Category: Conflict

Introduction

The conflict has been part of human existence since time immemorial. It is a natural occurrence and there is no way conflict can be divorced from human existence so long as people live together. Interestingly, conflict occurs at all fronts of life; be it in relationships, families, and workplaces or between nations. The fact is, people are different, and therefore they will uphold different beliefs and ideas. Unfortunately, there is a great need for cohesiveness for any system to function properly.

This cohesiveness cannot be achieved without compromising certain principles and this marks the genesis of the conflict. In principle, certain people will feel violated if they have to compromise on some of the dearly held beliefs and they will feel shortchanged in different settings. Interestingly, there is an ever-increasing conflict between males and females. This calls for a serious and urgent solution to settle differences between these important groups of society.

Why Study Conflict

Since conflict is inevitable amongst people living together, studying it also becomes inevitable and this is a necessity to foster understanding between individuals for a better living. It pays a lot to study conflict management because it helps someone to solve, face, avoid, or help others to overcome conflict. The conflict between males and females is a fact at both organizational and interpersonal levels. Therefore, because people cannot shy from reality or ignore the facts, it is important that people study conflict. It is important to note at this point that, ignoring the facts does not change them.

According to Wilmot and Hocker (2005), studying conflict helps individuals to reconcile their differences (p. 2). Studying conflict also helps individuals say, husband and wife, to start their relationships all over again with a fresh mindset to achieve certain goals. Studies carried out by the National Institute of Mental Health indicated that unresolved conflicts lead to depression and this extends to the workplace whereby, millions of dollars are lost through poor performance or missed days (Wilmot & Hocker, 2005, p. 2). Therefore, studying conflict and knowing how to resolve it, will save organizations these huge losses.

Knowing how to handle conflict saves so many marriages from going down the drain. Why is it that some couples will go through conflict successfully while others succumb to its pressures and break long-cherished relationships? The reason lies in how these couples handle conflict. Conflict is not the problem for it has to happen, the problem is how to handle it and this can only come through proper knowledge on how to manage conflict. Conflict management holds the key to successful relationships whether in organizations or in families. According to Volkema and Bergman (1989), conflicts in the workplace result to huge negative impacts if left unresolved for long (p. 759). Therefore, the importance of studying conflict cannot be overemphasized.

Existing Problems that needs to be Addressed

There are significant problems in form of differences between male and female in the society today. These problems call for urgent address to create that mutual understanding between male and female that has been missing for a long time. Due to diversity of people in society, differences hence conflict arise daily. People have different backgrounds, approaches to life and perspectives (Tannen, 1990, p. 15).

The existing problem here that needs urgent addressing is the fact that people have different opinions and perspectives concerning same thing. Another problem is that some people tend to think that their opinion is always right; therefore, they want everyone else to comply with their opinion. This problem leads to longstanding conflict because such people will not compromise their stand. Take for instance in marriage, the husband decides that he is the head of the family thus he has to make all the decisions. The wife will feel neglected and shortchanged because relationships are anchored on mutual understanding.

Incompatibility of aims and goals generates conflicts in organizations and in families. Diversity is positive because it enhances survival; however, there are prices to pay to enjoy the richness of this diversity (Baxter, 1982, p. 25).

Men and women are very different in all manner of ways. While a man maybe trying to achieve financial gain and stability by propelling his career, a female companion may be trying to earn enough money to support her family as she enjoy the fun of the moment. Aims and goals come in both short term and long term packages. If one side is trying to achieve a long-term goal while the other is trying to achieve a short-term goal, then conflict will arise. Incompatible goals and aims call for great attention; unfortunately, this has taken a back seat in relationships or in organizations. People usually have a common yet misconstrued assumption that if people are working together then it follows that they have common interests and goals (Wilmot & Hocker, 2005, p. 16). Far from it, counterbalancing goals are a reality in work place. However, redefining and restructuring the goal, to achieve the same purpose can resolve conflicts.

According to Wilmot and Hocker (2005), expressed struggle in individuals is an existent problem that needs to be addressed (p. 9). This results from internal strain within a person leading to unresolved issues in ones mind and this extends to his or her feelings. The underlying factor here is the failure to address interpersonal perceptions existent amongst individuals. Unfortunately, conflict is built on these perceptions and not unless they are resolved, conflict will persist. Communication barrier remains an all-time problem in conflict. Communication cannot be divorced from conflict because communication will either resolve or intensify conflict (Bodine & Crawford, 1998, p.69).

Regardless of whether conflict is interpersonal or organizational, communication will have the same effect. One well-timed word can change a conflict to communication. If male and female would master the power of communication properly, then instead of escalating conflict, they would resolve it. There is power in spoken word.

Interdependence takes a central role in the issue of conflict management. One may tend to think that instead of trying to solve conflict, it would be advisable to move away from it. However, this is not the case; individuals, especially men and women are interdependent; without interdependence, there is no conflict. Tannen (1990) notes that, an individual who is not dependent on another, has no conflict with that other person (p. 65).

This underlines the importance of interdependence in conflict. Regrettably, many individuals think that they can do everything on their own; however, this is not the case, no man is an island. In a relationship, neither the husband nor the wife can be independent. In organizations, individuals have to be dependent on each other because they work in concert to achieve a common goal. This has to be addressed in conflict management.

Perceived scarce resources also exist like conflict factor. People, men and women alike, need attention. Any perceived scenario that seems to threaten, diminish, or take away this attention creates conflict. Apart from attention, other resources like money, time; both tangible and intangible resources pose a great risk to escalating conflict. However, Wilmot and Hocker (2005) points out that, power and self-esteem are the crucial perceived scarce resources at interpersonal level (p. 14).

Finally, interference poses a great risk towards propagating conflict. This pertinent issue has to be addressed in effective conflict management. Interfering, disrupting, or preventing the other person from achieving his or her goal compounds conflict. Interference can occur deliberately or impulsively; nevertheless, its effect on conflict is the same (Bodine & Crawford, 1998, p. 98). The person causing the interference appears to be the problem; however, he or she may be the solution.

Think of a wife asking the husband for a date out of town at the middle of the month. The husband says no because he cannot support it, the wife sees the husband as an obstacle standing in her way to a date. This causes conflict. Incompatible goals, interference, perceived scarce resources interdependence and lack of communication are the core existent problems that need to be addressed in a conflict.

Little Attention Given To This Area

Despite the long spells that male and female experience under conflict, very little attention has been given to this area. People have a way of assuming things and hoping that these things will change with time. Surely, time is the master healer but when it comes to conflict wishing for the best does not materialize to any solution. Seemingly, individuals have resorted to this retrogressive behavior to solve conflicts. It is difficult to see people taking charge and responsibility to own up mistakes, compromise her and there in a bid to solve longstanding conflicts. One of the greatest reasons behind this behavior is ego (Deutsch, 1973, p. 27). People think that if they compromise their principles that translates to dented ego.

At times, people do not concentrate on the issue of conflict study because they hope that conflict will not come their way. The fact is; conflict is a reality and inevitable (Donohue & Kolt, 1992, p. 32). Dealing with conflict requires time, resources, and commitment. One or more of these critical components may be lacking leading to paying little attention on studying conflict. One may have the time but lack commitment or the resources. Deliberate disinterest in studying this crucial area is another explanation as to why little attention has been given to this area.

People have continually made the common mistake of concluding that conflict is a problem like any other. This assumption is too costly because the repercussions are far reaching. Conflict has to be avoided regardless of the expenses incurred because it is not healthy to live in conflict. Lack of knowledge also explains why there is very little attention given to this area. According to Donohue and Kolt (1992), people do not know precisely the cost of unresolved conflict because the repercussions may come under the guise of another cause while in the real sense they emanated from unresolved conflicts (p. 39). Moreover, misconstrued belief that the process of learning conflict management is too complex and requires professionals to handle it has led to many people shying away from learning conflict management.

These factors notwithstanding, many people think and feel that they are overly qualified to deal with any conflict arising. They will try to maneuver ways that will suit their needs and because they have done it in the past and succeeded, then they can do it in future. This notion eliminates the desire to engage in programs that teach how to handle conflict constructively (Bjorkqvist, 1997, p. 45).

Practical considerations

As aforementioned, conflict is a reality in life and it happens all the time at different places. According to the way individuals respond to conflict, they either escalate it or solve it. This portion will analyze some practical considerations of conflict arising from the existing problems discussed above.

Take for instance, the issue of power and self-esteem in the problem of perceived scarce resources. A mother calls in her friend to take care of her sick children when she is away at work. The friend, who comes in expects to strengthen her relationship with the mother because at least she has helped her. She expects to spend more time with the mother thereafter. However, the mother of these children is so preoccupied with her job that she can only find little or no time to spend with her friend. The friend feels let down, her self-esteem is dented and she concludes that she will never sit in for this mother because she becomes important only when the kids are sick. The perceived scarce resource here is time and conflict results from it.

On interference, Terry loves watching soccer and he would do anything to watch all the games over the weekend. However, his wife, Janice, does not understand this aspect of Terry. One weekend, Janice surprises Terry with suggestion to go skiing on that Saturday evening. Terry cannot understand the whole issue and declines the offer and he asks, Will you ever respect and approve what I love doing? To Terry, Janice is interfering with his plans to spend the evening with his buds enjoying one of the top-flight soccer in the world. This conflict remains unresolved because no one really understands the other.

Incompatible goals have always emerged as a major problem escalating conflict between men and women. Janet, married to Joel wants to revamp their apartments. However, Joel is not up to it. He would rather get a new car now and revamp their apartments sometimes next year; therefore, he says a straight no to Janets proposition. Janet is naturally hurt for she cannot understand why Joel will never understand her. This threatens the relationship and they seek counselors advice. After a scrutiny, this couple realizes that they have a common goal but in different faces. They all want the good for the family; however, they have different aims.

Their means to attaining their goal, that is, a better life, are incompatible. Joel wants what he can be seen with; a car, while Janet wants what she can be seen in, an apartment. After rigorous session in hands of the counselor, they realize that, they can agree to share a common goal at a time.

On interdependence, Allison has been waiting for her dream wedding. It has been two years after completing school, has a good job, and lives alone in another state. She calls her mother to involve her and the father in the plans of her wedding. However, the father would hear none of it. He insists that his child would never be married to Pyler, Allisons fiancé. The mother becomes infuriated and she stops answering Allisons calls. After a while, Allison comes home to know what is going on. She realizes that her father would not support her plans to marry her fiancé and that is why her mother would not answer her calls. This family depends on the father to make decisions. The father wants the best for his children and that is why he will not let his daughter get married to a man not worth it. He depends on his family to maintain the high esteem that has been around for long. All these parties are interdependent.

Literature Review

Psychologists have done numerous researches on the subject of male-female conflict and have availed a lot concerning this issue. Research has been done to determine causes and ways of dealing with conflict.

Interpersonal Conflict

Conflict is not a bad thing; it only becomes bad depending on how the involved parties handle it. Actually, studies show that conflict is healthy especially when solved amicably. Conflict affects relationships and after it occurs, it can weaken or strengthen the relationship. In some cases it has led to termination of cherished relationships while in other cases it has helped to strengthen seemingly weak relationship that were perhaps weakened by misunderstanding. Relationships depend on mutual understanding and mutual understanding comes by way of deeper understanding of issues that affect individuals coupled with closeness that acts as glue binding the involved parties together.

According to Braiker and Kelly (1979), conflict between male and female escalate because of shying away from conflict itself (p. 35). People will do this for a number of reasons; however, ego and pride plays a major role in unresolved conflict. Many individuals are not willing to swallow their pride, own up their mistakes and shortcomings and resolve conflict between them and others. In other cases, individuals in a relationship may shy away from conflict because they feel that if they face it, they will run out of control and the underlying anger. In this case, confronting conflict will only intensify it. In such a situation, individuals look at conflict as all for nothing situation and ignore it or engage in it in full force directing their anger to the object of wrath.

Another reason why people will shy away from conflict is that they may feel inadequate in a given relationship (Fisher & Brown, 1988, p. 50). Instead of blowing things up, an individual may decide to overlook conflict because he or she knows that nothing good will come out of the conflict or in its resolution. They will simply not agree on anything and it is good to maintain status quo and enjoy life when one can. Research indicates that, people just do not know how to solve conflict and if they try to solve it, they do it in a destructive way (Fisher & Brown, 1988, p. 84). Instead of solving a conflict, they try to settle scores and this is a destructive way of solving conflict. Destructive conflict resolution serves to intensify the conflict and leaves individuals more hurt than they were in the initial conflict.

According to Hall (1993), male and female conflict is on the increase because when faced with conflict, these people deny or deliberately avoid admitting existence of conflict (p. 12). In such a case, conflict lingers in the background as the involved parties interact. However, as time goes by, this suppressed conflict wells up creating more tension between the involved individuals and within a given time, it erupts. This is the first step. The second step involves people becoming mad and pointing fingers to the other party. At this point, anger sets in and individuals do not realize that they are in a conflict; on the contrary, people think other parties are angry with them (Braiker & Kelly, 1979, p. 63). This serves to intensify the conflict and as the involved parties continue to differ, they become defensive. Each wants to justify his or her own actions and at this point, there is no chance of solving things out amicably, not until a third party comes in to settle the conflict.

Finally, individuals try to settle conflict through influence and power. However, this action is not in good faith because individuals use power to win at the expense of others and intimidate them. Couples may employ this strategy to intimidate their partners. In this case, conflict may seem to be over; however, the party that loses becomes resentful and may try to settle scores later. Moreover, as Hall (1993) points out, this is manipulation, not conflict management (p. 16).

Organizational Conflict

In organizations, conflicts between male and female are becoming a common place. Administrations are always on the run to secure professional services in conflict management to solve conflict between individuals in work place. However, research indicates that, workplace conflicts are systematic in most cases (McDermott & Berkeley, 1996, p. 49).Lack of information has been quoted as the main source of conflict in workplace. Despite this age where technology has simplified communication, there is massive miscommunication or improper use of the same. It is common to hear individuals ask why they were not told of such a thing, when confronted on a certain issue.

Lack of skills also contributes largely to organizational conflict. The education system in place teaches us everything else apart from relationships. Individuals lack interpersonal communication skills coupled with little or no information on collaborative problem solving skills (Johnson, 1993, 49). Unfortunately, lack of these essential elements leads to escalated conflict resulting from a minor issue that would be solved before becoming destructive.

According to McDermott and Berkeley (1996), in organizations, there are ineffective organizational systems and in most cases, these system problems come out as organizational and interpersonal conflicts (p. 34). Tracing back the genesis of a conflict, mediators have established that the organization may be putting much pressure on an individual thus affecting the way he or she behaves and functions. After a change in attitude or performance, this individual comes under conflict with management or fellow workers.

Unfortunately, many organizations employ cultural ways of solving conflict and this does not help much. Informal ways of conflict resolution offers a short time solution and the conflict keeps on resurfacing. Generally, informal conflict solution suppresses the cause of conflict and it follows that every time the suppressed source is uncovered, then conflict arises ((McDermott & Berkeley, 1996, p. 57). This translates to poorly managed conflict resolution in a system and if unchecked, it can become a culture persisting for decades.

In many organizations, there is misuse of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). Even though many organizations are increasingly using alternative ways to settle down disputes, they opt for them at advanced stage of conflict ((McDermott & Berkeley, 1996, p. 16). Unfortunately, instead of solving conflicts, the late use of ADR throws confusion to mediation process and may impose a complicated process to an employee, who is misinformed about the adopted processes. Mediation should come before grievances and solve conflicts as they arise.

Healthy Approaches to Conflict Resolution

Researchers indicate that, conflicts start from minor issues and then advance to serious issues under the watch of the involved parties. Conflict between loved ones is different from conflict with a stranger like a work mate. However, Borisdoff and Victor (1997) posit that, regardless of the type of conflict, the involved parties should view this as a problem to be solved mutually (p. 36). This principle underscores all successful conflict resolution. The involved parties should create a win-win situation where nobody feels shortchanged or undermined. Human beings crave appreciation, and creating a situation where everyone feels appreciated has proved effective in conflict resolution. Each person should get equal chance to air his or her opinions and get actively involved in reaching a resolution.

Borisoff and Victor (1997) indicate that, in most cases individuals are caught up with their immediate interests that they damage relationships (p. 65). Selfishness, disregarding other peoples opinions, use of fear, power, and intimidation to reach a resolution can never work out.

The following approaches should be used to reach an agreement regardless of whether the conflict is interpersonal or organizational. The first step is to admit that there is a problem and identify it. Then, identify several possible solutions, the brainstorming phase. This ensures that every one gets equal chance in solving the conflict. Next, evaluate the solutions identified in stage II to decide on the best option that puts into consideration all involved parties. After this, implement the identified solution and continue to evaluate the performance of the solution reached.

Insights from the Literature Review

From the available literature review, researchers have identified key points that are positive. First, it is common knowledge that people tend to shy away from conflict. Even though they know very well that they have a problem, people will tend to assume things will fall in place sometimes in future. Again, male and female have continually used power and manipulation to settle scores in relationships. A man may tend to punish a woman in a relationship to settle a score.

However, as researchers point out, this serves to escalate the differences. On the issue of resolving conflict, literature reveals that the first step is admitting that there is a problem. Admission shows willingness to find a solution. Involving every one in resolving the conflict is another point that the writer finds appropriate in resolving conflict. Researchers have it right in their work and the writer feels that the outlined issues in literature review concerning conflict and conflict resolution are positive.

Use of Literature Information to Help People

The average person has not been in a position to access information on conflict and conflict management. Many people are ill informed about conflict and are unaware of it. Even those who are aware of it are too proud and unwilling to confront the issue. The common person should be taught that conflict is a realistic part of life and the reason behind many broken families and relationships is unresolved conflict. People need to know that ignoring facts does not change them; likewise, ignoring the fact that there exists a conflict in their daily life does not change the existence of the same. Moreover, people need to know that resolved conflicts strengthen relationships and what seemed to work against them may actually work for them.

Learning relationship skills should be a desire of every one for it is important to resolve or better still, prevent conflict. Individuals need to learn to identify how to prevent conflict by identifying the source of disagreement because; elementary, conflict originates from unresolved differences.

Teaching this information requires systematic procedures for effective results. Given the fact that most people go through education system, the writer would propose integration of interpersonal communication and conflict management in education system. The writer would also urge the media to step in and educate the average person the importance of conflict and conflict management. The writer would approach one of the popular newspaper agencies and secure a column where he or she would be highlighting the importance of conflict management and how to go about it. The writer would also engage in forums and social clubs and pass on this information to the average person.

Suggestions for Future Research/Conclusion

Now that it is apparent that conflict is a reality and inevitable, there is a great need to come up with ways of preventing or minimizing conflict between male and female both at interpersonal level and organizational level. We already know that conflict can be resolved amicably; however, we need to know how we can do this effectively without necessarily consulting professionals in this area. We need to learn more on how to detect conflict at its formative stages and address it before it escalates to dangerous levels. There is a need to know how to deal with oneself because it appears that most conflicts result and persist due to personal selfish ambitions. The problem comes from within; it is intrinsic as opposed the notion that it is extrinsic.

At organizational level, we need to know how people can create an environment that is favorable to all people. The type of further studies needed in this area is interdisciplinary research whereby researchers will look into old problems in a new and highly interdisciplinary mode. This will involve application of dynamic scientific studies to study conflict and its resolution. The new methods need to address issues like conflict resolution facilitation. Further study is needed on education theories on how to come up with effective ways of disseminating information effectively to the right people. Apparently, there is more than enough information about conflict and conflict resolution but it has not reached the right people.

Reference List

Baxter, L. (1982). Conflict Management: An Episodic Approach. Small Group Behavior 13(1): 23-42. Web.

Bodine, J., & Crawford, D. (1998). The Handbook of Conflict Resolution Education: A Guide to Building Quality Programs in Schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Web.

Borisoff, D., & Victor, D. (1997). Conflict Management: A Communication Skills Approach, 2nd Ed. Boston: Allyn And Bacon. Web.

Bjorkqvist, K. (1997). The Inevitability of Conflict But Not Of Violence: Theoretical Considerations on Conflict and Aggression. In Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Web.

Braiker, H. B., & Kelley, H. (1979). Conflict in the Development of Close Relationships. In Social Exchange In Developing Relationships. New York: Academic Press. Web.

Deutsch, M. (1973). Conflicts: Productive and Destructive. In Conflict Resolution Through Communication, Edited By F. E. Jandt. New York: Harper & Row. Web.

Donohue, A., & Kolt, R. (1992). Managing Interpersonal Conflict. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications. Web.

Fisher, R., & Brown, S. (1988). Getting Together: Building Relationships as We Negotiate. London: Penguin. Web.

Hall, L. (1993). Negotiation: Strategies for Mutual Gain. Newbury Park: Sage. Web.

Johnson, A. (1993). Negotiation Basics: Concepts, Skills, and Exercises. Newbury Park: Sage. Web.

McDermott, P., & Berkeley, A. (1996). Alternative Dispute Resolution In The Workplace: Concepts and Techniques for Human Resource Executives and their Counsel. West Port: Quorum Books. Web.

Tannen, D. (1990). You Just Do not Understand: Women And Men In Conversation. New York: William Morrow And Company. Web.

Volkema, R., & Bergmann, T. (1989). Interpersonal Conflict at Work: An Analysis Of Behavioral Responses. Human Relations 42(6): 757-770. Web.

Wilmot, W., & Hocker, L. (2005). Interpersonal Conflict, 7th Ed. Boston, Mass: McGraw-Hill. Web.

Conflicts are an inevitable part of all group activities. However, in many cases, a suitable approach to conflict resolution process will provide acceptable terms for both sides. The following paper analyzes the Ugli Orange case, identifies and applies to it an appropriate conflict management theory, and offers an optimal resolution.

The conflict in the Ugli Orange case revolves around the availability of a specific material, namely a supply of a rare fruit called the Ugli Orange. Since both parties are severely limited in time, the available amount of oranges can be equaled to a non-renewable resource. In addition, the total supply that is currently available is not sufficient to satisfy the demand of both parties, since each side needs three-quarters of the bulk. The most suitable classification of the conflict in question would be the intergroup conflict since it occurs between the representatives of different groups. However, it should be pointed out that the groups in question are separate corporate entities, which is not fully compatible with the definition above since it usually frames groups as belonging to the same organization.

It is interesting to note that both parties involved in the conflict are actually interested in different parts of the fruit since the serum is synthesized from the orange juice whereas the vapor for gas deactivation is manufactured using the rind. Therefore, from the purely technical standpoint, the conflict is a result of misinformation and poor understanding of the situation on both sides rather than an actual deficit. In simpler terms, the supply of oranges is actually sufficient for the goals of both parties, and the perceived shortage is caused by the incomplete interpretation of the actions of the competitor.

According to the Filleys conflict management theory, the conflict in question has already passed the stage of antecedent conditions, where the parties were informed about the need for a specific object and the scarcity of its supply (Kelly, 2012). The present situation can be characterized as a perceived conflict, where both individuals view the opponent as a competitor who threatens the success of the operation. By applying the theory to the scenario, it is possible to expect the onset of a felt conflict stage with the beginning of negotiations for purchase of the oranges, followed by conflict resolution (likely the failure of one parties to obtain the necessary materials), and an aftermath (the failure of one of the sides to save the victims).

In order to prevent the unfavorable scenario, it is possible to utilize one of the six common resolutions. The first resolution is competing in which each side actively pursues their interests and does so at the expense of the opponent. This is a power-oriented and proactive approach and is often utilized by individuals or groups with sufficient power and negotiating capacity. Another possible resolution is avoidance in which one of the sides willingly withdraws from the conflict to avoid confrontation. The third option is accommodation in which one of the parties abandons their position in order to satisfy the interests of an opponent. The fourth resolution is collaborating, where parties assist each other in reaching a solution that equally satisfactory for both sides. Fifth, one of the individuals may consider compromising, where some of the desired components are obtained at the expense of the others (Tidström, 2014). Finally, an agreement can be reached through negotiation, which is a combination of competition and collaboration and does not necessarily lead to consensus.

As can be seen from the information above, collaboration is the most favorable approach. Once both parties are aware of the specificities of the case, it will become evident that there is no need for a compromise aside from time constraints (e.g., the delivery of orange rind to the laboratory). Such a resolution would result in satisfactory results for both parties and is to be sought by sides of the conflict.

References

Kelly, P. (2012). Nursing leadership & management (3rd ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Cengage Learning.

Tidström, A. (2014). Managing tensions in competition. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(2), 261-271.

The conceptualization of the various social issues allowed the sociologists to offer theoretical perspectives on those issues. The main three perspectives used by sociologists today are the functionalist perspective, symbolic interactionism, and conflict perspective.

Examining the aforementioned perspectives, this paper applies the perspectives to three social issues, which are high crime rates, high poverty rates, and high unemployment.

According to the functionalist perspective, society is viewed as an organism in which each part has its function. In that regard, every aspect of society makes a contribution to the stability of societys systems. The examined issues can be seen as dysfunctions in the society, where a dysfunction refers to an element or process of a society that may actually disrupt the social system or reduce its stability. (Schaefer) Thus, taking the examples provided, all of them can be considered as dysfunctions, however, in the functionalist perspective, high crime rates can be interpreted based on the different values and positions from which this dysfunction can be interpreted. In that sense, high crime rates can be seen as providing a functional part of the police departments work. High poverty rates and unemployment can be seen as a function through which the society must take several actions to restore stability and consensus, such as various welfare programs, or their elimination.

The conflict perspective, on the other hand, understands social behavior through the prism of the tension between various groups regarding resources, in which one group will benefit, while the other will suffer. Thus, taking the example of high crime rates, this phenomenon can be explained as a reaction to some form of pressure, between two groups with different values, e.g. lower-income populations and social institutions. In another perspective, high poverty rates can be seen as the reaction of a certain group, and the wealthy corporation, which can create inequality in income distribution. According to the Marxist view, the societys institutions help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a subservient position. (Schaefer) Similarly, high unemployment rates can be seen as a reaction to the wealthy part of the population keeping their privileges at the expense of another part of the population losing their jobs.

The symbolic interactionism perspective views people as living in world of meaningful objects (Schaefer), and accordingly these objects might represent symbols through which people can communicate. Applying to the high crime rates issue, the interactionists might see the raised number of criminals resulted from the changes in the perceptions of criminals, and how the label of criminal is applied. High rates of poverty can be examined also through the objects people interact with, i.e. poor families, poor education, and poor working opportunities, where all of the aforementioned can predetermine poverty in society. In terms of unemployment, first of all, the loss of jobs can be seen as a loss of the symbol of status which was acquired through the process of interaction. Accordingly, unemployment itself can symbolize a crash of a certain system, e.g. the American dream. Additionally, as interactionism might view the issues from the macro level, the high unemployment rate might be examined through specific situations, rather than providing a general picture, e.g. the interaction of the employees and the employers as the cause of high unemployment rate in the company X.

References

Schaefer, Richard T. Sociology: A Brief Introduction. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill 2008.

Introduction

In many modern societies, conflicts between states and within the states have resulted in many wars or sometimes-severe violence cases. The wars have resulted in immense destruction of lives and millions worth property. In addition, many conflicts have resulted in disruption of many political, social and economic organizations in many societies (Omotayo, 2005, p.2). Many conflict resolution theories do not consider many local cultures. Specifically, many do not give particular gender roles consideration as dictated by culture. This paper will critically analyze the ties that exist between gender, culture and conflict resolution in relation to Augsburgers themes.

Culture and conflict resolution

Gender generally describes the characteristics of men and women that are constructed by the societies. In the other hand, sex characteristics are biologically determined. The learnt behaviour in most cases builds up the gender identity of an individual. Culture is an important component in conflict resolution. This is because; culture of a certain community guides its members perceptions, judgments and knowledge of ones self and other societal members. Many cultural sets may share ethnicity or nationality, but in most cases, they crop up from different generations, class and sex. A cultural message directs the nature of relationships and individuals reactions to different conflicting issues (Lebron, 2003, Para 1-5).

Many complications arise in dealing with cultural orientation to conflict solving. The first complication is that culture is multilayered. This makes it hard to make cultural generalizations on any existing conflict. Culture also is in constant change. This makes it hard to make specific assumptions on any cultural group. Thirdly, most cultural practices are elastic. This makes it hard to determine specific behaviours of members of that subculture (Lebron, 2003, Para 7-9). Due to this, it is important to learn the cultural orientation of a certain group involved in a conflict before solving their wars. Culture determines the way we frame and put blames on certain individuals. Take an example of the Gaza war; it is not all about the territorial boundaries. Research has shown that the war is about recognition, poor representation and legalizing of specific modes of living and cultures (Lebron-culture and conflict connections, 2003, Para 1-2).

Themes in Augsburger regarding the differences in conflict styles between women and men

Men and women are regarded to have different conflict resolution patterns. This is attributed to the fact that power over many institutions is more so the family is left to men. This division is based mostly on the gender differences between men and women. Most womens power is more diffuse and personalized outside the recognized structures existing in many societies. This is even worse when it comes to some communities. For example, in the Islamic society many women are prevented from becoming judges in many courts. Even in acting as witnesses mens evidence is taken as more truthful as considered to that of women (Augsburger, 1992, p.5-6).

Unequal power interaction includes values that many societies value and follow. These values determine the correct societys morality, economics and laws that govern its natives. In many societies, the sex roles determine which duties women can undertake, the nature of relationships that are acceptable and practices that are acceptable from a certain sex group. This in most cases contradicts the human equality, freedom and dignity that should be accorded to all sexes (Augsburger, 1992, p.24).

To women conflicts take two dimensions: the seen and the unseen conflicts. Due to the realization of the theme of new consciousness, women are becoming rebellious to the obstacles imposed on them by tradition. In addition, many women are demanding accountability on mens path in conflict resolution. Many issues that undermine women power are being addressed although still tradition ties the efforts (Augsburger, 1992, p.50-51).

Many female styles of conflict resolution are powerful to mens, but the existence of both contributes greatly to conflict resolution. Many men approaches are very harsh in that, there exist a believe that one can either solve a problem or use the problem to earn himself a title. Many women who solve many conflicts never receive credit for it, but instead the praise is placed on men. Many women employ broad networking, partnerships and power based on mutual understanding in solving conflicts. However, men always take paths that can accord them praise on womens developments. Women go through all the content of the disagreement. In most cases, this is done in consideration of a single sex group, in trying to understand the truth about the conflict. However, because of the cultural orientation on gender of many societies, men will always come in during the mediation process and formalize the proceedings, leaving women with little appreciation. This is attributed to the believe tattoo men discuss and have more arguing power than women (Caprioli, 2003, p. 3-6).

Womens political and social supremacy in some communities is more or almost equal in superiority in comparison to the mens. Women aim to maintain their own group affiliations, but in most cases the traditional ties give them no chance of action (Caprioli, 2003, p.7).

Many cultures dictate men and women to function differently. As collier writes, societies dictate that women should work in domestic groupings and men in political functions. For a woman to raise to power, most societies dictate that they have to get backing of a man. This in many societies has forced women to create their own power systems. This is due to a cultural belief that men in most cases help in bringing the family lineage together but women come in and destroy the same (Caprioli, 2003, p.9-13). This places women as obstructing factors to the peaceful coexistence of families.

In most cases, women have disputes with others when it is in their interest. Nevertheless, they always have ways of reconciling the worrying parties. These factors always depend on their own set power structure of facing the problem either directly or indirectly (Caprioli, 2003, p.14-16). In most cases, womens solutions to conflicts are simple and take no complicated steps so long as the worrying groups accept their mistakes.

Views on Augsburger stance: personal experience

All members of the society must be involved actively in conflict resolution without consideration of ones sex. Both men and women have to be involved in peace making efforts. This is because both in one way or another are affected directly or indirectly. The societal discrimination on womens views on conflict resolution should be thrown away. This is because in most cases women and young children feel the brunt of many wars. As Omotayo suggests, the new piece building initiatives must stress on gender uniqueness in trying to solve any societal disputes (2005, p.3).

Women, although taken in most cases as outsiders to many political processes, play a very important role in negotiating peace. This is because women are great socialist in conflict resolution and have good bargaining power in many fields as compared to men.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the conflict resolution measures should not solely end conflicts, but should also help to restore the fighting communities together. Hence, it is important to integrate tactics that aim in reconciling the worrying communities. Techniques to employ include: righteous negotiations, consultations, go between mediation and the use of workshops. To solve conflicts then all genders should be given a chance to give views and resolution measures. (Last, 1995, p.65).

Reference

Augsburger, D. W. (1992). Conflict resolution across cultures: pathways and patterns. Westminster: John Knox Press.

Caprioli, M. (2003). Gender Equality and Civil Wars. 2009. Web.

Last, D.M. (1995). Peacekeeping Doctrine and Conflict Resolution Techniques. Saje journals- Armed Forces & Society, 22(2), 187-210.

Lebron, M. (2003). Culture and conflict. 2009. Web.

Omotayo, B. O. (2005). Women and world peace. World library and information congress. 2009. Web.

Psychologist Henri Tajfel first introduced social identity theory in 1979. The theory posits that an individuals self-identity is rooted in social interactions or relations with other members of society (Hogg, 2018). This theory suggests that to develop a sense of self-worth, we invest in building meaningful statuses in the social groups to which we belong. These social groups include religious institutions, ethnic groups, nationality, profession, sexuality, or even athletic teams. According to the theory, individuals are more inclined to be biased in favor of members of their group. They elicit some aspects of favoritism toward some members according to individual preferences and social affiliations.

The social identity theory extensively explains gender biases (Benson, 2020), substance abuse among peers (Frings et al., 2021), language and mannerisms within a group (Hogg, 2018), and self-actualization, including ones fundamental interests and beliefs (Mcleod, 2019). This literature review delves into the existing literature on the theory of social identity and discusses new findings and shortcomings of the theory.

The central theme of this review is to investigate whether the existence of social groups drives cultural appreciation and harmony. Based on the ideas of the social identity theory, groups have often demonstrated prejudiced attitudes towards people of another group different from their own. It often results in societal conflicts, marginalization, and deviance (Mcleod, 2019). Proponents of the theory posit that self-esteem and self-identity arise from affiliation with a particular group.

Group members then establish norms and values by which they abide  assimilation (Chi, 2022). Subsequently, they develop a bias towards individuals outside of their own, develop a negative opinion about them, and exhibit a positive outlook of their group  favoritism. This paper will analyze whether social identities created in social groups drive a positive outcome in society toward unity, peace, and harmony rather than exacerbate their differences. With the aid of social identity theory, we examine whether intergroup dynamics are drivers of conflict or resolution.

It is not uncommon for group members to form biases over time. Social identity theory explains that intergroup relations do not lack elements of prejudice. Contributors to the theory coined the terms in-group and out-group, explaining that group members (in-group) will view their norms, principles, beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors better than those outside the group (Mcleod, 2019). Hodson & Earle (2020) explain that in-group members exhibit favoritism and out-group discrimination. Antagonistic inter-group relations are bound to occur due to out-group dynamics resulting in destructive forms of violence (Felty, 2019). Intergroup bias influences culture and societal dynamics, resulting from customs and social preferences about positive lifestyles.

It is desirable to identify with a group that depicts a positive characteristic that is unique to them. A sense of pride often ensues with a particular distinctiveness relative to other groups. Ball & Branscombe (2019) postulate that when an in-group elicits more similarities than differences with out-groups, the groups future remains under threat. The members will identify less with their group and risk assimilation by members who have a more grounded identity in their respective groups. It is evident in minority groups whose norms and value systems are threatened by those of a more prominent and distinct group. Research shows that when two groups have a minimal resemblance to the next group, they tend to exhibit signs of solidarity with each other (Ball & Branscombe, 2019). In this way, intergroup similarities drive solidarity and loyalty.

Conversely, this solidarity within a group can breed a distinctiveness threat. A situation in which in-group members express concern regarding losing the groups unique nature by another or being overshadowed (Ball & Branscombe, 2019; Mcleod, 2019; Hogg, 2018). It is the case in groups that have better identifiers to the group. They exhibit fear of being assimilated and thus demonstrate a higher degree of stereotyping of out-groups. That results in disputes and discrimination (Ball & Branscombe, 2019). Mcleod (2019) emphasizes that the presentation of rivalry and competition between groups is essential in building members self-esteem. He posits that rivalry starts with the intrinsic need to compare favorably relative to others. A study showed that group dynamics play a significant role in conflicts due to differences in values and belief systems (Felty, 2019). Hodson & Earle (2020) reiterate this and point out that drivers of the divide are rival interests for land, authority, and status, socioeconomic incentives, social control, or group identity.

Intergroup dynamics are only sometimes characterized by favoritism inside the organization and animosity from outside it at other times. Positive association across groups is apparent in various studies. In Ball & Branscombe (2019), they demonstrated that groups having standard norms and values (in some cases, joint suffering) brings them closer together. The study explains that marginalized groups will form an allegiance with each other in solidarity to confront the issues they grapple with.

Vecci & }elinský (2019) elaborate that minority groups are more inclined to watch media productions with members of other minority groups as them. The limited showcasing of these communities drives them to appreciate the rare times they feature in the media. They are often portrayed in a negative light or even not at all in some cases. Hence, when portrayed positively, it boosts their in-group vitality  a concept known as ethnolinguistic identity theory (Vecci & }elinský, 2019). A positive depiction of a marginalized or minority group reduces stereotypes about the group. In turn, it brings positive intergroup association and relations.

An individuals association with a group depends on the benefits of being a member and the groups attributes, including their values, norms, beliefs, and mannerisms. Ohlert & Zepp (2017) illustrate the importance of social identity theory in understanding sports team dynamics. They emphasize that having that shared group identity as a sports team boosts their overall performance. In addition, it fosters team cohesion and successful team leadership. On the contrary, Frings et al. (2021) have demonstrated how team members negatively influence each other toward harmful behaviors such as substance abuse. The authors argue that the behaviors popularity exacerbates the tendency to engage in substance abuse within the group and approval of it by the members.

The need to feel included drives substance abuse trends such as drinking. Most young people desire to be part of social groups with a high level of influence among their peers (Frings et al., 2021). Per the social identity theory, group membership ultimately influences individual traits and behaviors. Additionally, social identities encourage recovery among addicts. An example of such a group is Alcoholics Anonymous. Having a common goal gives group members the confidence to quit and maintain their sobriety in the long run (Frings et al., 2021). Recovery attempts record better success when patients become part of a recovery group. Group membership drives both desirable characteristics and unpleasant traits, especially among young adults and adolescents.

Group identity or membership creates both positive and negative outcomes. To gear society towards achieving more positive outcomes implementing specific strategies will go a long way. Hodson & Earle (2020) suggest that to reduce the level of prejudice among groups, interactions by members of varied social groups can interact together and engage in projects together. Relating to individuals outside ones group and creating friendships over time leads to favorable sentiments about the other group. Overall, individuals exhibit fewer stereotypes about one another if various groups achieve this. Further, peers are encouraged to be wary of groups whose focus is non-constructive tendencies that hinder their path to success (Frings et al., 2021). Positive intergroup relations lead to harmony and a sense of pride among members.

Social identity theory explains and studies group dynamics. Its application includes understanding regional conflicts, refugee crises, racial prejudice, climate change, and wars between nations. A gap lies in its application to study the promotion of peace among societal groups. Many studies explain that in-groups tend to have a bias toward an out-group (Benson, 2020; Felty, 2019; Hogg, 2018; Hodson & Earle, 2020; McLeod, 2019). This prejudice often results in ethnic strife, civil war, social alienation, protests, and hate crimes. Limited studies demonstrate how intergroup relations bring about desirable outcomes. It arises from cooperative interdependence, shared aims, and everyday struggles such as underrepresentation (Vecci & }elinský, 2019; Ball & Branscombe, 2019). Perceived similarity and commonality are critical drivers of intergroup collaboration. There is limited research in this area to support this claim which is the main focus of this research.

References

Ball, T. C., & Branscombe, N. R. (2019). When do groups with a victimized past feel solidarity with other victimized groups? In Confronting prejudice and discrimination (pp. 73-92). Academic Press.

Benson, J. B. (2020). Gender: Awareness, identity, and stereotyping. Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development, 112. Web.

Chi, R. (2022). Understanding Social Identity theory. Future Learn. Web.

Felty, S. (2019). Social Identity Theory and Intergroup Conflict in Israel/Palestine. Homeland Security Affairs. Web.

Frings, D., Wood, K. V., & Albery, I. P. (2021). New converts and seasoned campaigners: the role of social identity at different stages in the addiction recovery journey. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 28(5), 496503. Web.

Hodson, G., & Earle, M. (2020). Social Identity Theory (SIT). In Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 17). Springer.

Hogg, M. A. (2018). Social Identity Theory. In Understanding peace and conflict through social identity theory. Springer, Cham.

Mcleod, S. (2019). Social Identity Theory. Simply Psychology. Web.

Ohlert, J., & Zepp, C. (2017). Theory-Based Team Diagnostics and Interventions. In Sport and exercise psychology research (pp. 347370). Academic Press.

Vecci, J., & }elinský, T. (2019). Behavioral challenges of minorities: Social identity and role models. PLoS ONE, 14(7). Web.

It goes without saying that conflict situations within organizations are currently inevitable. Conflict may occur at different levels  within people, between individuals within one group, and between various groups and organizations. Incompatible vision and objectives are frequently regarded as a powerful source of multiple conflicts between colleagues. In addition, conflict may be characterized by deep-rooted value and moral differences or the absence of proper management.

While some people try to avoid a conflict situation and regard them as highly negative, other individuals view conflict as an essential part of management and the opportunity for professional and personal growth. The purpose of this essay is the examination of the sources and levels of conflict and the evaluation of potential outcomes of the conflict solution.

Sources of Organizational Conflict

There are multiple sources of conflict within organizations that may be determined both by the inner and interpersonal problems of team members. According to Amesi and Amaewhule (2015), traditional sources of conflict include the interdependency of working activities, erratic behavior of individuals, organizational ambiguities, limited resources, and differences in goals, values, and perception.

In business organizations, the evidence of work activity interdependency may be observed when the companys certain units or departments cannot operate without other units or departments. Such departments as the registry, bursary, personnel, examination, admissions, and record departments are indispensable as they have a wide range of responsibilities in terms of their organizational functions (Amesi & Amaewhule, 2015, p.8). The interdependency of corporate units may be a common source of conflicts regardless of policies that define operational behavior.

The erratic and inappropriate behavior of some individuals within organizations may provoke conflict as well. Some managers did not have proper training concerning the management of interpersonal relationships, and their manners may be regarded as erratic (Amesi & Amaewhule, 2015). At the same time, the contentious temper or inner problems of employees that are not connected with the working process substantially affect the corporate atmosphere in a negative way as well.

Moreover, certain ambiguities related to the definition of working activities and organizational communication may create conflict as employees cannot understand their respective positions (Isa, 2015). In addition, ambiguities or a lack of communication frequently create the misunderstanding that inevitably leads to organizational conflict. Limited resources that are shared between all departments of the organization may cause dissatisfaction and irritation of employees as well.

The differences in goals, values, and perceptions of team members are regarded as the traditional sources of organizational conflicts. Corporate culture implicates common objectives that should be pursued by every person within any organization. The refusal of several workers to obey corporate rules, schedules, or guidelines in favor of their private goals or the variety of standards for different departments or units may cause the irritation of other employees (Amesi & Amaewhule, 2015). Moreover, the multiplicity of the employees values and perceptions provokes various conflict situations within organizations.

Levels of Organizational Conflict

There are four levels of organizational conflict  individual, interpersonal, group, and organization. Individual-level conflict occurs when individual motives are blocked, or a person is suppressed by corporate competition. The factors of individual-level conflict include unacceptability, incomparability, and uncertainty that may cause frustration, anxiety, aggression, goal and role conflict, or ignorance. Interpersonal conflicts are frequently regarded as the most recognized and common in comparison with other levels of organizational conflict.

It represents the conflict between two individuals or a group of people as every person may have his or her own individual values, goals, and vision. Moreover, an organization may unintentionally place individuals in conflict situations when they have to compete for limited resources. The factors of interpersonal-level conflict include personal differences, a lack of essential information or understanding, role incompatibility, and environmental stress.

Group-level conflict occurs between or within the groups of individuals that are characterized by the well-structured systems of norms and values. Intra-group conflicts happen between the members within one group, while inter-group conflicts affect different groups within one organization. Both intra-group and inter-group conflicts may be caused by the difference in goals and perception and the absence of cooperation and joint decision making. Finally, organization-level conflict implicates the confrontation between different, though interdependent, organizations, for instance, between government agencies that are responsible for the regulation of certain organizations and the organizations affected by agencies.

Analysis of Conflict and Possible Solution

The common familiar situation that represents organizational conflict is the tension and inappropriate behavior of the members of one large group within a company. Its supervisor does not control the working process and gives the group members freedom concerning decision-making. The confrontation between people within this group relates to the intra-group level of conflicts as all workers are united with the same objectives and work on one project.

However, the potential sources of conflict may be organizational ambiguities and differences of values and perceptions. Without a strong leader and well-defined guidelines, certain individuals may start to think that their vision and ideas should be dominant. Such behavior may be the source of irritation for other colleagues. The most suitable potential solution in this case will be the division of all workers within this group into smaller groups with a clear definition of their duties and responsibilities. In other words, every small group will be responsible for its own part of the project, and its members will cooperate on the basis of the same subject. The work in smaller groups will contribute to the strengthening of interpersonal relationships and help to reduce the level of tension and avoid conflict.

There are three potential outcomes of this division within one group of employees. First of all, the rise of leaders may be regarded as a positive consequence of the solution (Amesi & Amaewhule, 2015). Every small group may choose their leaders that will help their followers to achieve goals and make decisions. Moreover, competent and fearless leaders will contribute to the avoidance of conflicts both within and between groups (^ahin Yarba, 2015).

They will have a substantial impact on the development of good interpersonal relationships between employees. That is why the second positive outcome of the division is the increased cohesion between members within small groups. However, the separate work of colleagues within one large group may lead to the development of a blind spot concerning the areas of mutual interests and benefits (Amesi & Amaewhule, 2015, p. 8). Separated groups that stop to pursue common goals may start to conflict again.

Conclusion

The most recognized sources of conflict that are inevitable in modern organizations include the interdependency of working activities, erratic behavior of individuals, organizational ambiguities, limited resources, and differences in goals, values, and perceptions. In addition, there are four levels of organizational conflict  individual, interpersonal, group, and organization. The potential solution of the conflicts that occur within one group that pursues common goals though experiences a lack of management may be the division of its members into smaller groups that will have well-defined responsibilities. The potential outcomes of this division are the rise of leaders, increased cohesion, and the development of blind spot concerning the areas of mutual interests and benefits.

References

Amesi, J., & Amaewhule, W. A. (2015). Crisis management and conflict resolution strategies in business organizations in Rivers State. Developing Country Studies, 5(21), 6-13.

Isa, A. A. (2015). Conflicts in organizations: Causes and consequences. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research, 2(11), 54-59.

^ahin Yarba, P. (2015). Role of managers in solving conflicts in the organizations. Dou_ Üniversitesi Dergisi, 1(16), 109-120. Web.

Introduction

According to Harris (1), sociologists follow different theoretical backgrounds when exploring certain subjects in the field. Most concepts in sociology are founded on the three key sociological paradigms, which include conflict theory, symbolic interaction, and functionalism. Each of these key paradigms has its own inclination when it comes to the conceptualization of the social aspects of society. It means that they are used differently by researchers and scholars in the field of sociology. This paper explores the three key sociological paradigms that are critical in conceptualizing different phenomena from the sociological stance. The paper argues that the difference in these paradigms or theoretical foundations lies in their application in understanding the functioning of the society.

Functionalism

Functionalism is one of the dominant theoretical foundations in the field of sociology. Functionalism is a paradigm that stresses on the interactions of people with structures in the society to create meaning from the social sense. Functionalism stresses the interdependence of the social structures in the society and how the interdependence determines the way social systems, people, and institutions work (Functionalism, In Anthropology And Sociology 1). The greatest essence of this theory is to explain the importance of social institutions in society, especially the role of these institutions in meeting the social needs of society. The theory maintains that social stability is either fostered or undermined by the social structures that are built (Brym and Lie 9).

Functionalism seeks to establish the way in which society attains stability and continuity. This is perhaps one of the reasons why functionalists focus on the structures and institutions of the society, how they are built, and the role that they play in ensuring the sustainability of the society. The main concept in functionalism is solidarity, indicating how well the different elements of the society can work together to attain the main goal of continuity of the society. Functionalism looks at how different tasks are performed for the sake of adding to the achievement of solidarity in society, which depicts a stable society (Brym and Lie 9).

According to Brym and Lie (9-10), functionalism pays greater attention to the systematic nature of interaction and the organization of different elements with the social structures of the organization. This is the main difference between functionalism and the other two paradigms of conflict theory and symbolic interaction theory. Functionalism can be used to make assumptions about an individual or human actors and society (Vassallo 32).

Conflict theory

According to Brym and Lie (9), conflict theory is another critical concept in the field of sociology. The conflict theory focuses on large structures and patterns of interaction in society and how conflict arises in these structures and interactions. Therefore, the main argument that is postulated by the proponents of this paradigm is that relations in society generate some attributes of conflict. Among the issues of conflict that are inherent in the theory are dominion and submission. They denote the struggle between people who belong to different classes in society.

The concept that is inherent in the conflict theory is competition, where the theory seeks to bring out the aspects of pressure that are generated from the competition. Aspects of competition feature in almost all aspects of human interaction. This is why conflict is inherent in human interactions in society. The concept of competition is looked at from the perspective of the societal structures and the elements of human interaction. This is why the issues of power, reward, and interest come into the picture in the theory. Conflict is often generated from the interaction of these forces. Therefore, it is evident that the conflict theory was developed to critique the issue of societal structures and institutions as postulated in the theory of functionalism (Harris 2-3). The theory is a complete critique of society and structures. Emphasis is paid to the continual conflict within the structures of the society that necessitate revolutionary change (Powers 165).

The main aspect of variation between the conflict theory and functionalism is that functionalism focuses on the development of structures that are important in bringing about stability in the society, while functionalism focuses on aspects of differences in the institutions that are set up in the society and how conflict is generated. It can be argued that the conflict theory has close relations to the symbolic interaction theory that directly focuses on the interaction between human beings and society. The main difference between the two is that the conflict theory largely dwells on the negative forms of interaction (Powers 165-166).

Symbolic interactionism

This is a concept that is critical in understanding how human beings interact with society. Meaningful symbols are pertinent in understanding how humans act and interact. Therefore, the theory portrays human beings and the source of most actions. This means that the center of actions and interactions within the society lies with human beings. This is why theories that are built on symbolic interaction are critical in building critical concepts that can be used to shape the larger society because they focus on individual human beings and their actions that generate problems in the society (Andersen and Taylor 22).

Symbolic interaction is based on three main conceptions. The first one is that the actions of human beings are founded on the way they understand things. The second concept is that the meanings that are attached to things by human beings come from social interactions. The third assumption is that social actions come from an integration of individual actions (Andersen and Taylor 22).

According to Vassallo (37-38), symbolic interaction is considered to be micro-sociological in nature. The rationale behind this observation is that the theory dwells on the individual attributes of human interaction in society. Symbolic interaction emphasizes the direct contact between human beings and society. On the other hand, conflict theory and functionalism are considered to be macro-sociological in nature because they deal with collective aspects of the society (Andersen and Taylor 22). Also, this theory eliminates the issue of structural determinism by theorizing more on individuals and their behaviors rather than placing the individuals within the context of the larger society, like the case of functionalism and the conflict theory (Vassallo 37-38).

Conclusion

It is apparent that all three paradigms attempt to explain the organization of society. However, variations prevail in the manner in which the paradigms points to the concept of society. Functionalist theories dwell on the structures and institutions in society. Symbolic interaction theories, on the other hand, are based on the human interactions with the society, while the conflict theory is based on human interactions and attributes of competition and how they bring about conflict in the society. Therefore, any sociological concept can be grouped into any of these theories provided that a person understands the variable in the concept or the problem that is under research.

Works Cited

Functionalism, In Anthropology And Sociology. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition (2013): 1-1. Print.

Andersen, Margaret L, and Howard F. Taylor. Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2008. Print.

Brym, Robert J., and John Lie. Sociology: Your Compass for a New World, the Brief Edition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.

Harris, Scott R. Critiquing And Expanding The Sociology Of Inequality: Comparing Functionalist, Conflict, And Interactionist Perspectives. Quarterly Journal of Ideology 25 (2003): 1-21. Print.

Powers, Charles H. Making Sense of Social Theory: A Practical Introduction. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. Print.

Vassallo, Stephen. Implications Of Institutionalizing Self-Regulated Learning: An Analysis From Four Sociological Perspectives. Educational Studies 47.1 (2011): 26-49. Print.

Conflicts happen all the time between friends, members of the family, colleagues, or even strangers. In some cases, the problem can be and has to be solved, while in another, it is better to avoid it. I faced some conflicts, but in the first case, it ended with a broken friendship because of different interests, and the other eventually only strengthened my relationship with my best friend.

I had a friend with whom we had a conflict because our interests did not coincide. In high school, we just started to like different things, and while I was trying to initiate a friend into my interests, she just spent time with her friends. One day she called my interests stupid, and I answered her the same, and after that, we have not communicated. I think this conflict could be resolved if we tried to learn each others passions.

The resolved conflict in my experience was a fight with my best friend because one of us wanted us to go to a party together, and another thought that we had to visit a game. The unwillingness of each of us to listen led to a stupid quarrel in which we said unpleasant things and then did not talk for several days. However, a week later, we accidentally met, talked, and heard each other. I realized that my friend was just uncomfortable in places with a lot of strangers, and he realized that I was more interested in communication than observation. As a result, we agreed that we would alternate between these kinds of activities.

Thus, the basis for resolving any conflict is the desire of people to listen and try to understand each other. In my case, the conflict ended with win-win results, although we both made concessions. However, unresolved conflict can lead to negative consequences, even if they do not harm anyone directly and do not affect peoples lives, they can bring unpleasant and depressing feelings for them.

Definition and Analysis

Conflict theory is a concept used in a wide range of disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, criminology, communication, education, among many others. This theory takes its roots in Carl Marxs teachings since class struggle is based completely on a conflict. Therefore, the main aim of Conflict theory is to give a framework to explain reasons, dynamic, consequences of a conflict. The theory gives a framework to show the exact role of each opposing group in a conflict. This paper will define the concept of conflict theory and examine two of its basic principles.

To start with, it is necessary to look deeper into the concept of conflict theory. The concept takes its origin from the mid-1800s, when Carl Maxs teachings gained credibility and popularity. Marx explained that a conflict cannot be avoid since the society is made up of great number of individuals representing diverse social classes who have to compete for social (employment, education) and material goods (food and housing), and other resources (as cited in Conflict Theory | Sociology, 2020). Later, the term was modified by other sociologists and psychologists such as Max Weber, Ludwig Gumplowicz, Georg Simmel, Erving Goffmann, and so forth. Weber paid attention to the fact that a conflict may occur due to some inequalities in such spheres as political power and social structure, not only because of economic reasons (as cited in Conflict Theory | Sociology, 2020). In total, the main function of conflict theory is to explain the reasons of a conflict that emerged between social groups, individuals, communities, countries or other groups of people. Conflict theory serves as a helpful framework that assists in analyzing society and its issues. In addition to that, conflict theory involves such branch as the critical theory that focuses on diverse structural issues that might lead to inequality. Conflict Theory is applied by sociologists in a range of issues, such as racism, discrimination, xenophobia, problems related to gender, etc.

Conflict Theory Main Concepts

One of the essential Conflict theory concepts is class struggle, which is caused by the limit of resources and necessity of groups to compete with one another. Nowadays, the concept of class struggle is relevant since the pace of globalization and global capitalism leads to the presence of inequality among nations and global power. Conflict theory and the concept of class are significant for human services since the latter may deal with social services provided by the government. Therefore, the political situation affects the human services sector to a large extent. For example, Nicki Lisa Coles article about the protests in Hong Kong tries to analyze the conflict that emerged between the government of China and those who are for democratic elections using the framework of Conflict Theory. To understand the emerged conflict, the author of the mentioned article applies the core questions of Conflict Theory: What is going on?, Who is in conflict, and why?, What are the socio-historical origins of the conflict?, What is at stake in the conflict?, What relations of power and resources of power are present in this conflict? (Cole, 2020). As a result, the application of Conflict Theory led to understanding the main cause of the conflict was the conflicting ideologies of citizens (working class) and the political elite.

Another core concept of Conflict Theory is ideology. Parekh (2015) mentions that Marx introduced the term to explain two interrelated senses, idealism and apologetic body of thoughts, and meant that it is systematic and self-contained studies of ideas (p.2). The concept of ideology is central in Conflict Theory since it provides the main reasons why two parties are found to be in a conflict. As can be seen, the mentioned article shows that the main problem of the Hong Kong conflict was ideological: citizens were protesting for democracy.

As can be seen, every conflict is caused by the inequity of its parties and ideological differences. Two of the most important Conflict Theory terms are the concepts of class struggle and ideology. Conflict theory is relevant to human services and sociology since it gives the necessary framework to understand the cause of political, social, or personal conflicts, and helps to analyze different communities and their issues.

References

Cole, N.L. (2020). Conflict theory case study: The occupy central protests in Hong Kong. ThoughtCo. Web.

Parekh, B. (2016). Marxs theory of ideology. Routledge.

Reading: Conflict theory | Sociology. (2020). Courses.lumenlearning.com. Web.

Introduction

With the ever-changing social demographics around the globe, families are facing extinction. On the one hand, some want to continue parenthood, while on the other, people are opting not to have kids. Seccombe (2017) defines marriage as a legally recognized relationship consisting of economic, social, and sexual responsibilities between two partners. Further, the author highlights the phases through which marriage has undergone to reach its current status. However, the institution has come under pressure from the pursuit of individual hedonistic happiness, which has led to many social problems, such as teenage delinquency, poverty, and violence (Seccombe, 2017). As such, the egocentric behavior witnessed has led to the collapse of family values. Conversely, marriage has not become weak in the modern era rather, the lack of structural support to cushion families from social problems has rendered it disorganized hence the need to support the permanent union. This paper looks into the consequences of taxing the childless population at the expense of families and the views of functionalists and conflict theorists toward pronatalism.

Pronatalism, Functionalism, and Conflict Theorists

Since time immemorial, the family unit has been the backbone of human development and its continuity. The culture of marrying and raising children as a way of continuing the family and society as a whole is practiced around the globe. Basing her support for marriage, Seccombe (2017) demonstrates how political, cultural, and social factors enhance personal decisions on relationships. Further, the detailed exploration of close relationships with a focus on singlehood and other aspects of parenthood shows the authors advocacy for pronatalism while highlighting how many people are opting out of parenthood. Perhaps the main question many ask is: what is the relevance of taxing those without kids while exempting parents? In the United States, Child Tax Credit (CTC) and Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) have been implemented to cushion families with children earning low wages from federal tax. On the other hand, childless adults earning below the poverty line receive no benefits and are taxed, resulting in many individuals between the ages of 19 and 67 becoming poorer (Marr & Huang, 2020). This is a challenge that puzzles pronatalists since the government makes this group sink into more debt and, in the process, discourages them from having children.

Furthermore, many people promote the idea of marriage and family continuation. Functionalists consider the components of population development, such as birth, growth, and death as necessary in society (Open Stax.org, n.d.). According to them, a community thrives from its growth as it becomes self-reliant to meet future challenges and therefore, pronatalism is the backbone of the society. In addition, conflict theorists presuppose that the world has enough food and resources for its population and as such, there are no serious problems resulting from its growth (Open Stax.org, n.d.). Moreover, both perspectives from functionalism and conflict theorists support the culture of siring children by families.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Seccombe views marriage as a union between two people who are socially, economically, and legally bound. The partnerships responsibility is to carry on the family tree through the raising of children. Although they are facing challenges, she looks at the positive side of meeting tomorrows goals through societys continuation, hence the importance of pronatalism. On the other hand, introducing a tax on childless people is wrong; instead, the government should give incentives to such individuals to encourage them to raise kids. Lastly, both functionalist and conflict theorists agree on the importance of society thus encouraging pronatalism.

References

Marr, C., & Huang, Y. (2020). Childless adults are the lone group taxed into poverty. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Web.

Open Stax.org. (n.d.). Theoretical perspectives in sociology  Introduction to sociology 3e | OpenStax. Web.

Seccombe, K. (2017). Exploring marriages and families. Pearson.