical Stages and Events in South Sudan Conflict
Conflict Cycle Map illustrating the Historical Stages.
Root Causes leading to the Conflict
At this stage of the cycle, the Sudanese governments army was involved in perpetrating one-sided violent attacks against South Sudan citizens during peaceful demonstrations. It also recruited militias to attack, kill, and burn the homes of civilians (UCDP 2016). This move resulted in an outbreak of tension among the South Sudan residents, which invoked the violent rebellions against the tyrannical ruling of Bashirs government and his supporters (UCDP 2016).
The violence in South Sudan can be related to the theory of social conflict where the notion of aggressive actions begins at higher levels and then spreads to the lower levels of the society. For instance, the violence of South Sudan can be seen to materialize from a disagreement between the government and the rebel leaders who wanted a share of the political control. Because of antagonistic interests between the leaders and the governments, a conflict resulted and soon involved the innocent civilians who were butchered in massacres (Boxer et al. 2013).
Escalation
At the height of the violence, both the government of Sudan and the rebels were heavily involved in attacks and killings of civilians. The government recruited militias whom it sent to attack and kill civilians in their villages by burning their houses and looting their property (UCDP 2016). According to the social conflict theory, the continued commissioning of violence interculturally during warfare legitimizes and normalizes the violence, thus reflecting the continued increase in the number of casualties (Boxer et al. 2013). Therefore, during this part of the cycle, the SPLM/A split due to ethnic differences that led to ethnic-based violence between the Dinka and the Nuer tribes. The violence extended for over two decades where it resulted in the death of civilians.
Ripe Moment
The violence between the two tribes came to a deadlock where it provided an opportunity for the leaders to engage in dialogue to come up with an amicable agreement to end the violence against each other and instead unite to fight their common enemy the Government of Sudan (UCDP 2016).
De-escalation
In 2005, the two tribes announced that they had decided to end the violence against each other. They united to fight the government of Sudan. In May 2006, the SLM/A (MM) attacked civilians of Darfur as a strategy to force the people to agree to sign the Darfur Peace Agreement that was meant to de-escalate the violence in the region (UCDP 2016).
Change of Battle Deaths and other forms of Casualties during the Conflict Cycle in South Sudan
The Escalation Stage
Government of Sudan Civilians
During the earlier stages of the violence, the government used army men to perpetrate violent acts against the southern rebel supporters. The armed militias attacked villages, burned down houses, and randomly shot at innocent civilians of the southern tribes that were believed to be supporters of the rebel group. It is estimated that the government, through the army and militias, resulted in the death of about 1000 civilians.
JEM Civilians
In 2003, JEB, a rebel group, was responsible for carrying out attacks against Arab civilians living in Darfur. Citing the Reizgat attack as a case in point, the rebels killed innocent women, men, and children while also being involved in stealing cattle and other valuables from the casualties (UCDP 2016). After the attack on the civilians, the rebels went ahead and massacred government troops from their areas of residence.
SLM/A Civilians
The Sudan Liberation Movement/Army was responsible for the clashes that took place in Darfur. The movement was involved in antagonizing the government of Sudan and the Janjaweed before it split into SLM/A and SLM/A (MM) (UCDP 2016). After their split, the two tribes were involved in violent ethnic clashes that resulted in the death of 87 civilians while engaging in theft of cattle and kidnappings on Arab villages. In addition, a few aid workers were among the casualties.
SPLM/A Civilians
This group of rebels was involved in acts of violence during the period between 1989 and 2004. The warfare was caused by a split due to ethnical differences between its two leaders, namely, John Garang of the Dinka tribe and Riek Machar of the Nuer tribe. The two divisions raided and killed civilians by burning their houses and random shootings. The attackers were also involved in the looting of property during the course of their attacks.
SSDF Civilians
The SSDF was formed after the split in SPLM/A due to ethnical differences between the Dinka and Nuer leaders. The attackers raided Dinka villages besides killing their men, women, and even children while at the same time looting their property.
The Ripe Moment Stage
After the two sides of the rebel groups came to a deadlock in their conflicts, they decided to have peace talks that resulted in the announcement to cease the escalating violence against the Sudan government. This unification led to a reduction in the number of deaths and casualties that were caused by the conflict between the two tribes.
The De-escalation Stage
In 2005, the Dinka and Nuer tribal leaders united to fight the government, a move that resulted in a reduction of the number of deaths and casualties from the conflict. In 2011, a referendum was carried out, which led to South Sudan becoming an independent state. During this part of the cycle, the number of deaths and casualties was immensely reduced, although death reports because of border conflicts between North Sudan and South Sudan were given.
The Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) was involved in the killing of thousands of people as a strategy to force the people in the Darfur area to agree to the signing of the Darfur peace agreement.
Key Actors and the Main Issue of the Conflict using the Bubbles Map
Conflict using the Bubbles Map.
Primary Actors
The Government of Sudan
The government was a major primary actor in the conflict of Darfur and South Sudan through its response to the rebel groups that were fighting against it. The government used different secondary parties to castigate its mandate such as army soldiers and pro-government militias such as the Janjaweed. These forces were involved in extrajudicial killings, burning houses, killing civilians (women, men, and children), and looting the property of their casualties. In addition, the government used the strategy of divide-and-rule where it facilitated the split of the rebel groups into smaller tribal movements that were responsible for the increased violence against each other (UCDP 2016).
The JEM (Justice and Equality Movement)
The formation of the Islamic Darfur-based JEM was driven by the agenda of gaining political power and pushing for a political change such as the implementation of the constitution in accordance with Muslim laws. The movement was involved in a number of tribal and interstate violence that resulted in the death of 69 civilians (UCDP 2016).
The SLM (Sudan Liberation Movement/Army)
The SLM was an alliance among the many tribes, both Arabs and Africans, whose main goal was to decentralize the government of Sudan. The movement was initially involved in the killing of militia and government soldiers. However, it later included civilians after the split that took place between SLM/MM and SLM/A. The group split into two groups, namely, SLM/A and SLM/A (MM), which were involved in violent interactions against each other. The violence resulted in the death of civilian tribes.
The SPLM/A
Before the split, the group that constituted the Dinka and Nuer tribes was involved in the killing of government soldiers and militias. However, due to ethnic differences, the leaders of the Nuer and Dinka tribes split. Because of the division, leaders of the two ethnic groups were responsible for leading their militia groups into violent acts such as the burning of houses, the killing of innocent civilians, and looting of material goods.
SSDF
The SSDF constituted the Nuer ethnic group that was involved in attacking and killing civilians of the Dinka tribe. However, the SSDF would later end the war against the Dinka after the leaders held peace talks with the result of unification to fight the government of Sudan.
Secondary Actors
Ugandan Rebels
Ugandan and South Sudan rebels were involved in a mutually benefiting alliance where they provided support for each other during both the Ugandan and the South Sudan wars.
Colonel Gaddafi
By promoting clashes in Chad, Gaddafi was the reason behind the displacement of Arabs who later occupied the region of Darfur where they got involved in tribal and land confrontations with the natives (UCDP 2016).
The Main Issue of the Conflict
The main issue of the conflict was the need to drive political change in the state of Sudan. The Sudanese government was accused of the tyrannical oppressive rule that was tainted by one-sided violent attacks against civilians through its involvement in random shootings of nationals while holding peaceful demonstrations, extrajudicial killings, burning of residents households and stealing of property of their victims. Based on the critical theory, an oppressive society by the leader reinforces the mobilization of certain societal members for the sake of the rest in an effort to have their needs, interests, and positions such as equality of their people, improvement of the living standards of the people, and a push for equal distribution of resources met. As a result, the rebel groups mobilized against the government forces with the vision of overthrowing the ruling regime from power to form a democratic and just government, thus eventually leading to warfare (Hansen 2008).
Key/Root Causes of the Conflicts
Conflict Tree Analysis Map
Political Differences
The existing political differences between the ruling regime and the rebels were the core problem that sparked much division in the state. The rebels asserted that their reason for using an armed struggle was to free the country from the oppressive rule of the one-sided government and for the formation of a decentralized government. In addition, the split between the Dinka and the Nuer tribes that led to a 24-year period of tribal warfare was caused by ethnic political differences between the two leaders of the SPLM/A rebel group.
Innocent Killing of Civilians
Government forces were involved in the killing of civilians through random shootings during peaceful demonstrations. In addition, the forces raided the villages of civilians by burning their houses, butchering them, and looting their property. This state of affairs led to increased tension, which invoked the formation of rebel groups whose mandate was to fight against the government of Sudan.
Ethnicity
Ethnic differences between the Dinkas and Nuers led to tribal wars where the soldiers/militias were involved in lootings, burning of households, and killing of civilians. According to the ethnic conflict theory, the differences between the conflicting groups determine the probability of having a conflict. Caselli and Coleman (2013) suggest that physical differences are the most influential elements in determining whether the two ethnic groups will develop a conflict, followed by differences in language and/or culture. Therefore, in the case of the Dinka-Nuer conflict, the difference in language/culture may probably have facilitated the confrontation between the two ethnic groups.
Discrimination and unequal resource distribution
Besides the crimes committed against the supporters of the rebellion, the African people were driven away from the oil-rich areas in the western part of the Nile River, a situation that invoked claims of discrimination by the government. This action by the government inspired the formation of rebel groups whose purpose was to fight for justice for the oppressed people through forming a democratic government.
Religious Differences
Religious divisions were evident between the Arabs and Muslims. Some of the rebel groups such as JEM were motivated by the existing religious differences in Darfur. The goal of the movement was to establish an Islamic governed state by applying the laws of Islam for both Muslims and non-Muslims (UCDP 2016).
Onion Map: Findings from South Sudan Conflict
Conclusion: Main Difficulty in the Resolution of the Conflict
The South Sudan conflict can be classified as a protracted conflict due to its complexity that is characterized by the involvement of both primary and secondary actors, various causes, and the highly conflicting needs, interests, and positions between the rebels and the government of Sudan. Nevertheless, the main difficulty lies in the antagonistic positions, interests, and needs between the government officials and the rebels. This situation has led to neither side willing to de-escalate the violence due to its determination to have its needs, interests, and positions met.
References
Boxer, P, Huesmann, L, Dubow, E, Landau, S, Gvirsman, S, Shikaki, K & Ginges, J 2013, Exposure to Violence across the Social Ecosystem and the Development of Aggression: A Test of Ecological Theory in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Child Development, vol. 84, no. 1, pp. 163-177. Web.
Caselli, F & Coleman, W 2013, On The Theory of Ethnic Conflict, Journal of the European Economic Association, vol. 11, no. 1, pp.161-192. Web.
Hansen, T 2008, Critical conflict resolution theory and practice, Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 403-427. Web.
Which of the four levels of analysis (Global, Interstate, Domestic, and Individual) is the most salient cause for conflicts in the 21st Century?
Conflict analysis is an important concept that helps stakeholders to comprehend the features, reasons, and trends of conflicts. This systematic study assists development, humanitarian as well as peacekeeping institutions to gain an understanding of conflict situations and come up with approaches to maintaining security. Influences of war are at global, interstate, domestic, and individual levels. However, influences at the domestic level can be viewed as the main cause of disagreements in the 21st century (Haynes et al. 23). These reasons can be related to nationalism, ethnics, dictatorships, political coalitions, public opinion, foreign policy bureaucracies, and gender issues.
Notably, 21st-century conflicts revolve around politics, power, and competition among actors as well as the changing of institutions to benefit a few individuals in society. Persons and groups cannot randomly fight each other unless individuals who have vested domestic interests mobilize them (Wehr 34). The conflict in Rwanda that was typified by brutal killings of victims in their villages and towns by their neighbors was premised on ethnic cleansing. In the former Yugoslavia, it was evident that ethnic hatred led to violations of human rights and mass atrocities. The conflict in South Sudan (ongoing) was caused by power contests between those in the government and those in the opposition. In addition, this war was fuelled by the desire of various armed groups to control the wealth accumulated from oil reserves. The crisis in Sudan can be attributed to democracy issues because the people felt that the government was not paying attention to the voices of the population. Thus, they took to the streets to protest political and economic policies that were unpopular. According to these illustrations, it is evident that domestic issues are the main reasons nations are characterized by conflicts, both armed and unarmed (Wehr 7). Whether these disagreements will reduce in the future depends on how individuals and institutions will handle local issues that affect the majority of citizens.
Do a critical assessment on the implications of the deployment of peacekeeping operations in Yugoslavia (i.e. Bosnia) OR Timor Leste. What is considered a successful or unsuccessful peacekeeping operation? What is your verdict and why?
Peacekeeping operations in Yugoslavia (Bosnia) were viewed as important activities as well as foreign policy instruments to create and maintain peace and security. Peacekeeping is one of the core approaches of the United Nations in maintaining peace and security around the world. Currently, there are more than one hundred thousand UN soldiers charged with protecting human populations and sustaining security in war-torn countries (Beardsley et al. 676). The UN has failed in some cases (for example, Rwanda), while it has succeeded in others (El Salvador).
The war in the former Yugoslavia started when the Soviet Union crumbled in 1991, and this collapse also resulted in the end of the Cold War. The liberal government of Canada argued that a humanitarian solution could be successful only if it was supplemented by the political commitment of the international community. On the one hand, NATO and UNPROFOR practiced the dual key strategy, while on the other hand, the U.S. insisted on the utilization of air power (Beardsley et al. 680). The UNs arms ban on Bosnia was violated because third-party nations were supplying Muslims in Yugoslavia and Croatia with weapons. Consequently, the United States of America decided to take a passive stand on the shipment of Iranian weapons to Muslims in both Yugoslavia and Croatia. The argument by the U.S. was that the shipments would advance these duo groups preparedness to offer resistance against the better arms used by Serbians (Beardsley et al. 686). The failure of the United Nations peacekeeping operations to prevent the fall of Srebrenica could be viewed as the inadequacy of the international community to launch successful peacekeeping operations.
The peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia did not yield anticipated outcomes because the UN failed to deploy enough soldiers to defend to Srebrenica and other towns that appeared safe. However, in this context, politics could not be separated from the operations (Beardsley et al. 675). Notably, the UN succumbed to political pressure to incorporate objective decisions on the deployment of troops. Successful peacekeeping operations should be conducted on the premises of intelligence that is collected by independent persons and agencies. Moreover, such safeguarding activities should be executed in an environment where members of the international community abide by the provisions of the established agreements between or among parties (Beardsley et al. 676). However, due to lack of these requirements, peacekeeping activities resulted in the severe implications for the prevention of cleansing as well as mass murder in the former Yugoslavia.
Discuss the legitimacy criteria for use of force in invoking the notion of Responsibility to Protect, R2P and in application to a humanitarian intervention case study.
The responsibility to protect (R2P) is a worldwide political-based commitment by the United Nations member countries to avoid genocide, crimes that affect humanity, ethnic-based cleaning, and battle or war crimes (Kathman and Melin 150). This principle is premised on the view that the sovereignty of states entails an obligatory duty to protect societies from actions that result in mass crimes of undermining of human rights. Moreover, R2P is founded on a commitment to respect international law, particularly specific principles of law that are related to armed conflict, peace and security, independence of states, and human rights. In the context of Afghanistan, it should be understood that it was required to protect its people from genocide and other activities that could massively affect the population (Kathman and Melin 155). In other words, stakeholders in the war had to invoke the use the legitimacy criteria in invoking the notion of R2P. The international community had a duty to help as well as encourage nations to fulfil their obligatory responsibility to protect citizens, handle the causes of mass atrocities, improve the capacity to avoid such illegal actions, and address issues before they get worse.
When the U.S government and NATO defeated the Taliban, it started unleashing mass atrocities on Afghan leadership, ISAF, and citizens using tactics such as asymmetric warfare, suicide attacks, and turncoat killings. The commitment by the international community as well as global organizations to provide support to the Afghan government to protect citizens against illegal activities of the Taliban was within the legal provisions of the R2P the legitimacy criteria to force to protect the citizenry (Sandler 1875). Notably, the insurgents activities resulted in mass crimes against humanity, and violence that reached peaks from 2007 to 2009. The number of military personnel started to rapidly increase from 2009 to 2011 when the figure stood at 140,000. Once Obama bin Laden was captured and killed by the U.S. military in 2011, the international community and forces that were intervening in the crisis said they would leave the country because the enemy had been killed (Sandler 1876). It is essential to underscore the contributions of the foreign states in maintaining peace and security in Afghanistan was critical in protecting the lives of the people who were targeted by the outlawed group. The most notable modes of protection exhibited by the international community while discharging R2P in Afghanistan included prohibitions on harm, direct physical shields, dedicated security activities, mainstreaming fortification, and restorative defense.
Analyze the quote below in reference to the ECOWAS intervention and support of the G5 Joint Force in the Sahel region. Regional support is necessary because the UN lacks the capacity, resources and expertise to address all problems that may arise in Africa&the international community should strive to complement rather than to supplant African efforts to resolve Africas problems.
The human populations in the Sahel region face a myriad of challenges, which are often interconnected. Some of these include food, environmental, insecurity and political instability, and fragile economy crises. Due to the complexity that typifies these crises in the region, the proposal that the United Nations has a duty to involve regional, as well as subregional approaches, would go a long way in ending crises and preventing them from recurring in the future (Duursma 446). The statement/proposal by the late Kofi Annan also stressed the concept of the international community supplementing rather than supplanting the continents efforts to solve problems.
In the context of the Sahel region, it is critical to state that regional economic communities (RECs) such as SADC and ECOWAS seem relatively strong in comparison to the African Union (AU) since they recognize and attempt to handle local concerns in better ways. Both SADC and ECOWAS are characterized by security arms within their structures; this implies that they can handle problems about insecurity. The coup detat in 2012 and the proliferation of armed radical groups in Northern Mali complicated issues for the AU (Duursma 456). Thus, the PSC mandated ECOWAS to be at the forefront of implementing interventions. Since the UNSC Resolution 2071 on Mali allows the principle of an international force, ECOWAS deployed 3,300 military personnel to contain the volatile situation in the region. According to the results of the involvement of forces deployed by ECOWAS, it is apparent that RECs and regional approaches could play a better role than the AU because they offer five groups of military forces (Charbonneau 420). Therefore, it would be an effective way to complement the activities of RECs than rather supplanting them since they can be utilized to bring long-lasting political and economical solutions to the region.
Works Cited
Beardsley, Kyle, et al. Resolving Civil Wars Before They Start: The UN Security Council and Conflict Prevention in Self-Determination Disputes. British Journal of Political Science, vol. 47, no. 3, 2017, pp. 675-697.
Charbonneau, Bruno. Intervention in Mali: Building Peace Between Peacekeeping and Counterterrorism. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, vol. 35, no.4, 2017, pp. 415-431.
Duursma, Allard. Information Processing Challenges in Peacekeeping Operations: A Case Study on Peacekeeping Information Collection Efforts in Mali. International Peacekeeping, vol. 25, no. 3, 2018, pp. 446-468.
Haynes, Jeffrey, et al. World Politics: International Relations and Globalisation in the 21st Century. 2nd ed., Sage, 2017.
Kathman, Jacob D., and Molly M. Melin. Who Keeps the Peace? Understanding State Contributions to UN Peacekeeping Operations. International Studies Quarterly, vol. 61, no.1, 2016, pp. 150-162.
Sandler, Todd. International Peacekeeping Operations: Burden Sharing and Effectiveness. Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 61, no. 9, 2017, pp. 1875-1897.
Structural violence is a fundamental concept in the analysis and understanding of international conflicts. The contents of structural violence include disputes, where comprehension between two parties does not come to a point of consensus because of differences in their social setting. The failure of distinct entities in an ecosystem to comprehend each other acts as an instrument of causing conflicts in the international scope.
The international conflicts arise from societal setting, affecting people around the world. The comprehension of the influence of structural conflict has a rationale of enhancing the analysis, as well the comprehension of the scope of the international conflict. The understanding is also vital in the creation of a path for strategic implementation of ample methodologies that would prevent or eradicate the conflicts.
A vast theoretical literature has also been presented in regards to the importance of structural violence in comprehension enhancement, with some authors arguing that conflicts have been a major drawback to economic, social, and political triumph over the years, owing to the state of misunderstanding distinct takes of different individuals and groups (Burchill, et al, 2005, p. 291).
The recent decades have seen researchers, academicians, scholars, as well as psychologists develop enthusiasm in the area of the effects of violence on the international relations. The discussion in this paper seeks to establish the usefulness of the concept of structural violence in analyzing and understanding international conflicts.
The comprehension of this is enabled by comprehensively analyzing the concept of structural violence as well as the international conflict. The theoretical approach towards the same is critically discussed, in addition to the provision of rationale and impacts of the study at hand.
Analyzing the concept of structural violence
The form of violence whose basis is on the social structure or social institution that harms some populace and prevents them from fulfilling their essential needs encompasses structural violence. Structural violence is product of the organization of political, social, and economic settings and systems in ways that have both negative and positive effects on the immediate community.
The rationale of the impacts is portrayed when some segments of the population in existence are oppressed, intimidated, and dominated, while other segments are privileged in one way or the other.
Conflicts that have their fundamentals on the societal structures deprive part of the population their peace, food, security, healthcare etc, while others still enjoy the abundance of the same in similar setting. For instance, movement of large numbers of rich people into a community may lead to the increment of housing costs, affecting people that lived originally in a similar place under low costs.
In addition, structural violence is mostly recognized at the level of a society due to life quality shortfalls that occur in certain societal groups. The accomplishment of structural violence mostly occurs via the existence of political repression in a society.
This entails the presence of many groups in power concentrating the societal resources for their personal gain in expense of people who are not in power. The most pronounced examples of structural violence are inclusive of racism, elitism, classism, sexism, adultism, ageism, and nationalism in addition to heterosexism and ethnocentrism (Lipsky, 2010, p. 31).
Structural violence is characterized by poor societal settings that allow room for existence of more than one class and clusters of individuals depending on the societal niche that they hold. An imbalanced state as well as international realm is established when structural violence takes preeminence.
This is in regards to unequal resources distribution among the existing populations. Discrimination also finds its way in such a society where some people appear more important than others do, in terms of wealth and health. The systems of structural violence are dominated by numerous justices in all realms, and unjust arguments prevail in place of justice requirement.
Oppression of high quality is experienced whenever structural violence is evident, for instance, the deprivation of widows and orphans of the inheritances by corrupt governments. Increased death rates are also associated with those that live at rung positions in any society setting as opposed to low death rates for the higher in a contemporary society with poor settings.
Most countries in the have had such structural violent systems, posing great troubles for those living in them. The rationale of these poor structural systems is experienced when considering the rate of international conflict today that has drastically increased.
The understanding of these conflicts is also important in performance of the analysis of the levels of the international conflicts that thrive today. Various pronounced effects are experienced in presence of structural violence, which is inclusive of pain infliction on the victims when war and terror etc incidents occur due to structural distinctions.
It is always in the accompaniment of the deprivation of essential needs that are fundamental to the life of an organism in the ecosystem. The freedom of human is taken away for there is no room for addressing their grievances in case of the structural problems.
Moreover, the creation of non-identity society with racial, material, and all-round differences results from the cultivation for the structural violence (Mansfield and Pollins, 2003, p. 97).
An analysis of International conflicts
The recent years have seen concerted efforts directed towards international peace relations in a bid to counter the rampant international conflicts. A conflict is regarded as a level of difficulty where parties cannot understand one another, resulting into an avoidable chaotic situation. The accomplishment of a conflict is done via stage performances whose possible outcomes are undesirable, and may not be beneficial to any party.
The international conflict describes those critical incidents in which no human entity is exempted from the effect of a particular happening, and every human race is a liable object of experience. The most flabbergasting conflicts in the worldly realms are inclusive of wars, terrorism, and political clashes among others.
The causes of the international conflicts range from human to situational causative factors that become so overwhelming to an extent of causing tremendous outcomes.
The outcomes never choose a particular path to follow; rather, they affect a large number in the international realms including fresh waters, oil, other resources and so on (Westing and Stockholm International Peace Research Institute and United Nations Environment Programme., 1986, p. 10, 28 and 58).
Johan Galtungs literature classifies conflicts into three categories, which are inclusive of direct conflicts that entail direct pain and suffering infliction on individuals or groups. The second type is indirectly imposed on a group of individuals due to poor structures in the societal set up. International conflicts are mostly caused by structural violence as a result of the instabilities and disorganizations that are caused by their rampancy.
The effects of the international conflicts are inclusive of economic inflations due to poor methodologies of spending a countrys resources. The political crises are also experienced everywhere in the international scope due to power wrangles that thrives in the hearts of many. The poor and the oppressed have a tendency to rise up against the unjust regimes and these reactions are transformed into conflicts.
Cultural conflicts are also internationally evident due to peoples take of others in regards to their background (Bercovitch, 1996, p. 6). Indeed, cultural conflicts have been known as causative factors to the structural and direct conflicts in many cases since the disregard for one another is a causal factor for promotion of jealousy, as well as the oppressive nature evident in most societies.
More over, most social structures in the world have acted as causal factors for international conflicts due to poor organizations and structural arrangements. Political and economic structures are also known to be major causes of conflicts in an international scope.
The international conflicts have often led to the prevalence of negative peace; indeed, alleviation of peace on the parties involved in disputes at a particular time is a rationale for international disagreements. The magnitude of international suffering is measured via the impacts in experience to the parties internationally.
For instance, massive deaths and concrete conflicts that are not liable for recovery are the extreme magnitudes for international conflicts. In addition, there are incidences of countries fighting against each other due to economic, structural, and cultural failures. In addition, leadership and governance structures are also considered as main causal factors of international conflicts.
Major international conflicts have long been portrayed via terrorism attacks, massacres, wars, deprivation of rights, and other methodologies that are deemed crucial in the fulfillment of such laws (Likosky, 2002, p. 393).
Usefulness of the concept of structural violence in analyzing and understanding international conflicts
Structural violence is an excellently significant tool when it comes to the analysis and understanding of international conflicts. The concept of structural violence explains the fundamentals on which international conflict emerges, as distinct groups interact with others in social setup.
The fact that structural violence entails deprivation of peoples rights and freedoms, as others enjoy privileges and honors makes this form of violence be considered vital in international violation explanations provision. Theoretical explanations of international conflicts rebuke the violation of social theory via the utilization of structural violence in available human settings.
The current world is largely affected by international conflicts that emerge repeatedly, with research findings proving that most of the happenings in the international realms are products of structural violence. This majorly entails social, cultural, political, and economical and the overall human set up within an inclusive ecological system (Ohlson and Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. 1988, p. 7).
The concept of structural violence is normally viewed as a hypothetical instrument that provides supposition that is considered tentative, with the intention of gaining comprehension of facts that are legally acceptable. Therefore, it creates a rationale for the understanding and analyzing international laws, as well as being considered a fiction.
This implies that structural violence entails making mistakes with a conscious mind in its take that armed conflicts are used in the deprivation of other peoples rights and privileges. Therefore, it gives an ample understanding of the operational international law, as well as a prediction of what just laws would mean in the society.
The understanding is also boosted in the fact that individuals or groups affected or infected by structural violence face it indirectly. They therefore advocate for close monitory and supervision in the promotion of the effectiveness of international law (Jacoby, 2008, p. 26).
Structural violence is a long-term cause of systems instability. Instability means that no system can be subject to human trust, since it does not amply cater for the available humanity desired satisfaction. The instability-affected areas are inclusive of political social and economical stands. Normally, the state of instability in any realm leads to the creation of emotions on those affected or infected by the causal factors.
The deprivation of privileges from some people, as others enjoy, creates a rationale for the instability complement to act as a stage-setter for international conflicts.
Moreover, instability is an ultimate cause of physical, emotional, and psychological wars among people as well as states. The structural instability analysis also proves it as a ground for human suffering, rendering a lot of dissatisfaction among individuals involved (Jacoby, 2008).
Additionally, structural violence paves way for undesirable human aspects, which finally lead to conflicts. The aspect of militarily arises from international conflicts due to poor structural settings.
For instance, countries from European and American continents have to concentrate on weapon building strategies in a bid to counter any international attack, reason being that the structural setup of every country is a source of structural violence due to poor settings.
The understanding of the world wars that took place in the 19th century is enhanced by the presence of people superseded by hunger for power prosperity, in regards to territorial control and proprietorship. The wars created a structural environment that enabled some countries to be in possession of powerful arms and ammunitions, thus looking down upon others.
The perception that other countries are weak entities by the American continent, and eventually causing war is a rationale towards understanding international conflicts.
The recent rampant terrorist attacks that prevail in the international scope are also as a result of the presence of countries that are more favored in military wealth than others. Moreover, the desire to exercise military power, while ignoring human dignity is a long-term rationale for international conflicts (Lawler, 1995, p. 67).
The existence of extreme poverty cases in human life is an indication of the preeminence of structural violence. In most cases, some countries have a common trend that has rampantly taken preeminence. Every country is marked by an interaction of extremely rich persons, who adversely interact with extremely poor persons, though living in a similar environmental context.
Those people associated with the leadership of any country in the international realms are always found in possession of wealth, while those far from power are in most cases poor. A recent environmental scanning study concluded that poverty has become a major problem in the world.
Similarly, refugees that move to countries for the sake of their safety are said to suffer due to the fact that host countries do not easily recognize their presence. Those people afflicted with chronic diseases are said to live in chronic poverty due to lack of support from the neighbors as well as the government.
Thus, international conflicts are known to occur rampantly, as campaigns for such poverty controversies arise for the sake of protection of the common person (Waart, et al., 2001, p. 325).
Structural conflicts are known to have offered an ample ground for exploitation and oppression, as well as intimidation in every realm of the society. The understanding of these fundamentals is best explained via structural violence existence. The international conflicts have rampantly arisen due to the prevalence of the expletory and oppression nature in human realms.
Many countries have been recently faced by rampant pre and post-election violence and conflicts, owing to the existence of unfaithful regimes. The service to the general society by governments has been today converted to the attendance to personal needs since social structures are already paralyzed.
This is a causative factor for exploitation and intimidation to most people in a societal setup. The oppression and intimidation factors are known in history as the main causes of societal aggression and ultimately leading to international conflicts (Kent, 1993).
Structural violence is also useful as an instrument for indication of difficulties associated with change acquisition. For instance, recent years have experienced dramatic shifts in all reams, and every international entity needs adopting new ideas. However, the employment setup is already violated by poor governance and monitoring of the international structures, leading to aggression.
Land disputes have also been sources of international conflicts, where poor ruling structures are in control and denying room for dialog to maintain peace. The effects are peace alleviation and overriding international conflicts. Moreover, poor ruling methodologies that do not provide room for the weak and the oppressed in the society are factors that lead to the structural violence occurrence.
However, structural violence resulting form unequal resources distribution provides a better comprehension of international conflicts. The fact that wealthy and prosperous regimes are always entitled to privileges causes international aggression, leading to international conflicts (Kent, 1993).
Theoretical approach to international conflicts on the basis of structural violence
The recent decades have seen large numbers of theorists arise in their bid to provide explanations of the international conflicts on the ground of structural violence. The main theory that leads to the realization of denial of human satisfaction to some individuals or groups is the human needs theory by John Burton in 1915.
The frameworks of the theory advocate for meeting of human needs as an instrument of peaceful human interactions and relations. The conflict theory is also important in explanation provision of international conflicts. This relates to the incompatibility of distinct parties in their presentation as the main causal factor for conflicts.
The structural violation in any society leads to a negative interaction nature between the two theories, leading to conflicts between parties.
The structural violence is viewed in disregard for some people in the society, leading to the violation of the requirements of the human needs theory, and paving way for the preeminence of the conflict theory. The correction of situations thus requires the intervention of conflict resolution theoretical approach (Juma, et al., 2002, p. 134).
Kurt Lewis model of management plays a vital role in addressing the need for ample societal management strategies as a step towards combating the structural violence extremes. The social theory that was early developed is very crucial in addressing the importance of a good societal interaction.
It requires that all social entities in a setting recognize the importance of each other as an ample weapon for fighting societal conflicts. The social theory propositions entail the need for societal construction on the basis of the available entities requirements to create a satiable nature. The most recent research has also come up with international relations theory that advocates for compatibles in accordance to the international laws.
Compatibles are considered as vital in fighting the spirit of intimidation, oppression, as well as discriminatory societal rules. The international law is useful as a tool for stabilization of structural and physical systems via the application of the best possible ideologies. Therefore, international conflicts solution has long been developed via the requirements of international law.
The normative theory is very useful in assisting the execution of international law. It requires that appropriate norms be followed in the understanding and prevention of international conflicts caused by structural violence (McEvoy and Newburn, 2003, pp. 6, 7).
The rationale and impacts of Understanding international conflicts and Violence
The comprehension of international conflicts and violence creates a ground for the enactment of peaceful attributes. The understanding is especially essential to those in the peace and conflict studies, since a ground for positive peace is easy to establish. It is always considered worthy where prevention takes the first position instead of cure.
Whenever this understanding is available, government regimes and policy-makers gain a better understanding of the common structural violence problems that their immediate society is facing. It is therefore easier to address the problems in better ways that can counter international conflicts.
The laying of foundation for peace rebuilding is facilitated by the analytical understanding of influences of structural violence on international conflicts. The realization that international conflicts are rampant in the society makes many to rise up in advocating for peace in the society. The campaigns conducted play a pivotal role in societal restoration.
The interference of the undesirable human acts that sometimes take preeminence in the society is easy, with the understanding of the paths they take. It is also easy to set frameworks that are necessary in addressing diverse magnitudes of international conflicts, as well as violence that may hinder the overall international development (Keenan and McDonagh, 1996).
Combating international and local conflicts is possible when there is clear information of the impacts of the structural violence on the society. The effect of the psychological and physical systems of the people that have been deprived of their positive peace by the structural violence is eased when there is understanding.
The government systems find it easier to lay grounds for advocating for a hopeful future whenever they analyze possible causes of international conflicts. The balancing of races, and background differences is duly addressed in understanding that races distinctions are major causes of structural violence that cause international conflicts.
The comprehension of violence relationship with the international conflict acts as an ample tool for stabilization of the economy, politics, as well as the social structures. This is done via the employment of ample strategies that would enhance the compatibility of all systems. Cultural differences can be easily solved with the understanding of the problem that arises from the structural violence.
Moreover, the rampancy of issues like sexism, health facility accessibility difficulties, and other impacts of structural violence can be easily addressed in the comprehension of their causal factors. The moderation of the international law above all is enabled through the comprehension of international conflicts on the basis of structural violence (Keenan and McDonagh, 1996).
Conclusion
Structural violence is a fundamental concept in the analysis and understanding of international conflicts. Structural conflicts arise from the creation of room that benefits and privileges a certain group in the society, while the rest suffer inadequacy for their desires. International conflicts occur due to incompatibility of different parties in regards to a matter of concern, and at a particular time.
The usefulness of the structural violence in the understanding of the international conflicts lies in its comprehensive nature in addressing negative issues that affect the society indirectly.
However, the understanding of this usefulness is crucial in the construction of a stable society in all realms of human interaction. Nevertheless, more empirical and theoretical studies should be conducted to enhance the importance of structural violence in understanding the international conflicts scope.
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Amongst the first remarks made by Guru Nanak upon his enlightenment as a Sikh, is that there is no Hindu, there is no Musalman (Singh 134). Guru Nanak, the religious founder of Hindu Sikhism, used this remark to address the long standing relationship between Sikh and the Muslim. Nanak implied that all human beings are equal and that any profiling of people on the basis of their religion, skin colour, gender or any other form of stereotypical description is founded on ignorance.
Nanak also added that racial profiling of people does not have any sense of truth since all people are created equally by one creator. As such people from all backgrounds ought to live in peace and harmony, love and kindness towards each other as brothers and sisters from the same creator. Despite Guru Nanaks philosophy of peace and love towards each other, the conflict between Hindu Sikhs, of which Nanak was one and the Muslim has had along history.
The Sikh-Muslim conflict has evolved over long period of time but many philosophers, analysts and scholars tend to focus on the negative nature of this special relationship forgetting the more positive aspects. Suffice to say that, other than the strong personal relationship between Guru Nanak and other Muslim leaders of the time, it has also been recorded that some Muslim solders served in Guru Nanaks Hindu army.
Despite the positive relationship the Sikh-Muslim conflict has at times been so strained to the extent that it has turned violent. Moreover, many philosophers and scholar argue that this conflict is religio-political. Therefore, despite friendly relationship between the Sikh and the Muslim, violent confrontations have characterised this conflict that has also assumed the religio-political perspective.
Despite the fact that Many Muslims and Sikhs view each other as inveterate enemies, these two communities have a long and complex relationship characterised, at times by very friendly relationships.
Many scholars tend to focus their attention on studying the more confrontational aspects of this special relationship. However, the Sikh-Muslim relationship is historically founded on cooperation rather than conflict. Many Sikhs and Muslim are oblivious of the fact that Guru Nanak sole aim was to promote friendly relationships between the Hindu and the Muslim people.
Guru Nanak sought to attain this by bridging the existing gap between the two communities through his teaching of love, peace and harmony. Furthermore one of Guru Nanaks closet ally and disciple, Mardana, was a Muslim. Other than this, Guru Nanak made several symbolic journeys to Mecca and Baghdad in search of peace between Sikhs and Muslim. There are other symbolic occurrences that sought to cement friendly relationship between the two communities.
Harminder Sahib, the Golden Temple of the Hindu Sikh, had its foundation stone laid by a muslin cleric Hazrat Mian Mir Sahib upon the requests of Guru Arjan (Sikand, Interview paras 7 10). Singh also reports that some of the soldiers who served in Guru Nanaks army professed the Muslim faith, while still maintaining their loyalty to Guru Nanak (134). As such to claim that the Sikh-Muslim relations have been usually negative is to miss the point.
Despite the long history of friendly relationship, the Sikhs and the Muslim have also have bitter differences that have at times turned violent. The confrontation have at times been too much violent that the two communities have been accused of washing their dirty linen in public (Kundnani para 1). There are various instances of violent confrontations between the Muslim and the Hindu Sikhs in recent times.
Some of these violent confrontations have been motivated by such issues as war on terror. In 2001, Sikhs and Muslims engaged on running battler in Bradford, India, over the differences of the definition of terrorism.
In the same year, a 15 year old Hindu girl was reportedly severely injured after an argument over the event of the September 2001 bombing of the world trade centre in New York. Some of the violent confrontations between these two communities have turned tragic, such as the killing of three British Muslims on holiday in India.
It has been reported that the killings were inspired by the state sponsored war against terrorism and as such any Muslim especially foreigners in the Gujarat state was seen as a representation of terrorism. The state government was accused of distributing weapon such as machetes that were used in such murders (Kundnani para 2 4). While the confrontation seems like isolated occurrences, the violence is a manifestation of long running hatred inspired by religious and political propaganda.
This type of propaganda is spread through journals, newspaper and newsletter articles, with very strong views against the other community dominating such publications. Readers of these articles are influenced to stand up and defended their sovereignty. This type of attitude has slowly led to the build up of these violent confrontations (Brass 436, 438).
The conflict between the Sikhs and Muslims is a result of the long standing religious and political differences. Suffice to say that that other than being racial groups, the Sikhs and the Muslim are distinctive religious groups.
The confrontations are drawn out of the fact that the Sikhs and the Muslims religious foundations have assumed a political dimension such that the two see each other as opposing political ideologies. The hostilities emerge as a result of the intention of the Sikhs and the Muslims to maintain a religious identity through a political agenda (Johnstone 132).
This type of religious and political identification is totally against the philosophy of Guru Nanak (Singh 134). Due to the concerted effort of Guru Nanak and other Muslim clerics made to maintain friendliness in the 15th and 16the centuries, the religious and political hostilities are only sees as the characteristic of post-Nanak era. Furthermore, the post Nanak Sikh identity has fundamentally changed from the open an accommodating to a more radical religio-political identity.
The Sikh sees the Islam as the enemy religion. These strong religion-political conflicts are felt in Punjab where the two communities kill each other in what is seen as religious massacre (Sikand, Life of Baba Nanak para 4). The strong religion and political differences still drive the conflict not only in Punjab but in other areas such Kashmir today.
The Sikh and the Muslim have a complex historical relationship. Despite the fact that many see this relationship and only based on violent confrontation, the Sikhs and the Muslim have existed peacefully.
There have been several instances of cooperation between Sikhs and Muslims scuh as the laying of the foundation stone of the Sikhs golden temple in Amritsar by a Muslim cleric, a symbolic event that is emblematic of the historical cooperation between the two communities. The violent nature of Sikh-Muslim relationship is a manifestation of religious and political differences that exist between the two communities. Due to the complexities involved, there is no end in sight to this historical affair.
Works Cited
Brass ,Paul. The production of Hindu-Muslim violence in contemporary India. Washington: University of Washington Press, 2003. Print.
Johnstone, Ronald. Religion in society: A sociology of religion. Michigan: Prentice Hall, 2006. Print.
Kanwarjit, Singh. Political philosophy of the Sikh gurus. New Delhi: Atlantic publisher and distributors, 1989. Print.