Category: Computers

Introduction

With the introduction of the internet and communications occurring literally at the speed of light, new practices in modern living are evolving, such as e-commerce, e-trade and e-finance creating a much more interconnected world even as we remain physically quite far apart. People are finding it possible to do everything they need to do from their own desktop, including receiving the news, interacting with others, working, shopping, banking, trading and any number of other activities. Based upon its level of use in current society as it grows and expands in response to both consumer and corporate directives, it is safe to say that the internet will become even more integrated into the everyday life of individuals throughout the world in the years to come.

History

When the telegraph was invented, it helped speed up human communication over long distances because it didnt depend on human travel and was the infancy of e-commerce. This invention was followed shortly afterward by the telephone which evolved into the mobile and cell phones that have become an almost required part of everyday life. The development of the internet has further taken communications and trade beyond the scope of time and distance. With the advent of the internet and massive computing systems that are increasingly becoming smaller in physical scale, the world is continually proportionately shrinking in sociological terms and becoming economically interdependent. This worldwide establishment of the internet throughout most cultures and countries has revolutionized the way people live their lives on many fronts (Rowland, 1997).

About the time that television was becoming household equipment, the first computers were becoming available for scientific use. As early as 1951, they were being produced and sold on the general market. However, computers as a communication tool didnt really become an option until the advent of ARPANET, the first form of a networked internet that was developed in 1969. These connections were made faster with the introduction of cable wire services in 1972. At this point, communications methods began speeding up, constantly changing and improving efficiency. In Japan in 1979, the first mobile phones began to be used, not becoming popular worldwide until sometime around 1985. By then, personal computers and laptops had entered the marketplace, introducing the idea that communications could easily travel with you to home, work, school or wherever. These wireless services were available by 1981, with the growth in the internet market since serving to completely change the ways in which we communicate and trade globally (Rowland, 1997).

The Times They Are A-Changing

The ability of people to connect with each other across long distances at practically the speed of light via the web has changed not only the way people communicate, but also the expectations they have for the retrieval of information. Email is free and instantaneous causing its use by businesses and individuals to grow at a phenomenal rate over the past decade. Few people write letters or read the newspapers anymore as these are seemingly archaic methods of communication and have the added disadvantage of costing money, regardless of how little this sum might actually be. Nowadays, we think nothing of emailing our aunts in Germany and getting an answer back within minutes, or seeing the latest streaming video full of up to the minute news (Boswell, 2006). Neither letter-writing nor newspaper delivery can provide the instant information that is today essential for businesses in the modern world to compete effectively and simply a fact of life that is taken for granted for most in the developed world. People are now turning to alternative forms of receiving information, such as blogs, video blogs, webcasts, chatrooms and listservs. However, this introduces new challenges in determining just how to determine credible sources from noncredible and just how far the internet should be allowed to go in terms of free speech and expression.

Blogs, Video Blogs, Webcasts, Chatrooms, Listservs

Through such user-directed content as blogs, webcasts and listservs, the common man is now, for perhaps the first time in history, able to have some form of interaction with the major news mediums of the world. Noah Shachtman (2002) points out how it was internet bloggers that created such a stir regarding Trent Lotts racist comments that brought the politicians past to the attention of major news organizations who would, in all likelihood, have ignored them otherwise. They kept focusing on Lotts hateful past  until the national press corps finally had to take notice. & Lotts bile is one of several issues that this burgeoning community helped push on to the national agenda (Shachtman, 2002). The term blog is actually techno-geek shorthand for web logging, and, as such, has a well-earned reputation for being merely an online diary for a variety of people.

However, as has been noted by Shachtman and others, blogs have been taking on new meanings in recent years as internet use and knowledge grow among the general public. Blogs can be used to make political statements, promote products, provide research information and give tutorials (Ng, 2007). As such, blogs can be found written by politicians, musicians, novelists, sports figures, newscasters and other notable figures as attempts to not only share their opinions, but to promote their own personal agendas separate from the restrictive and uncontrolled traditional venues of newspaper and television. As might be imagined, video blogs add the elements of sound and video to the presentation, providing these users with the added credibility of a news-type presentation. The potential for everyone to self-publish has the ability to revolutionize the world by sharing video across cultures and countries (Clint Sharp cited in Dean, 2005). By turning to video, vloggers are able to bring multiple subjects to the screen rather than being concerned about the filters of mass media publishers.

Other methods of internet communication have opened up the concept of communication as well. Through listservs, internet users have been able to post their questions to the world even from its earliest days. This process is almost like standing atop a mountain and shouting a question out to the great beyond. The only difference is, with listservs, users can expect to receive an answer if theyve selected an appropriate forum. Their question remains online for as long as the server cares to host it, allowing users from all places and multiple times to respond while providing ample room for further discussion. Chatrooms build on this concept by adding instant responses to this text-based mode of communication. As users type in their thoughts, other users can immediately respond, having virtual conversations in real time. Organized in community groups of shared interests, chatrooms have enabled internet users to share information on a wide scale without dependence upon more traditional methods of news media and without the wait typically associated with previous community-specific publications such as magazines and newspapers (Pack, 2003). There remain several inherent risks with this method of communication however, the most pressing being that of internet predators seeking younger internet users for harmful purposes. This is only possible because of the close relationships that can form with frequent conversation and sharing of interests.

Combining the self-expression attributes of the blogs with the interactive aspects of listservs and chatrooms and placing it all in streaming media, webcasts allow any average internet user to become their own interactive news program discussing whichever topics they choose and allowing other internet users to call or write in their responses and questions. Many large and small businesses have already discovered the advantages of webcasting as an alternative means of conducting business rather than flying various constituents in from around the country or the world. Online meetings are interactive and collaborative. Theyre in real time so theres two-way communication via instant messaging or other software between a participant and the conference leader or across the team or group, depending on how you customize the meeting.

You can instantly share content and visuals, watch and listen to presentations or ask questions and make comments  often simultaneously (Krotz, 2007). In the business setting, webcasts have been used to train employees, distribute new product information and provide customers with live help or education among other things. However, they have often been used for other applications as well. Distance learning and even traditional learning scenarios have employed the use of webcasts with an eye toward future technology integration in and out of the classroom, politicians have used them to help launch campaigns or to advocate party affiliations and other organizations have used them as effective press conferences or to inform research markets and analysts. As with the other communication technologies, webcasts have enabled the average individual regardless of their home country, business, vocation or interest to work around the national media chains and present their views in their own way, introducing a great deal more information into the general community than has been available previously.

Readers on the Internet vs. Newspapers

The effects of the internet are being felt in many ways, not just in the greater freedom of speech being experienced or the topics being addressed, but also in the competition for readership/viewership between the internet and more traditional media outlets. According to the 2006 Office of Communications report, people in the UK are generally turning away from television, radio and newspapers in favor of the more recent, more relevant, more accessible services available on the internet. Television is of declining interest to many 16-24 year olds; on average they watch television for one hour less per day than the average television viewer (Ofcom, 2006). More than simply turning to the internet for downloads and information, the report found that as many as 70 percent of this age group had actively contributed to some form of internet communication, in the form of chatting, blogs or other types of message boards. The sector is being transformed by greater competition, falling prices and the erosion of traditional revenues and audiences. A new generation of consumers is emerging for whom online is the lead medium and convergence is instinctive (Ed Richards, Ofcom Chief Operating Officer, cited in Ofcom, 2006).

How Banking Has Been Revolutionized By the Internet

The move to the internet has meant a great deal of change in the way banks do business, not only with their individual customers, but also as they relate to each other. Like the retail world, the internet allows even the smallest community bank to compete online as if it were one of the big boys. A well-designed interactive website, an internet home banking solution combined with a decent array of products, and customers cant really see the difference between a community bank and a mega-bank (Lorence, 1999). In some cases, the ability to move banking services online has even eliminated the need for brick and mortar structures while providing the means for completely internet-based banks to remain competitive.

Like retail shopping, banking online has become relatively simple, consisting of easy-to-navigate menus and step-by-step processes. Given the nature of the business, banks take a few additional precautions to the login process before an individual is given access to an account, the industry standard 128-bit encryption is about as safe as you can get, its the same as you find when purchasing online through secure sites (Nickson, 2006). The process of banking online allows customers to check accounts at any time of day or night without any kind of paper transaction taking place, reducing the cost of both manpower and office supplies. In addition, many banks are now offering online bill payment, through agreements with various companies and utilities, generating a new revenue stream while providing an asset to customers, reducing the cost of check printing and processing and saving customers the cost of postage. Banking online allows you to check your balances and move money between your accounts at the click of a mouse. It helps eliminate the danger of being overdrawn, while still letting you keep money in a higher-interest savings or other accounts until it has to be moved (Nickson, 2006). Whether banks are a combination of brick and mortar and internet or internet only, many are now offering more services, approaching the full service levels of brick and mortar structures within the virtual environment. Services that are already available include home and auto loans, credit cards and insurance as well as several other services.

Trade/Investment

The internet has had similar effects in the trading industry as the ease of trading online helped create a resurgence of interest among the general population. Through advances in technologies, the dynamics of the marketplace have changed, eliminating many of the handicaps experienced by those who were unable to maintain physical proximity to the trading floor. On an electronic trading system, everyone is in the same cyberspace, so time and place advantages disappear (Unger, 1999). In addition, more people can participate in various markets without the need to be in a membership organization or within a specific geographic location. Investors can track projects on their own without the need for intermediaries, communicating directly with buyers or sellers. Many of the trades that occur can be linked electronically, automatically bringing buyers and sellers together with a few mouse clicks while still remaining stable and secure.

However, direct access trading firms have some of the same disadvantages brought forward in internet-only banking in that there are few available resources for those individuals not quite comfortable with the process or who need a little extra help in making things work. Depending upon the level of education, previous experience or general market knowledge an individual has, direct access trading may open an investor up to unwise investments and potential disaster. In this time-sensitive arena, the uncontrollable issues of network stability take on new importance. The greatest disadvantage of online trading is the inability of a network to be fail-safe. Computers in spite of the technological advances are by no means perfect (Mathews, 2002).

Conclusion

The internet is continually evolving, adapting itself to meet new challenges and new needs, addressing the needs of consumers and businesses while working to maintain a sense of confidence, stability, security and simplicity. The cutting edge technology of today will eventually go the way of vacuum tubes in televisions. Developing countries, specifically those that dont enjoy freedom of speech rights, will create their own internets which will likely interconnect with other networks, such as the current interest in a spider web type relationship, selectively blocking off entire segments to its population while enabling access to others. As it becomes easier and easier to allow services and features to cross platforms from PC computer to handheld device and from cell phone to MP3 player and beyond, prices on electronics will continue to fall and make it possible for individuals in third world countries to join in the internet revolution.

Works Cited

Boswell, Wendy. How the World Wide Web has Changed Society. About the Internet. (2006). Web.

Krotz, Joanna. How to host a successful B2B Webcast. Small Business Center. Microsoft Office. (2007). Web.

Lorence, Chris. Internet Banking: Can You Afford Not To? Northwestern Financial Review. (1999).

Mathews, Isaac G. Benefits, Costs and Limitations of Online Investing to the Individual Investor. (2002). Web.

Ng, Deborah. What are Blogs? WiseGeek. Conjecture Corporation. (2007). Web.

Nickson, Chris. Shouldnt You be Banking Online? Digital Trends. (2006). Web.

Office of Communications (Ofcom). Ofcom Communications Market Report Reveals New Industry Trends and Changes in Consumer Behaviour. News Release Archive. Office of Communications. (2006). Web.

Pack, Thomas.Creating Community. Information Technology. All Technology. (2003). Web.

Rowland, Wade. The Sprit of the Web: The Age of Information From Telegraph to the Internet. Toronto: Somerville House. (1997).

Shachtman, Noah. Blogs Make the Headlines. Wired News. (2002). Web.

Unger, Laura. The Internet  Will it be the End of the Stock Market as we Know it? Speech by SEC Commissioner. US Securities and Exchange Commission. (1999). Web.

Introduction

An Intrusion detection system referred to as IDS may be software and/or hardware installed to identify unauthorized efforts of gaining access, controlling, and/or immobilizing computer systems, primarily by means of networked services, like the Internet. These efforts may manifest in the shape of network attacks, malware, and/or discontented workers. The IDS is mainly used to identify various forms of malicious activities that can jeopardize the security of a networked computer system. This involves the detection of attacks against susceptible services; data-based application anomalies, host-driven attacks such as privileges upgrades, illegitimate access to confidential data, and malware such as Viruses, Trojans, and Worms. (Dollard, 2006)

With extensive diffusion into the industry and integration of IDS systems, it is plainly evident that IDS constitute an integral component of the organizational infrastructure. The requirement for such systems is accentuated by a simple premise in the field of network security: defense-in-depth. It is a layered mechanism of defending the organizational information system and communications framework against malicious assaults and illegitimate access to confidential data and information. This technique entails compound, overlapping structures that facilitate organizations to prevent, identify and counter suspected interferences with network-based services.

In this document, the IDS policy relevant to the organizational requirements of Gem Infosys is formulated following a logical evaluation of the scenario.

Discussion

Appreciating the necessity for IDS security, and consequently formulating an IDS policy that is aligned with the organizational requirements are significant steps in the pursuit of developing an effective overall information security framework. Nevertheless, these measures constitute just the preliminary phases of a comprehensive IDS implementation procedure. After procuring an adequate IDS structure, an organization should suitably and resourcefully deploy it across all organizational levels. (Fletcher, 2009) For the effective deployment of suitable IDS in Gem Infosys the following components are paid particular attention in the IDS policy:

• Incident response guidelines
• Staffing
• Configuration
• Training
• Updating signatures

Incident response guidelines: The IDS facilitate the detection of security incidents and, identification of intruders. The organization may choose to file lawsuits, seek consultation, counter the intrusion attempt, disregard the intrusion or embark on different measures, based on the severity of the security breach. The incident response guidelines would assist the management to formulate an effective company response in such cases.

Staffing: The IDS is expected to produce relevant information about the network used within the organization. This requires consequent assessment of the produced data. The services of a qualified network analyst would be hired to and shall be assigned to IDS management, log examination, and analysis.

Configuration: The IDS should be suitably configured to generate pertinent data only. Striking an ideal sense of balance between excessive data generation and insufficient data generation is important for effective deployment. Refined and efficient IDS configuration is required thus a comprehensive configuration process involving designing, tuning, and trial would be carried out.

Training: So as to productively exploit the IDS, the workforce should have access to necessary training. Personnel with job requisites associated with configuration, incident response, and data analysis would be provided with the latest IDS learning tools.

Update signatures: To facilitate security maximization, the attack records that the IDS is configured to detect must be updated frequently. Intruders continuously modify attack techniques. Thus, to optimize safety the IDS signature files will be modified and updated regularly. (Fletcher, 2009)

Conclusion

In general, much importance is given to security and deterrence using measures like routers, firewalls, antivirus, and public key infrastructures. However, decisive identification and response activities like those facilitated by IDSs are frequently disregarded. Such systems play the role of monitoring devices within networks and facilitate attack avoidance, intrusion identification, damage evaluation, and prosecution evidence. They constitute a fundamental layer of a defense-in-depth construct and play a central role in the development of a complete information security framework.

Reference

Dollard, J. (2006). Secured Aggression. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

Fletcher, R. (2009). Software Security: Beliefs and Knowledge. Auckland: Howard & Price.

Introduction

Identity theft can be defined as an offense or deception where somebody makes up to be what he or she is not in order to get definite profit or steal funds. It is also sometimes known as iJacking. The term is a misnomer as naturally it is impossible to steal someones identity. (WebMediaBrands, 1) Thus, an identity thief uses a persons identity by obtaining his important personal information, like driving license number or bank account number, so as to impersonate him. The impersonator can use this information to obtain merchandise, credit or other stuff using the victims name. He can also give fake identification to police authorities who may issue arrest warrants or issue criminal records in the name of the victim. The identity thieves for the most part look for the victims name, date of birth, social security number, account numbers, address, online user IDs, personal recognition information and internet passwords. Thus, it is important to understand the nature of Identity thefts and prepare accordingly. (NYT, 1)

Identity Theft

The Identity Theft Resource Center along with other sources has divided identity theft into five classes. They are:

Financial identity theft

It takes place when a victims identity is used to acquire credit, goods or services. It further has two versions:

• The impersonator can open new accounts in the victims name or by using a fake identity. He can then use the victims goodwill and credit history to get funds, like loans, or an account that he can overdraft.
• The imitator can also get finances, by pretending as an existing account possessor, from a genuine bank account belonging to the sufferer. For this, the perpetrator has to obtain a PIN code or card number of the victim and use that for accessing funds through an ATM or branch teller.

It is very difficult for the victims to discover financial identity theft. They can simply recognize when they are deprived of credits or there are grievances in their credit narration or if they are contacted by the creditors. Their credit reports may be greatly affected unless they are able to prove that they are not responsible for the frauds. (Smith, 33)

We can also categorize financial identity theft into two ways. They are:

• True name identity theft  It implies that the impersonator uses the victims personal document and information for opening new bank accounts. The impersonator may establish a new cellular phone service or create a checking account to acquire blank checks or open a credit card bank account. (Harris, 268)
• Account takeover identity theft  It entails that the imitator uses the sufferers private credentials and details for accessing the victims accessible accounts. Even before the victim realizes the problem, the impersonator changes the victims address and increases billing amount. (Milhorn, 162)

Identity concealment and cloning

A circumstance of distinctiveness disguise and cloning arises when a mimic gets hold of private identifiers of the sufferer and masquerades as the sufferer in order to conceal from establishment. The imitator mainly does this to keep away from getting under arrest for an offense, be able to illegitimately work in an overseas nation or to be able to conceal from creditors and other populace. Unlike financial identity theft, identity concealment may continue to take place for an indefinite period without being discovered. To create an extremely concealed and convincing impersonation the impersonator may even attempt to obtain fake IDs and documents that are coherent with the actual cloned identity.

Criminal identity theft

It takes place when an impersonator presents himself as a different individual, i.e. as the victim, in front of authorities. To do this the impersonator has to obtain national IDs or personal documents belonging to the victim or simple fake them. When the police take into custody the imitator, they present their counterfeit IDs and illicit charges are placed under the victims name. The impersonator is then released, but when he fails to attend his court hearing, the warrant that is issued is in the victims name. The victims discover the fraud when they are arrested or a background check is done on them. The process of clearing the victims record is a difficult one and sometimes the authorities may forever list the victims name as the criminals alias. (Miller, 5)

Synthetic identity theft

It has recently become very common and takes place when the identity acquired by the impersonator is partially or completely made up. The most common process of doing this is by combining an actual social security number of one victim with the name and date of birth of another victim. It is probably the most difficult to track of all the identity thefts as the credit score of neither of the victims will show the fraud directly but will actually appear as a completely new entry or as a sub-file of the credit report of the victims in the credit bureau. This mainly harms the creditors who unknowingly grant credit to the impersonators. The name of the victims may be confused with the false identities and harmful information in their credit report may affect their credit.

Medical identity theft

It takes place when the impressionist uses the victims private details, health cover credentials, to get hold of drugs, diverse medicinal treatments or even acquire compensations from insurers through counterfeit claims. Thus, it is possible that our health care documents or medical history may contain other peoples information. This can even be life threatening for us. For example we may be given wrong blood type during a surgery or the records may even show a surgery we may have never had or leave out those which we have had. In the future, our doctors may perform accurate diagnoses relying on the false records that may delay our proper treatment and we may even loose our life. (Muir and Criddle, 286)

Discussion

Identity theft is not at all a new crime. It has merely mutated itself by including new technologies like ATMs and online banking. Nowadays it is even easier for the identity thieves to use stolen information due to the advent of the Internet since transactions can be made online eliminating personal interactions. Due to the computerization of the banking and other financial dealings and credit cards it has become much easier for the pretenders to pilfer others personal details and thus can camouflage as the victim. Credit cards are often used for verifying peoples identities and thus, an impersonator can pretend to be someone else by using their credit card. This also enables them to steal money. Thus, all the impersonator really has to do is obtain a succession of appropriate numbers for completing the crime. The victim of identity theft can suffer serious consequences if held responsible in place of the imposter. The various activities that are undertaken by the impersonators may even cause the victims to loose their jobs. Medical identity thefts can even cause us to loose our lives or the lives of our near and dear ones. Many nations have precise and explicit laws in opposition to using others personal uniqueness and details for ones private gains.

In order to avoid identity theft we regularly verify our credit scores with the credit bureaus, destroy any unwanted credit applications, confirm with our creditors if our bills are not on time and protect ourselves by not broadcasting our personal information in unknown e-mails. Identity theft can also be used for smooth progress of offenses like counter nation surveillance, unlawful migration, and blackmail and terror campaigns.

Recommendations

Actions that can be taken by individual users as well as organizations to restrict spam emails are as such installing software like Norton Spam Blocker, Best Spam Filter, Anti spam Mail, Spam Free, Lotus Anti Spam, Virus Spam, Free Spyware, SMTP Filter, Mail Software, Spam Blacklist, etc. (Shareware Connection, 1) These softwares do away with spam and fraud automatically. These soft wares are easy to use with no configuration. Cloudmark Desktop does not transform the way the user uses his or her email, no arrangement essential for its installation, just after installing immediately the user is protected from email threats. (Shareware Connection, 1)

In many anti-spam systems provide a safe senders list, which indicates that mail from those on the list is good and spam free. But any safe senders list is personal to each user, it is not possible to have a global safe senders list in view of the fact that ones friend may be anothers enemy as far as the type of email one sends and another receives. In a spam control system which has a safe senders list and where subscribers can add email addresses to, but more significantly delete emails from for senders who are no longer active. Safe senders list should be examined at least monthly and redundant emails removed lest one have several known spammers on your safe senders list. Various online groups have been created where users can join and counteract against spam emails. Spam attacks may be prevented up to some extent by the use of these measures. In this present world of prevailing dynamism computer system operate as the supreme authority. With the extensive use of computers in every aspect of life computer security has become very essential. Thus for securing privacy of the users computer security should be given more priority.

Conclusion

However, assuming someones identity with his or her approval and knowledge, like giving an exam in someones place or cheating cannot be considered as identity theft. It has a very broad concept and mainly deals with credit card hoaxes. There are many techniques used by the imposters to get hold of personal identification, information and documents of the sufferers and can range from stealing their mail, going through their junk for paper documents, stealing it from their computers and files to infiltrating organizations which stock up huge numbers of private information. Over the years a large number of innocent people have been arrested due to people who have committed crimes exploiting their names. It is among the fastest developing crimes in the USA and the victims have to spend huge amounts of money and time in order to resolve their problems due to identity theft.

Works Cited

Harris, Shon. CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide. Ed 4. NY: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007.

Milhorn, Thomas. Cybercrime: How to Avoid Becoming a Victim. NY: Universal-Publishers, 2007.

Miller, Michael. Is It Safe?: Protecting Your Computer, Your Business, and Yourself Online. London: Que Publishing, 2008.

Muir, Nancy and Linda Criddle. Using the Internet Safely For Seniors For Dummies. London: John Wiley and Sons, 2009.

NYT. Identity Theft. The New York Times Company. Monday, 2009. Web.

Shareware Connection. Software Downloads for Spam Servers. Shareware Connection. 2009. Web.

Smith, Robert Ellis. Compilation of State and Federal Privacy Laws: 2002. Ed 9. LA: Privacy Journal.

WebMediaBrands. iJack. Webopedia. 2009. WebMediaBrands Inc. Web.

Is the Human Mind Simply a Biological Computer  Except Slower?

When contemplating the man-like intelligence of machines, the computer immediately comes to mind but how does the mind of such a machine compare to the mind of man? A human brain assimilates and processes much the same as a computer. However, because the mind of man possesses consciousness, it perceives beauty, generates moral judgments and formulates rationalizations which the machine cannot execute. When the computer was in its early development stages, it was thought of as an electronic, thinking device, the mechanical equivalent of the human brain. This misconception is a gross oversimplification of the seemingly limitless boundaries of the human mind. The potential of machines were thought to be able to eventually encompass an inductive and creative mind, capable of taking initiative, to which human beings could confide all their problems and obtain instant solutions in return. (Ifrah, p. 1679 1997)

Simply stated, computers are machines which effectively carry out algorithmic functions. The machine discerns formalized input through a sequence of fixed stages through a predetermined, straightforward set of rules of a standardized and exacting description. This allows computers to perform procedures in a precise number of steps. Mechanical computers, unlike the functions of the computer-like brain does not have the capability to determine right from wrong nor can it make judgments, has no feelings and cannot think on its own. It cannot be denied that some types of intelligence can be attributed to computers but this capacity is very limited when balanced against the boundless intricacies in a humans brain. However, the computer is superior when considering its capability to process information at a higher speed. This has provided humans a useful tool for a myriad of endeavors. Nevertheless, computers cannot reason, imagine, invent, create, express thoughts, manage ideas, make judgments or possess the ability to adapt to differing situations and therefore cannot solve problems that are new to it. Unlike the human brain computers arent conscious of its own being therefore has no concept of the world around it and cannot execute voluntary activities. (Kak, 2005)

Because machines only able to follow directives, they do not possess the capability to be self-aware. Conversely, if it is accepted that computers do not and will never become aware of its own being, then it is reasonable to ask what enables the humans biological machine to attain consciousness while the silicon-based computerized brain cannot. Possibly, the answer to this question is the fact that the structure of the human brain is self-organizing. It responds to the individual characteristics and the independent nature of interactions between itself and the particular environment. Computers do not have the ability to accomplish this.

Consciousness allows for the acknowledgement of beauty which is known only to those that possess biological intelligence. Aesthetics value has very little in common with the processing of information. Beauty is a known but knowing this information is not a process of mathematical computations. Both the brain and the computer can add numbers but the computer is not impressed with this knowledge nor does it feel pride in accomplishing new tasks such as the biological mind might. The reasoning for why the brain knows to perform a function then knowingly yearns for more knowledge or finds the procedure a fulfilling experience remains unclear. The computer, by contrast only knows to perform the function when prompted. It has no contemplations regarding the knowing of the experience. The human mind can contemplate its own functions and existence. It may also think that the various functions of it or a computer is wondrous, beautiful event. This, along with the fact that the machine produces predictable results is the factor that separates the two processing entities. However, this viewpoint is a superficial observation of the human mind because there remains much more regarding the mysteries of the brain as opposed to the mechanical function of the computer. The brain has the ability to reject new knowledge where the computer does not. This allows for an aura of individuality that machines do not enjoy. (Clear 2003)

The human mind has the ability to know what is morally right or wrong almost instantly without the need for assimilating much information. It can make decisions based on the unknown knowledge and can rationalize, justify and reason which is traits only known to that which is conscious. Knowledge has no life. It is based only on cold facts whereas knowing is uniquely biological in nature. There is much puzzlement regarding knowledge and knowing.

In generally terms, it is assumed that the activities that differentiate human thought from that of a machines conceptualization are best characterized by the understanding of language although it cannot be denied that those who are deaf or mute do in fact think though they do not speak at the same level as others. In addition, studies have shown that most types of animal life have the capability to learn and solve problems. The use of language is as a compartment of a larger inventory of behaviors. Computers do not possess the ability of humans or even of animals to formulate or initiate any type of language on its own. Computer language is pre-programmed. The use of uninitiated language, no matter how primitive, is within the realm of biological beings alone. (Clear 2003)

The difference between the human brain and a machine of any type is that humans create machines to be used as a tool. Human intellect is extremely intricate and consciousness too mysterious to be duplicated. On the day that a computer can lie or cheat, when it prays to an unknown entity and feels shame or sorrow then, possibly, it can be compared to the human mind. Until then, the only similarity is that both process information but to vastly different extents and by different methods.

Works Cited

Clear, Bruce Knowing What We Dont Know That We Know (2003). Web.

Ifrah, G. Historia universal de las cifras. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. (1997). Web.

Kak, Subhash Artificial and Biological Intelligence Ubiquity Volume 6, Issue 42 (2005). Web.

Introduction

Computer capacity evaluation involves the process by which an institution estimates the space, computer software, hardware, and resources for infrastructure connection that the institution will need in the future. The major concern is the capacity of a system to work effectively as the number of requests increases and the number of users increases between users increases with time. Many institutions have networked computers and these networks need to have the capacity to grow and meet future needs. TUI University is an institution that offers its bachelor, masters, and Ph.D. degree programs over the internet. Most of its courses are directed towards working professionals and therefore do not need them to reside in the university. This paper will seek to analyze how the application of computer capacity evaluation can help an educational institution like TUI University.

Planning

TUI University offers its programs over the internet. This means that the number of individuals using the internet at any given time varies. The demand for education is increasing every day meaning that the institution will need systems with higher speeds to process the requests by the many users. A time will come when the information that requires processing needs some large memory and higher bandwidth. When the amount of information to be transmitted is quite high, there is a chance that the internet speed will become slow and a user will wait for a long time before his or her request is processed (Thacker, 2009, prg.9). Evaluation of the computer capacity and the system, in general, will help the institution plan for the system so that at any given time, the needs of a user will be met. Proper capacity planning will ensure a healthy network that can always grow and meet the needs of any number of users on the internet. This will enable the development of a system where user requests will be processed depending on their urgency. Evaluation will also ensure that the connection infrastructure resources, hardware, and software meet the needs of the user. This will help attract more students because their time is not wasted when they visit the school website or when they have some requests.

Congestion

Institutions that provide their services over the internet are likely to experience congestion as many users try to access the same information or as different users have different requests that need to be processed. Evaluating the capacity of the computers in the institution will help increase the speed at which requests are processed. The institution will also be able to locate and measure the availability and capacity of the bandwidth whenever there is a bottleneck. This will help in controlling congestion and streamlining applications (Hui, Yongji & Qing, 2005, prg.2). Evaluation will also help in improving the quality of service to clients. Algorithms will be developed that can be used to measure the bottleneck properties and control how large amounts of data are processed. The most important thing to such an institution is for its network system to be effective and reliable. Reliability means that the system will always work and not fail even if a problem occurs. Educational institutes such as TUI University need to need to perform computer capacity evaluation to increase the speed at which customers requests are processed both over the internet and in the computer memory.

Conclusion

Computer capacity evaluation can help an institution plan on how to meet its future needs. An institution like TUI University that offers its programs over the internet can perform computer capacity evaluation to be able to meet the future needs of many students. Evaluation also helps an institution avoid congestion when there is a lot of work to be processed.

Reference

Hui, Z., Yongji, W., & Qing, W. (2005). Measuring internet Bottlenecks: Location, Capacity. Web.

Thacker, S. M. (2009). Capacity Management. Web.

Introduction

The computer is one of the outstanding scientific inventions by man tracing back to the mid-twentieth century. Many advances have been made with the advent of computers. For instance, the organization of data has become more efficient and effective at the same time. Exchanging communication has also been revolutionized by computers. Moreover, the human mindset has equally made some significant strides in terms of critical thinking and analytical skills. Lots of calculations that used to be done manually have now been computerized. Important economic sectors like business and recreation have benefited more from this technological growth.

Modern computer devices have a high efficiency level than the first generation machines. The size is also smaller enhancing its portability. This paper reviews the life history of computers from ancient ages to modern times.

Pre-computer hardware

Computers first came to be mentioned way back in 1613 (Allan 27). The term referred to an individual who had the task of performing calculations. The use of this word became a norm. In any case, a computer was not a device as we know it today but a live person. This continued until the end of the first half of the twentieth century. The beginning of the 20th Century witnessed a gradual change in meaning whereby it referred to more of a device used to carry out calculations rather than a human being.

Historical overview

One of the most ancient machines used to count was in resemblance to tallying sticks (Ceruzzi 23). Later developments saw the use of cones. They had a general name calculi. In this context, objects or items were bound together in certain quantities to facilitate easy counting. Tiny, well-shaped rods were used.

Later on, a counting instrument called abacus was initiated. Its main purpose was to assist mathematicians in arithmetic. An abacus worked on the principle of reckoning and application of arithmetic functions without necessarily going through the long tedious counting process. Simply made but huge analog computers then followed during the Middle Ages to assist space scientists in their calculations (Ceruzzi 44). In 1206, an astronomical clock was invented by Al-Jazari (Allan 59). This clock created the foundation for the ability of analog computers to perform programming. This was followed by the first-ever manual calculator in 1623 courtesy of Shickard Wilhelm who invented it. This machine was digital and it marked the real onset of the computer age.

Thereafter, the skill of using cards punched with holes made its entry into computing. Joseph Marie Jacquard made a form of a loom whose operation was initiated by holed cards. It made it easier for early computer scientists to appreciate the skill of programming.

The beginning of the 20th Century was characterized by the use of desktop calculators. Earlier inventions were re-structured and more features were added to allow them to use electric energy. Before and during the First World War, manual and electrical analog computers were considered to be the best in computing technology. They were seen as the future of computing competence. James Thomson took the technology of analog computing a notch higher in 1876 when he innovated a device called differential analyzer (Swedin & Ferro 63). The beginning of the Second World War in 1939 was accompanied by computing competence from analog to digital. In essence, modern computer technology started during this period. Every component switched from the use of extensive wiring to electronic boards. The period marked by the Second World War was characterized by three development stages that took place simultaneously.

American scientists were also pursuing their developments around this time. For instance, Claude Shanon expounded on the relationship between Boolean concepts and electrical circuits (Ceruzzi 27). One of the multi-purpose computers built in the United States was called the ENIAC. It stood for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The outstanding feature of this machine was its high speed and ability to handle complicated programs. Although ENIAC was perceived to be a state-of-the-art piece of technology, it had some limitations (Swedin & Ferro 83). This then prompted the need to improve both its capacity and efficiency. This led to the introduction of first-generation computers. EDVAC came into existence as a result. It could store its programs, unlike ENIAC.

By the start of the mid-twentieth century, commercial computers which had a faster multiplier were already in use. It was a modification from previous machines. The second-generation computers used tubes instead of transistors. These machines had fewer power requirements. IBM 1401 was very popular in the global market. The third generation computers did not follow immediately. Between the two generations, hybrid systems like UNIVAC 494 took the centre stage (Allan 176).

The 21st Century computer technology base has been broadened. For instance, the multi-core Central Processing units are used on large scale. There are several versions of microcomputers and micro-processors in use today.

Conclusion

The synopsis of computer history is traced back to the early seventeenth century. This era was characterized by manual and crude forms of performing arithmetic. Interestingly, the word computer had a human definition as opposed to a device as it is known today. Major technological advances in computing have eventually resulted in the use of microprocessors and microcomputers which consume less power, occupy less space, are highly programmable, and generally efficient.

Works Cited

Allan A. Roy. A history of the personal computer: the people and the technology 1^st ed. Ontario: Allan Publishing, 2001. Print.

Ceruzzi E. Paul. A history of modern computing 2^nd ed. M.A: Techset Composition Ltd, 2003. Print.

Swedin Eric Gottfrid and Ferro L. David. Computers: The life story of a Technology: Westport: GreenWood Press, 2005. Print.

Overview

Strayer University Computer labs have been set up to facilitate the pursuit of academic excellence as provided by the Universitys mission of academic merit. The opportunity to access, and use computer lab equipment and the networked system is important to all members of Strayer University. To protect that opportunity for current and prospective students and faculty members, all users must comply with the Universitys standards for acceptable use of computer lab resources. The Universitys administration fully understands that personal use of computer labs systems may improve personal skills, but these resources must be limited primarily for administrative and academic purposes. By accessing and using the Universitys computer lab and all equipment installed, users agree to follow all Universitys policies and applicable federal and state laws.

Purpose

This document provides guidelines for acceptable use of Strayer Universitys computer lab and further defines who is authorized to use computer lab facilities. The purpose of this policy is to protect the integrity of information and guard the privacy and confidentiality of users. The policy ensures that computation complies with Strayer University policy and other applicable federal and state laws. The policy will also ensure free flow and exchange of information that promotes sharing of ideas that leads to academic freedom and excellence. If users are not sure whether any action or use of computer lab resources amounts to a violation of this policy, they should contact the lab administrator. If an issue is not addressed explicitly by Strayer University Computer Lab use policy, the system administrators resolve will prevail.

Scope

This policy applies to all users of Strayer University Computer lab resources. The definition of user in this policy refers to any person who gains access and uses computer lab computing and networked resources. In this regard, users include students, members of faculty, administrator, and guests. Computer lab resources include computers, network systems, printers, scanners, plotters, instructional resources and any other related equipment installed or placed in the computer labs. All personal computing equipments connected to computer lab resources and networked systems are also subject to this policy.

General Use and Ownership

Strayer computing resources are limited and as such, all computers are allocated on a first come first served basis. Priority is given to those users seeking to fulfill their academic objectives. In some cases, user may be asked to and prove that they are engaged in academic work. Those engaged in activities not related to academic may be asked to give up machines to users who need to carry out academic work. Some machines may be set aside for specific purposes and may be attached to unique hardware or contain dedicated software. These systems will be marked for easier identification and users who need such machines will be given priority to use.

Security and Proprietary Information

Strayer University has put in place measures to ensure that all computing systems in the computer lab and all users accounts are secure. However, the university does not offer any guarantee to users of such security. User should exercise discretion and engage in practices that promote safe computing. Users are encouraged to set appropriate accounts access restrictions. Passwords should be changed regularly and should be closely guarded. All users are responsible for encryption and protection of personal documents and should maintain personal back-up. The university respects the privacy of all computer labs user. However, users should realize that use of computing resources in the computer lab is not exclusively private. User should also be aware that the university regulations require that data and communication records including user logs and general usage monitoring be backed-up, for administrative purposes.

Unacceptable use

To prevent computing activities that adversely affect other users, the university will ensure that any form of misuse does not occur. Display of obscene material is prohibited in all Strayer University computer labs. Any user who engages in viewing explicit material will be asked to stop and leave the lab immediately. Computer users are expected to show respect for other users in the computer lab. Lab users are expected to work quietly. Disruptive behavior and loud discussions may disturb other users working on their academic assignments. Any person who exhibit threatening, disruptive or hostile behavior such as but not limited to yelling, disregarding lab attendants requests etc will be asked to leave the computer lab immediately.

System and Network Activities

All computers and related equipments are configured to meet the need of student and faculty. Users should not make any changes to computing equipment settings. Any equipment in the computer lab connected to the University network system can only use IP addresses assigned by the computer lab administrator. Any device connected between lab computing equipment and the university network must be approved by the University network administrator. Any device connected to the university network system is subject to this provision.

E-mail and Communication Activities

The University has established e-mail system to facilitate efficient communications between members of university community. The university reserves the right to change or withdraw email services especially when there is cause to believe misuse of the university e-mail system. Use of University mailing list, should be limited to academic and official business only. The content of any e-mail sent through the university computing system, and/or using the university mailing system should be appropriate and should not be in violations of acceptable use regulations. User should not send unsolicited emails, or try to conceal or alter their identity. No user should attempt to hinder or intercept email communication. Authorized university staff may view the content of user email if they have a reason to believe the user violated this policy.

Blogging

The University has established discussion forum in form of blogs to facilitate online discussion between students and faculty. User using blog should be aware that blog spaces are online class room. Any material that is not appropriate for normal classroom discussion is also not suitable for blogs. All user should exercise discretions when blogging and should conduct themselves in a manner that shows respect for other bloggers. Blog should be limited to student expression of ideas. They should not be used for non academic purposes.

Enforcement

Any reports of violation of computer lab policy may be made to Strayer University IT department staff, supervisor, attendant or network and system administrator. Admonition and face to face discussions will be used to address alleged minor violations. Depending with the severity of violation that calls for sanction, the following may be applicable: loss of computer lab access and use privileges, formal reprimand, probation, termination of employment in case of staff and expulsion from the university in case of students.

Computers are gifts of technology to mankind. With the advancement of technology came advanced software and the internet; the whole world got connected in a wink of an eye and accessibility of distant information and knowledge became a childs play. But as technology brings hazards with itself when handled with bad intention, software became Malware in the hands of some people with no good intention and with the help of the internet they started spreading to all the computers connected in the network (Zhang and Ma 573-586).

They have attacked several times till today and will do that in the future also as epidemics had been spread and will be spread by germs to bring disease in the human body. Malicious software, or malware, is software that enters a computer system without the owners knowledge or consent.&&&.conceal the malwares malicious actions, or bring profit from the action that it performs (Ciampa 41). Malware is of various types, as for example, virus, spam, Trojan horse, worm, etc.

One such malware is a worm. A worm is a program that is designed to take advantage of a vulnerability in an application or an operating system in order to enter a system (Ciampa 63). One notorious worm that had infected a huge number of computers running Microsoft IIS Web Server through the internet was the Code Red worm. It was first discovered on July 13, 2001, by eEye Digital Security persons Mark Maiffret and Ryan Permet. By July 19, the worm had infected 359,000 hosts (Zhang and Ma 573-586).

The worm works by sending its code in the place of an HTTP address. It takes advantage of a vulnerability of the computer running Microsoft IIS called the Buffer Overflow through which it gets entry into the host computer. A buffer overflow occurs when a process attempts to store data in random access memory &.This extra data overflows into the adjacent memory locations and under certain conditions may cause the computer to stop functioning (Ciampa 85). The worm used the vulnerability by running a long string of the repeated character N to get entry to the computer. The code gets inserted in a file instead of being saved as one and operates from the memory.

The malicious code checks for the availability of the file C: Notworm and if found the thread does not run. It goes to an indefinite sleep. But if the file C:Notworm is not there and the date is before the 20th of the month the thread creates new threads and attempts to infect new IP addresses in a random manner. While infecting the thread avoids looping back to the source computer (Zhang and Ma 573-586).

There is one more feature of the worm. It causes websites to appear defaced if the default language of the computer is American English. On these computers, the thread creates further threads and runs a function responding to HTTP requests after staying inert for two hours. The correct website is not returned and instead, the own HTML code of the worm is returned. The defaced website looks as below:

Hacked By Chinese! (Lemos 1)

This infection stayed on the computer for 10 hours and then was removed. But there was always the fear of repeat infection by other threads. When the date of the month is between 20th and 28th the threads tried to impart a Denial of Service attack on a particular IP address. The website of Whitehouse was affected and had to be changed. Finally, after the 28th of the month, the threads stopped working and went to an indefinite sleeping state (Zhang and Ma 573-586).

There is another version of the worm which was first found on August 4, 2001, called the Code Red II. It was actually a new worm that did not cause the defacing of the websites. Though the worm had created havoc it is not that it can be taken precaution against. Symantec Security Response has devised guidelines for both home and corporate users to prevent the worm from entering computers. A few of them are:

• Complex password systems decrease the vulnerability of a computer to a great extent.
• File sharing should only be turned on when absolutely necessary. If necessary anonymous access should be prevented by using ACLs and complex passwords.
• Unnecessary auxiliary services installed by many operating systems are vulnerable to threads. They must be removed to lessen the chances of attack.
• vbs,.exe,.bat,.pif,.scr extensions might be indicators of threat. These must be blocked by email servers when present as an attachment.
• For corporate offices, it is necessary for the employees to avoid opening unexpected attachments and running downloaded software before scanning them.
• Patch levels need to be updated.
• If a computer appears infected it should be separated and re-installed only after further analysis (Borders 102-113).

Thus, threats keep on changing their appearance and ways of operation. But by adopting security measures it is possible to lessen the chances of infection and threats to the computers.

References

Borders, Kevin. Malnets: large-scale malicious networks and compromised wireless access points. Security and Communication Networks 3.2-3 (2010): 102-113.

Ciampa, Mark. Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals. Ed 3. NY: Cengage Learning, 2008.

Lemos,Robert. Code Red worm claims 12,000 servers. CNET News. CNET News, 2001. Web.

Zhang, Yunkai and Jianfeng Ma. Modeling and analysis of a self-learning worm based on good point set scanning. Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 9.4 (2009): 573-586.

Introduction

Due to the rapid development of technological achievements computers became an inalienable part of the educational process. Still, using a computer for different educational purposes does not always demonstrate its value in practice. Many experts argue that there is no difference between the educational level of students of high school who used computers and different software is quite the same as the level of students who did not handle any technological facilities during education. However, other experts argue that the benefit of computer usage in high school is just the question of the nearest future. There are various aspects students may master with the help of computers which were unachievable several decades ago. All teachers of Saudi Arabia should be informed about the necessity, inevitability, and benefit of computers and technological achievements introduction to the contemporary system of education.

The researcher chooses the students who study in the high school stage to investigate the issue of computer usage in high schools Physics classrooms in Saudi Arabia because different computer software is highly beneficial for high school students in the aspect of Physics learning. High school students achieved basic knowledge and skills in previous stages of education. That is why computer application will be an inalienable part of education. The researcher wants to investigate the process of computer introduction into the high school Physics classroom in Saudi Arabia. The researcher highlights the necessity of computer application during Physics classes which would be beneficial for students taking into account different aspects of the field of science. Physics is developing science, and what was a breakthrough many years ago, is an outdated thing. Computer help students on high school level comprehend and develop their skills in the sphere of outdated and new achievements in the sphere of Physics. Moreover, computers help model and display various physical phenomena, which is impossible from the point of view of the common environment.

Background

Speaking about computers introduced into the educational process, technological achievements became a part of education on different stages in many countries all over the world. Computer generation in high schools of European and western countries began about thirty years ago. While in Saudi Arabia application of computers and teaching of computer skills commenced in the 90s of the last century.

The main difficulty of computers introducing into the schools of Saudi Arabia is the question of changing the whole system of education. Nowadays there is the problem of training teachers to use computers during lessons. On the one hand, teachers have to know the basic principles of computer usage. On the other hand, teachers have to master different software which may benefit the education of their concrete subject. However, not all, if not to say that the majority of Saudi Arabia teachers refuse to apply computers during education. They consider that the application of different technological achievements contradicts the pedagogical approach. Still, some teachers admit that there are no effective courses for preparation and re-training teaching staff from the aspect of computers usage.

Another problem the education system from the point of view of application computer products during lessons Saudi Arabia faces today is the necessity of crucial changes which are to be made in the aspect of rigging and informational support on computer technologies usage. It means that lots of manuals and textbooks should be changed and new ones are to be introduced to make the application of computers not only the subject of technological achievements and computer era but also make it work for the benefit of the educational process.

Theoretical Framework

The introduction of computers and other technological achievements into the system of education to the schools of Saudi Arabia was held on different stages. On the one hand, various disciplines are closely connected with computer usage. On the other hand, the fact that lots of spheres of contemporary life are connected with computers meant the necessity to introduce computer programs to the educational system. When considering the domain of computers in education, we recognize that it is in a constant flux. There are many pressures for acceptance and incorporation of computers at all levels of education (Plomp and Pelgrum, p. 250).

Apart from the necessity of computer introduction to the system of education, the application of different technological achievements in the high schools Physics classroom in Saudi Arabia is important from the point of view of visual presenting and modeling of different physical aspects. It is not a secret that school laboratories cannot provide all necessary conditions to realize and display this or that physical phenomenon. However, the fact that the educational program of Physics becomes more complicated on the high school stage, means that laboratories would be more complicated as well. So, it is rather difficult, if not impossible, to display this or that Physical experiment. That is why computer models of different Physical phenomena are highly beneficial for the educational process in the aspect of Physics. Moreover, computer software allows high school students to create different physical phenomena themselves and evaluate their knowledge in the field of Physical.

Reference

Plomp T., and Pelgrum W. J. (1991). Introduction of Computers in Education: State of the Art in Eight Countries.Computers Educ. 17(3), 249-258. Web.

Overview

The role played by computers in modern life cannot be overemphasized. The advances which have already been made in computing technology are enormous. Owing to this, modern life has transformed to an extent that most applications and principles require the use of knowledge derived from computers. Computing roles have been integrated into society in facilitating different activities which would take man significant amounts of time to accomplish effectively. This paper explores some of the critical positive and negative roles played by computers in the contemporary world.

Positive Roles

Computing in Medical applications

The contemporary application of computers has found its way in carrying out research in medicine for improved healthcare (Ward, 2004). Data that has been obtained from patients is recorded, stored, analyzed, retrieved, and transmitted in a very efficient way through the use of computers. In the case of an Intensive Care Unit where urgency is of great importance, the use of computers comes in handy. Additionally, an emergency department has benefitted tremendously from the use of computing knowledge bearing in mind that there is often a lot of data generation from patients and laboratory results that need to be analyzed and interpreted. The use of handwritten patient details has a myriad of shortcomings. For instance, records can easily go missing when information has been recorded on a sheet of paper. Moreover, handwritten data may be poorly documented leading to a misleading interpretation of the same. This may also be coupled with a lack of legibility on the written data leading to further confusion. It is also cumbersome to gather, store and retrieve all clinical information pertaining to patients when such records have been hand-written (Ward, 2004).

Computers are being used to carry out the huge and complicated data storage and analysis which would have otherwise been a nightmare. Indeed, computers are playing a very important role in the advancement of medical knowledge. Interestingly, the contemporary clinical information systems make use of computers and computing knowledge in delivering healthcare to patients. One important attribute of computers is their ability to provide more accurate and regular information which has been stored and analyzed. This is the very principle used in clinical information systems and has proved to be very beneficial. Transcription errors which may result from automated data entry are largely eliminated with the use of computers in medical analysis. There are other category of errors which were prevalent for long when handwritten data was being used in the past. For example, errors that arise from data which is not complete have been alleviated in clinical studies. This is a very important role which computers play in this field. Consequently, time spent on analyzing and evaluating patient data has been reduced significantly hence saving lives which would have otherwise been lost.

Another notable role of computers in modern clinical information systems is the integration of both primary and secondary data. In most cases, hand generated data which is considered to be a primary source may not be easily harmonized with a secondary data. In other words, making additional information on a primary source of patient data is tedious compared to computer generated data. Hence, computers have facilitated the art of complex signal analysis. Computing system in a clinical set up has enabled the recording of primary data when patients are being diagnosed besides the analysis of such data together with the secondary information.

As mentioned earlier, computing knowledge has been extended to medical research with great level of efficiency. For a considerable length of time, clinical information systems had been hampered by inadequate technology. However, the development of information technology through the use of computers has made it possible for data bases to be manipulated with ease and efficiency (Ward, 2004). Hence, computers have become formidable tools in carrying out research. One important aspect of a computer which has made it possible for enormous data to be manipulated is the memory component of the device.

In spite of the vital role played by computers in medicine and of course clinical studies and practices, the use of this device and the accompanying technology has received its own share of challenges. Clinical information system is very sensitive owing to the fact that the data entered into the system, analyzed and eventually interpreted is usually put into use and may have disastrous impact on the patient. The accuracy of data entered is crucial. There are instances when wrong or confusing data can be fed into the system leading to gross mess of the entire clinical information system of a healthcare organization.

Computers in the Military

The manner in which the military operates in the modern world has completely been influenced and revolutionized by the use of computers. Contemporary military tactics is largely making use of computers to improve efficiency and effectiveness. The military can now perform certain tasks with high speed and precision because the ability to compute fast has been brought on board (Shelly, Vermaat & Quasney, 2010). This has gone a long way in reducing the operational costs to the government of the day.

Before the advent of modern computers, fighting for the sake of defending territories would result into heavy causalities and massive destruction of property. In order to achieve particular war goals, weapons of mass destruction were the best for use. Such weapons would lead to non selective loss of life of civilians who were not even involved in the war. It became very costly for the military to launch an attack because it was not easy to control the magnitude of devastation.

Since it is almost impossible to evade war either in the near or distant future, the development of mini computers which are equally powerful has been thought as the right step forward towards equipping and strengthening the military. It is now possible to manufacture weapons which are sensitive enough to detect the location and nature of the target. Small custom made computers can now be used by the military to launch a projectile to a target located far away (Shelly, Vermaat & Quasney, 2010). In this case, it is only the target which is hit by the missile contrary to the weapons of mass destruction which often leaves widespread damage that is over and above the specific target. The military has found the use of computers to be less expensive and also effective compared o the old fighting tactics. Moreover, fewer resources are utilized with the use of computers in military warfare. In the case whereby human beings are the target, the use of computers has made it possible to selectively kill those who are participating in the war and spare those who are innocent. The decisions which are made by these modern weapons are automated in the sense that there are lasers and optical systems which are installed in the weapons and together with special computer programs, the target can be reached effectively.

The military wing of the United States of America largely makes use of Global Positioning System. This computer technology makes it possible for the military to precisely identify where a particular target is located. It is a very vital computer application which the military cannot do without. In achieving this, there are usually a collection of satellites which move round the earth and gather the relevant information regarding the location of the target. This information is concurrently communicated to another receiver on the ground which finally enables the military to locate the target precisely. Launching such satellites require computers without which it is not possible. Furthermore, signals which are transmitted to the receiver have to be generated by the computers. The use of Global Positioning System enables missiles to accurately locate the position or location of the target before launching a projectile.

Reconnaissance also utilizes computing technology and satellites. Spectacular images are permitted by computers to be received by the satellites. These images are then transferred to the ground military station where all the information regarding the enemy or target is obtained. This is an intelligence system which tends to gather reliable data from an enemy installation and instantaneously transmit the same for analysis on the other side. Reconnaissance satellites have been used for quite a while and they are still prominent investigative devices that have been made even more powerful with the advancement in computer technology (Shelly, Vermaat & Quasney, 2010). The successful operations of modern aircrafts which are used for fighting purposes rely heavily on the use of computers. A pilot is often not in a position to control a myriad of variables at the same time in a fighter plane. Besides, there are those fighter planes which are relatively not stable and hence require regular checks to monitor their performance. When such controls are in place, an aircraft can function well as far as speed and cruising rage are concerned. For instance, an aircraft which is well maneuvered will more likely accomplish its target.

Contemporary military campaigns are utilizing well secured and effective communication which may not be hacked down by the enemy. Computers which are powerful enough are in use to achieve this requirement. For example, these computers can permit well enhanced encryption methods of receiving, storing and transmitting sensitive information. Modern computers are effectively playing the role of encrypting valuable information contrary to the old methods which could easily be identified by the enemy.

There is a lot of military research taking place in the background. This research is meant to boost the technological well being of the military especially in regard to inventing better and improved techniques of launching warfare. Computers are playing an invaluable part in this undertaking. The device is used in the gathering, storage, analysis, interpretation and transmission of all the data which is relevant in the research study. The simulating effect which has been caused by a blast from a nuclear explosion is monitored by computers. There are rovers which are currently being developed by NASA so that the planet Mars can be explored.

Computers in modern education

The use of computer technology and its advances has been correlated to the improvement of student achievement in education. Both the public and private education providers are finding it more necessary to embrace computers in the learning process. Towards the end of the 1990s, there was a paradigm shift in the mode of teaching. New curriculum has been developed by education specialists to embrace the application of computers in day-to-day process of teaching and acquisition of knowledge (Johnson & Maddux, 2003).

Although computers have initially been used to deliver the required curriculum, the shift has been tremendous. For instance, using software contained in disks to deliver curriculum has now revolutionized the exploration of the curriculum on the information super highway or the international network.

When it comes to curriculum matters, a very vital hardware was first provided by Apple computers. This computer manufacturing company was of the opinion that communication, collaboration and thinking media were all vital components of technology which could only work well if computing skills and competences were put in place. The information which is delivered by the tutor to the students can be counterchecked by the latter on the internet. Furthermore, students have become more knowledgeable in the sense that they do not necessarily rely on the teacher to obtain some information. The computer through the internet has a wealth of information which can be accessed easily by learners.

The modern curriculum has enhanced the prevalence of paperless learning environment. Much of the content required for learning can be found on the World Wide Web or on removable storage media like CD-ROMs, memory sticks, memory cards and flash discs (Johnson & Maddux, 2003). The learning method has been revolutionized by the concept of e-learning which is currently a very popular mode of distance learning. It is through the use of computers that electronic learning platform has been possible. The classroom is no longer dominated by the chalkboard, the teacher or a piece of pen. Internet use has reinvented the traditional learning methods which relied on the aforementioned parameters for learning to take place. Information can be easily accessed by a learner through a computer instead of the teacher. Moreover, the internet provides the most updated information as possible especially internet portals such as Yahoo or MSN are used as search engines. Hence, the computer has enabled learners to obtain not just mere information but the most current version of the same. This is a very critical role played by computers in modern life whereby information is made available upon the click of a mouse. Nevertheless, the information content available on the internet may not all be useful. The educators have the role of providing clear goals and objectives of the curriculum in addition to filtering the right content for the curriculum.

The globe has been shrunk by the internet (Johnson & Maddux, 2003). Learning and attaining knowledge can be done from any location of the world so long there is a computer device and internet access. Learners and teachers are now capable of collaborating from remote locations for instance; online file sharing is highly common. In fact, one key advantage of the internet is the capability of the system to manage a worldwide link of a variety of resourceful materials. Hence, al learners can now an individualized program for learning academic resources in nay given curriculum.

E-commerce

Electronic commerce has grown to significant levels over the past few decades. The modern life commerce is not entirely reliant on the buying and selling of goods and services from specific physical locations.

Negative role played by computers

Music Piracy

Computers have equally been used to perpetrate acts of online theft through music piracy. The 2001 survey revealed that there are over three million worldwide internet enthusiasts who have the access and ability to download music and video files from the huge collection of albums available online (Spinello & Tavani, 2004). Undoubtedly, this number has indeed grown. Besides, the use of broadband-enhanced technologies enables quick downloads of music and video files compared to the old system which would take several minutes to download a small volume of music file. However, there are those who still question the authenticity of the argument that file sharing lowers the overall volume of sales and consequently deprives artists of their expected and rightful returns. Moreover, there has been an on-going debate that downloading music and video file from the internet cannot be pointed out as the main cause behind the drop in sales over the recent past. Meanwhile, it is imperative to have an empirical analysis on whether online file sharing can be blamed on this decline.

To begin with, the ability to share files at almost no cost over the World Wide Web goes against the boundaries set by copyright laws. Furthermore, it implies that online users have the alternative of obtaining videos and music they want without paying for any returns to this form of intellectual property (Spinello & Tavani, 2004). The end product of this culture is definitely the deprivation of artists through non-violent robbery of their intellectual property. Users who download files from the internet are less likely purchase the same products over the counters. As a matter of fact, the quality of the downloaded material is not compromised at all.

Slightly over two billion U.S dollars were gained from music and video sales during the beginning of new millennium. In these sales, it was found that the Compact Disc was the most famous form of music purchased (Spinello & Tavani 2004).As a result, its price has remained a bit high therefore scaring other users. In seeking for an option, some tend to switch to the internet where they can obtain music and video of their choice. Since all music that is downloaded can be used by more than one person, there is a tendency of such users not reverting to the actual buying of legal products. This will, on the other hand, lead to reduced sales of both audio music and video. In reality, if those who download music would resort to buying legitimate copies, then the total quantity sold would be higher than it is today. Some figures reveal that online file sharing has the potential of reducing the desire to buy by about thirty per cent (Spinello & Tavani, 2004). This is a whooping figure bearing in mind that the number keeps growing on a daily basis.

The intellectual property rights aim at protecting trademarks, software data and copyrights. These rights are rarely upheld bearing in mind that a variety of ways can be used to acquire data illegally. For instance, some users might modify, transfer or store information in a retrieval system without prior permission from the owner. Duplication of compact discs containing music or video files amounts to intellectual rights violation. Most important issues on moral aspect of communication technology do not receive headlines. As much as we use and appreciate technology, protecting its integrity and creators in this field is imperative.

Conclusion

In summing up this paper, it is imperative to note that computers play both negative and positive roles in modern life. Nonetheless, computer technology has led to a myriad of technological advances and significant growth of the world economy through globalization. Besides, medical field, education, E-commerce and the military are some of the beneficiaries of the advances made in computing. However, music piracy continues to be a setback to the intellectual property rights.

References

Johnson, L.D. and Maddux, D.C. (2003). Technology in Education: A Twenty-Year Retrospective, New York: Haworth Press Inc.

Shelly, B.G., Vermaat, E.M. and Quasney, J.J. (2010). Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World, Introductory, MA: Cengage Learning.

Spinello A. R and Tavani T. H (Eds.) (2004) Readings in cyber ethics 2^nd Ed. Mississauga: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Ward, S.N. (2004). Using Computers for Intensive Care Unit Research, Respiratory Care, 49(5): 518-524.