Category: Computers

Computer law is increasingly becoming an important area in the fields of legal as well as information technology (IT). Computer law affects corporations and professionals positively and negatively, but the advantages of effective and strict computer laws are important in ensuring the security of the computer systems, data, individuals, and organizations (Whitman & Mattord, 2012).

In the US, statutes and case laws are used to decriminalize or criminalize various activities involving the use of computer systems and information. The computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) is the statute with the broadest impact on information technology and management. Enacted in 1986, the statute aims at criminalizing the hacking of computer systems (Whitman & Mattord, 2012). However, it has undergone several amendments such as the National Information Infrastructure Protection Act (1994), the Patriotic Act (2001), and the Patriot Improvement and Reauthorization Act (2006). These statutes affect individuals and companies in a positive manner. It protects professionals in information technology from hacking, which might lead to destruction, loss, or leakage of information. In addition, it helps organizations to maintain the integrity of their information, including business secrets and other crucial information required in management (Harrington, 2009).

In the US, the Privacy Act of 1974 is an example of some of the most effective legislation that affects professionals and organizations. According to this statute, government agencies must show individuals the information recorded about them. Secondly, agencies must follow fair information practices when they are gathering and handling information about individuals (Whitman & Mattord, 2012). Thirdly, it ensures that restrictions are placed on the processes of sharing data of an individual between or within organizations, finally, it allows individuals and organizations to sue the authorities if their rights to information protection are violated (Harrington, 2009).

The Electronic Communication Privacy Act (1986) seeks to regulate communications through the mouth (oral), wire, and electronic methods. It affects professionals and organizations because it criminalizes forceful and unwarranted seizure and search of information in computer systems (Harrington, 2009). Therefore, it protects the integrity and privacy of information systems for IT professionals and organizations.

Case laws also play an important role in regulating information technology and computer systems. For instance, the ACLU v Zell Miller establishes the right to privacy for the users of internet technology. In addition, it guarantees the basic rights of organizations and individuals using internet technology (Harrington, 2009).

The Bourke v. Nissan Motor Corp establishes the right of organizations to monitor the emails of their employees or terminate an employees use of personal or sexual information through the companys computer system. It affects organizations in a positive manner, but it may have negative impacts on professionals within an organization because they do not have the privacy of their communication.

To improve personal privacy, a number of approaches are applicable. For instance, the use of authorization systems such as a unique user login and password are important approaches. They help individuals and companies protect personal information because unauthorized individuals cannot access information. However, they have disadvantages such as loss of crucial information when the user forgets the authentication details or dies or leave the company without disclosing the information to another part (Whitman & Mattord, 2012).

Digital signature legislations are important in the protection of the digital signatures when developing and signing contracts through electronic media. They protect the authenticity of documents and digital messages. They ensure that the privacy of software, financial and other records are protected when under electronic transaction.

References

Harrington, S. J. (2009). The Effects of Codes of Ethics and Personal Denial of Responsibility on Computer Abuse Judgment and Intentions. MIS Quarterly 20(3), 257-278.

Whitman, M., & Mattord, H. (2012). Readings & Cases in Information Security: Law & Ethics. Mason, OH: Cengage.

Introduction

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) can be loosely be described as the process of providing language skills to learners by means of computers or computer applications. CALL is a divergent field that encompasses various levels of learning, all supported by computer-enabled technology (Kukulska-Hulme and Lesley 271). Today, computer-assisted learning is inclusive of E-Learning and Mobile learning, where language learning is done online and knowledge disseminated using mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones.

Computer-assisted learning

Many educators hold that CALL has significant advantages over traditional methods of second language learning. Among these include the fact that it provides second language learners with independence from classrooms, allowing them flexible and convenient learning. In addition, while the hardware and software needed for the learning may appear expensive at the onset, as they are gradually implemented, the economies of scale ultimately make them cheaper (Beatty 7).

Using computers in class also provides learners and teachers with a chance to widen their scope of practice. For example, instead of reading a story to his or her class, a teacher can have them watch and discuss an animated version of the same displayed on a projector. Nevertheless, it should not be assumed that CALL programs are meant to replace human teachers because, on the contrary, they only supplement and boost their effectiveness (Lai and William 2). For example, when a student can use a software application to work on their pronunciation, the teacher will have extra time to focus on the more intricate aspects of grammar that cannot be taught using computers.

ELearning

E Learning is a critical aspect of contemporary language learning since many youths spend most of their time socializing and playing games online. Therefore, when they are provided with an avenue through which to use the already familiar online space for studying, it is easy to motivate them. Using online portals and interactive websites, learners can interact with their peers and engage in virtual discussions and competitions (Lia and William 3).

In addition, E-learning allows them to access material produced by native language speakers, which is instrumental in boosting their language acquisition. Thousands of online applications and websites provide affordable or even free language training. These are designed creatively in the form of games and other interactive fun activities that make language learning an enjoyable experience. E Learning also provides a wide range of opportunities for students to practice their skills and engage in experimental and interactive learning. Furthermore, given the versatility of online space, new information and tools are quickly updated to improve the overall learning experience.

Mobile learning

Considering Given the amount of time, many teenagers and young adults spend on their smartphones and tablets, using these tools as a platform to teach language skills is highly effective (Kukulska-Hulme and Lesley 271). Most of the applications used to access online learning can be rendered on mobile devices, which are more common than computers. They allow students and teachers to reach new levels of interaction since communication can occur remotely and on a flexible schedule as majority leaners keep their gadgets close to them.

They are using the media to teach language

The above-mentioned tools of learning constitute the contemporary environment for language learning in which various media are to teach language without direct contact with a teacher. Retrospectively, these media usually consisted of newspapers or TV and radio shows, however, today there are much more personalized and effective technologies. Most of them are based on the web, and in addition to specialized language websites, there are also social networking using sites like Facebook and Twitter. As a result, language learning has considerably improved, especially in view of the fact that, there are numerous readily available technologies to support the process.

Works Cited

Beatty, Ken. Teaching & researching: Computer-assisted language learning. Routledge, 2013. Print.

Kukulska-Hulme, Agnes, and Lesley Shield. An overview of mobile assisted language learning: From content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. ReCALL 20.03 (2008): 271-289. Print.

Lai, Cheng-Chieh, and William Allan Kritsonis. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Technology in Second Language Acquisition.Online Submission 3.1 (2006). Print.

Describe your technical recommendations to address the security requirements in the overall technical design of the ABC Healthcare network

The detailed response below includes both internal and external aspects of security requirements. It includes both untrusted and trusted aspects of the requirements. Untrusted security requirements will include user connectivity to the internet. The trusted aspect of the network plays a major role in supporting the business functions of known entities. The known entities, in this case, include such stakeholders as partners, suppliers, and customers. All of these stakeholders have a specific business relationship with the company.

It is important to note that the overall design of the ABC Healthcare network is very broad. In addition, technical solutions aimed at addressing the security of computer networks are numerous. A given organization has a wide variety of solutions to choose from. However, it is essential to note that before embarking on technical solutions for the identified problems, users of ABC Healthcare computer network should know their roles. Different users have different roles to play as far as the security measures are concerned. Their role in the security system reflects, to some extent, their role in the overall organizational structure. To this end, end-users, such as employees, have different roles compared to the developers of the system. It is also important to note that approximately 10% of the security requirements in any given organization are technical in nature. What this means is that this 10 percent needs to be handled by individuals who have the necessary skills to handle online security. The remaining 90% of security requirements for the network rely on the users. As such, the users have a very critical role to play in network security. In this case, the users include mainstream employees, customers, suppliers, and others. The users enhance security by, among others, adhering to proper computing practices. Such computing practices include safeguarding the passwords required to access the network and using the network resources responsibly.

As already indicated above, some aspects of network security are untrusted. With regards to ABC Healthcare network, this level poses the greatest risk to the organization. In essence, external stakeholders, such as suppliers and customers, pose the biggest threat to the security of the companys network resources. As such, it is important to secure this network. The first step towards securing the network involves the elimination of, among others, physical vulnerabilities. Such vulnerabilities are brought about by physical applications used by the network, such as computers. To this end, physical communication media, such as servers and routers, should be located in secure locations. The servers should not be physically accessible to unauthorized parties. The areas where these physical media are located should have restricted access. In addition, such acts of God as earthquakes, lightning, floods, and mudslides should be put into consideration. The media should be secured such that it remains steady even when under assault from the elements. In addition, the media should be located away from areas prone to these calamities.

There are other features that should be put into consideration at the untrusted network level. Such features include enhancing the security and confidentiality of information relayed over the network. The need for passwords and such other codes comes in at this juncture. Confidentiality entails the encryption of data transmitted over the insecure network. The data is encrypted in such a way that it cannot be accessed by unauthorized parties. Another feature is the integrity of the information, which should be upheld at all times. Integrity involves identifying and dealing with any signs of alteration during transit.

There are a number of hardware components that can be used to secure the companys network. For example, network firewalls are some of the major hardware components to use when securing ABC Network. The hardware is used to safeguard ABC Network from invasions carried out from other external networks. Cisco firewall hardware equipment would be essential for the protection of this level. However, it is important to note that firewall hardware has a number of inherent limitations. For example, such hardware only reduces the risk of intrusion. As such, there is a need for the inclusion of corresponding firewall software, such as Internet Security Systems BlackICE PC Protection. The software-based firewalls should be installed on individual computers used in the organization. When combined with the hardware component, software firewalls will minimize the risk of intrusion from external networks, such as the internet.

Screening routers can also be used to secure the network. The screening procedure facilitates effective protection of the internal or local area networks (LANs) from internet attacks. Routers are important as they are needed to establish a connection to the internet. As such, additional security configurations in such systems would be very important. The normal routers used in the organization can be transformed into screening routers. Such a transformation can be achieved through the installation of the Drawbridge software. As such, the use of Drawbridge will enhance the security of the ABS Health network.

It is a fact that the use of screening and firewalls can almost eliminate all the risks associated with the internet network. However, it is important to note that the sensitive nature of the information held by ABS Healthcare calls for much more. One such additional measure is restricting users access to the internet. Such a measure will make the system much secure.

In addition, installing such software programs as SmartFilter would regulate the internal users of the ABC Healthcare computers. The users will be prevented from accessing particular websites on the internet. The filter restricts access to a number of websites that are regarded as high risk. For example, some of these websites, such as pornographic sites, increase the vulnerability of the ABC Healthcare network. The vulnerability is increased through the introduction of viruses from the internet via these sites.

The operations of ABC Healthcare require the organization to interact with a number of trusted networks. Such interactions involve stakeholders like suppliers and customers. The organization may interact with the suppliers via the network by placing orders. It may also engage potential and existing customers through correspondence. However, it is important to note some of such interactions with the stakeholders are carried out over the unsecured network. Such interactions expose ABC Healthcare network to a myriad of security risks. It is important to address this problem in order to enhance the security of the network. The solution is not curtailing the interaction between the organization and the stakeholders, given that such engagements are crucial to the operations of this firm. However, the introduction of Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) significantly eliminates this risk. The network refers to a particular mode of transmitting data securely over an unsecured network.

A number of strategies can be adopted to integrate Virtual Private Networks into the ABC Healthcare network. One of the strategies includes a combination of various encryptions, tunneling, and authentication techniques. Such measures call for the introduction of various protocols into ABCs Healthcare network. There are a number of protocols commonly used in Virtual Private Networks. They include Point-Point-Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) and SOCKS protocol. Others include Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) and Internet Protocol Security (IPSec). The suggested Virtual Private Network needs to be implemented through server-to-server configuration. To this end, the servers used by ABC Healthcare network are configured with those used by the stakeholders with the help of the various VPN protocols. Such a configuration will effectively enhance network security in the organization.

There are other strategies used to safeguard computers from both internal and external intrusion. One of the major strategies commonly applied to achieve this involves the use of Anti-Virus software. To this end, ABC Healthcare can invest in such software to protect its network against external intrusion from the internet and internal intrusion from the users. However, such a measure calls for an effective and updated version of Anti-Virus software. If this is not ensured, such efforts go to waste.

Internal and remote users of the ABC Healthcare computer network can easily expose the system to a number of risks. They can do this by introducing viruses or worms into the system through media accessories. Such media as flash disks, compact disks among others can be used to transmit these malicious soft wares. The transmission can either be deliberate or unintended. Whichever the case, the security of the network should be enhanced. Up-to-date Anti-Virus software can easily address this problem. The software can be used to scan these media and eliminate any malicious software in them before they are used in the system. The action would take place with or without the intent of the users.

The measures proposed above for safeguarding and improving the security of ABC Healthcare network will ultimately enhance the effectiveness of the system. However, the proposed measures will require the company to update its computer networks on a regular basis. New threats to computer network security emerge every day. As such, the importance of updating the networks security systems cannot be underestimated.

Discuss the way you will address requirements for system monitoring, logging, and auditing, including complying with any legal regulations

Any organization operating in contemporary society is required to adhere to a number of rules and regulations in its operations. Compliance with these rules and regulations remains a major issue in these organizations. ABC Healthcare is no exception. The organization does not operate in a vacuum. Rather, its operations have to comply with a myriad of procedural guidelines put in place. For example, the company needs to comply with, among others, the Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) regulations and the provisions of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). Organizational survival in any given industry is partly determined by adherence to the various regulations.

Logging focuses on the information collected and recorded by the IT systems. Such information gives rise to records known as logs. Logs result from information that is generated by monitoring activities conducted over the IT systems. Such logged information needs to be reported. Reporting entails the presentation of the information in a specified format for regulatory purposes. The information is used by developers and regulators or the system to determine whether any security threats are evident.

There is a need to adhere to the regulatory requirements of logging, monitoring, and reporting. The need for adherence gives rise to major issues. The organization needs to come up with a number of control measures for logging, monitoring and reporting. Such measures are very important since the information held by the ABC Healthcare system is very sensitive. Access protocols would greatly facilitate logging, monitoring, and auditing purposes.

Information touching on logging and monitoring is collected from a wide range of ABC Healthcare system users. The users include employees, managers, and suppliers. What this means is that the various stakeholders cannot be regulated at the initial phase of entering the information into the system. As such, the need for central servers for the storage of the information collected becomes apparent. The servers would then be backed up in various locations. Back-up is a security measure put in place to ensure that the information in the servers is not lost in case of any unforeseen eventualities. Consequently, the privacy of information is upheld by requesting users to authenticate their details before they can access the databases.

There is a need to formulate additional policies to regulate the collection of information and regulate access to ABC Healthcare databases. The policies will regulate the actions of both internal and external users. The regulation will greatly enhance compliance requirements.

Describe how the system will identify and authenticate all the users who attempt to access ABC Healthcare information resources

Accessing the information contained in ABC Healthcare network systems is a very sensitive issue. As already indicated, the information contained in this system is very sensitive. It touches on, among others, the health status of the patients, which should be treated with the utmost confidentiality. Access by unauthenticated users of the system, as well as misuse of the accessed information resources, can jeopardize the operations of ABC Healthcare network systems. Therefore, a combination of authentication mechanisms would be very effective.

There are various basic user-authentication measures that can be used to enhance system security. Such measures include, among others, the use of usernames and passwords to access information in the database. Such measures, however, would be for low-level information, which is not very sensitive. Such information can be accessed by middle and lower-level system users. For the more sensitive information, biometric measures would be used to authenticate users accessing the resources.

Biometric measures fall into two major categories. The first is physical characteristic recognition (PCR). The second is behavioral characteristic recognition (BCR). Both categories are very essential in the identification and authentication of users. However, the suitable category of biometric measure to apply in ABC Healthcare would be PCR. PCR would rely on the physical characteristics of the users seeking access to the organizations information resources. The physical characteristics entail scanning the retina or the iris. It also involves a fingerprint scan, facial geometry, and voiceprint identification and authentication. The PCR system is almost incorruptible, except for hardware or database failures.

Discuss how the system will recover from attacks, failures, and accidents

Attacks, failures, and accidents are bound to affect ABC Healthcare network. The eventualities are likely to occur in spite of the measures taken to safeguard the system. Therefore, planning and incorporating recovery mechanisms into the system in case of any failures is very essential. A combination of recovery strategies would be more effective in the case of the ABC Healthcare network. The first recovery mechanism includes making sure that recovery and backup servers are independently located from the main servers of the network.

Backup servers ensure that in case of any failure or attack, the operations of the ABC Healthcare network can go on uninterrupted. Their capacity to achieve this may be limited. However, their functionality can be sustained until the main network system resumes service.

The recovery method is the best choice for the system. It allows for time to troubleshoot the main network without halting the operations of the healthcare center. In addition, the likelihood of the main networking and backup systems succumbing to attacks or other forms of failure at the same time is reduced.

Discuss how the system will address user account management and related security improvements

User account management, as outlined earlier, falls under regulation. The management depends on the informations level of sensitivity. System user policies developed under these security management upgrades would be fully implemented. However, all users of the system must have access credentials, including usernames and passwords. Every time a user accesses the network, the system would record their credentials. Furthermore, records of the information accessed and the duration of time spent logged into the system are archived.

A number of system administrators will share responsibility with regard to the maintenance of the network system. The administrators will be under the supervision of top-level managers and selected auditors. A combination of various security codes will be shared between the group members to curb sabotage. The teams main task includes twenty-four-hour surveillance of the networks hardware and software components. The surveillance function will also be automated.

Ensuring security in computer networks is a significant issue that requires careful analytical work and utilizing relevant mechanisms to counter the threats of hacking and data theft. The transition to a digital standard for storing valuable documentation necessitates the organization of reliable and stably operating systems with authorization functions, protection against cyberattacks, and other beneficial properties. In order to consider the basic principles of ensuring the security of computer networks and their proper maintenance, it is essential to evaluate the existing tools created for these purposes.

This work is aimed at describing approaches to enhancing online security, in particular, installing firewalls and network hardening. Each of these stages is in terms of value in the context of virtual security and may be applied to both local and international networks to prevent computer engineers attacks and other threats. As a substantiation base, relevant peer-reviewed academic sources will be used to confirm specific hypotheses and analyze findings. The high-quality and comprehensive security of computer networks, which is carried out with the help of modern protection mechanisms, is the guarantee of the safety of valuable data and theft prevention.

Social Engineering as a Security Threat

Social engineering is the method of unauthorized access to information or storage systems without using technical means. According to Thakur, Shan, and Pathan (2018), this principle is considered to be one of the most overwhelming threats in the field of cybersecurity (p. 19). Social engineering is based on using the weaknesses of the human factor and is an effective way of introducing into closed computer networks.

Attackers obtain information, for instance, by collecting data about employees, applying for regular phone calls, or by entering the organization under the guise of its employee. Utilizing such a principle of data theft is most relevant when hackers choose a specific company or firm as the target of an attack. Existing social engineering techniques allow intruders to choose optimal tactics.

Social Engineering Techniques

All the techniques applied in social engineering are based on the characteristics of peoples decision-making. For instance, pretexting is the method developed according to a predetermined scenario, as a result of which a victim provides certain information or performs a specific action. This type of attack is usually utilized by telephone, and most often, this crime involves not only lies but also some preliminary research, such as personalization. By acting in this way, attackers can assure themselves of their goals. Another common technique is phishing, the method aimed at obtaining confidential information fraudulently.

Thakur et al. (2018) cite an example when an attacker sends a targeted e-mail forged under an official letter and requiring the verification of specific information or the commission of some actions. This letter may contain a link to a fake web page imitating an official one with a corporate logo and content and offering a form that requires entering confidential information. These types of threats to computer networks are common and require applying for appropriate preventive measures.

Methods of Prevention

The primary way of protecting against social engineering is learning the rules of corporate behavior. Lakshmi and Gireesh (2019) argue that all the employees of a particular company should be aware of the risk of information disclosure. Moreover, workers are to have clear instructions on how and on what topics they should discuss with their interlocutors and what information they need to obtain for accurate authentication.

Since all user passwords are proprietary, employees should realize that those access data that they are given cannot be utilized for any other purpose, for instance, to authorize on Internet sites. Also, there should be the rule of the proper disclosure of only necessary information by telephone and in-person (Lakshmi & Gireesh, 2019). Such a verification procedure may allow confirming whether a particular person is the companys valid employee or not.

Thus, in addition to modern and high-quality security systems for computer networks for which large sums of money are spent, simple training may also be helpful. Nevertheless, it is essential to consider more advanced mechanisms for combating hacker attacks, in particular, the creation of firewalls and the effectiveness of these tools.

Firewalls and Their Effectiveness

In order to protect computer networks from sudden attacks and the theft of valuable data, such systems as firewalls have become popular and essential tools in the fight against cybercrime. As Neville and Foley (2018) state, a firewall is a set of software network filters that keeps track of the network packets coming into the computer and outgoing from it. These mechanisms control all the processes in accordance with the rules specified in a particular program.

It is a firewall that allows protecting a computer from unwanted incoming connections. As a rule, such utilities are included in the basic package of operating systems installed in the networks of both home and corporate use. However, those intruders who specialize in database theft can crack this legal protection easily. In this regard, work on creating robust and comprehensively protected firewalls is a significant aspect of a modern technology sphere. Installing a reliable filtering system is the key to information security, and the degree of the advancement of such tools influences their performance directly.

Types of Firewalls

In modern IT security, various programs designed to block malicious traffic appear regularly. Nevertheless, when analyzing available protection systems for networks, it is possible to distinguish two key varieties  hardware and software firewalls.

According to Sattar, Salah, Sqalli, Rafiq, and Rizwan (2017), the first type is installed as a separate device and is configured so that it could work as a door. For such a firewall to work, it should be installed between the local network and the Internet. The advantage of this method is the need for an attacker to first crack the security system before receiving direct access to any network resources. However, as Sattar et al. (2017) point out, such tools have a drawback, which is the necessity to purchase additional hardware.

A software firewall is a program installed on a computer that needs to be protected from network threats. Sattar et al. (2017) note that the advantages of this type are in a more straightforward setup and the absence of additional equipment. The disadvantages of software firewalls lie in the fact that they occupy system resources, and they require installing on all the workstations and servers of a particular network.

Firewall Contribution to Network Security

Using firewalls in data protection is a mandatory practice, particularly for those computer networks that are combined within the framework of corporate access. Despite the fact that, as Neville and Foley (2018) remark, firewall policy management is complex and error-prone, the importance of this procedure largely determines the degree of the security of stored information (p. 207). Therefore, in modern networks, a significant role is played by establishing special blockers filtering Internet traffic.

Methods of Network Hardening

The heterogeneity of hardware and software platforms requires manufacturers to protect compliance with a particular technological discipline. Not only purely protective characteristics are crucial, but also the possibility of embedding these systems in modern corporate information structures (Sharma & Chaurasia, 2018). If a mechanism designed to protect valuable information can function only on one operating system, its practical significance is questioned seriously. Corporate information systems are heterogeneous in yet another important respect  the data of the different degrees of importance and secrecy are stored and processed in their parts. Therefore, it is essential to find ways of hardening networks in addition to the aforementioned standards.

Integrity

The integrity rule as one of the methods of hardening computer networks involves ensuring the reliability and correct display of protected data. Sharma and Chaurasia (2018) argue that this work is to take place, regardless of which security systems and techniques are utilized in a particular company. Data processing should not be disrupted, and those users of the system who work with protected files should not face unauthorized modification, the destruction of resources, software malfunctions, or other violations. Therefore, this principle of strengthening networks is relevant in the context of preserving valuable information.

Confidentiality

The principle of confidentiality means that access to view and edit data is provided exclusively to the authorized users of a protection system. According to Sharma and Chaurasia (2018), in case of unforeseen situations like the loss of passwords, the transfer of personal data to third parties, and other errors, data theft may occur. Therefore, in addition to the aforementioned principles of IT security, it is crucial to establish a system of confidentiality that will allow eliminating any attempts of unauthorized access even among some employees of one organization. This will prevent accidental or intentional information leaks and provide an opportunity to control the activities of those responsible for access.

Accessibility

Accessibility as the mechanism of hardening computer networks has some conventions. In particular, as Sobeslav, Balik, Hornig, Horalek, and Krejcar (2017) state, in addition to firewalls designed to protect operating systems, the accessibility technology implies that all authorized users are to have access to confidential information.

Based on the previous method of confidentiality, it is essential to establish such a mode of authorization that may allow all persons involved in working with secret and crucial materials to use the resources of a particular network freely but responsibly. Such a step towards enhancing security will prevent unauthorized access and, at the same time, will be an incentive for individual employees to practice their skills in using networks capabilities in a strict algorithm. Thus, all of the aforementioned principles are relevant approaches to ensure the safety of valuable information and prevent its theft or hacking.

Conclusion

Due to the introduction of modern technologies for protecting computer networks, it becomes easier to preserve important data and prevents cyber attacks. Social engineering as the way of stealing data carries a risk to the security of personal and corporate information.

Nevertheless, utilizing modern firewalls and adhering to the principles of network hardening may allow maintaining a consistently high level of protection and saving software and all available resources from hacking. Therefore, the implementation of relevant mechanisms protecting digital resources contributes to preventing undesirable consequences and relieving oneself from the fear of data leakage.

References

Lakshmi, V. R. V., & Gireesh, K. T. (2019). Opportunistic mobile social networks: Architecture, privacy, security issues, and future directions. International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 9(2), 1145-1152.

Neville, U., & Foley, S. N. (2018). Reasoning about firewall policies through refinement and composition. Journal of Computer Security, 26(2), 207-254. Web.

Sattar, K., Salah, K., Sqalli, M., Rafiq, R., & Rizwan, M. (2017). A delay-based countermeasure against the discovery of default rules in firewalls. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 42(2), 833-844. Web.

Sharma, R., & Chaurasia, S. (2018). An integrated perceptron Kernel classifier for the intrusion detection system. International Journal of Computer Network and Information Security, 10(12), 11-20. Web.

Sobeslav, V., Balik, L., Hornig, O., Horalek, J., & Krejcar, O. (2017). Endpoint firewall for local security hardening in an academic research environment. Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 32(2), 1475-1484. Web.

Thakur, K., Shan, J., & Pathan, A. S. K. (2018). Innovations of phishing defense: The mechanism, measurement, and defense strategies. International Journal of Communication Networks and Information Security, 10(1), 19-27.

Introduction

The following thesis has been written considering obscenity and ethics in the computer world. With the unprecedented growth in the use of the internet there has been a problem in its usage which has sometimes led to obscenity and need for computer ethics. Computer ethics became a necessity since the conventional principles of conduct could not be applied on the internet and computer usage. This article is aimed at addressing the issues related with obscenity and computer ethics and argues that both are equally important. Ethical concerns and obscenity issues have become a major concern since we use the computer at every walk of our life. Right from our medical records to our bills and payments and even the countrys defense system is based on computers. Unchecked violations in computer ethics and obscenity issues can lead to serious consequences both on our personal and national level.

Issue under consideration Obscenity and Computer Ethics

The issue being considered in this thesis is regarding obscenity and computer ethics. Classically ethics refers to those principles and standards which govern an individuals conduct. But as computers and technology has become a part of our daily life, they have provided us with a continued problem with difficult questions about our judgment. Thus, after the World Wide Web was introduced the meaning of ethics also changed and the term computer ethics evolved. Computer ethics refers to those rules of conduct which concerns computers and refers to the manners through which traditional ethics and customs are negotiated, tested, stretched, applied and sometimes even broken in the world of computers. Computer ethics became a necessity because the Internet and World Wide Web had produced a number of new and unexampled legal issues and questions which the older laws had no answers to. Thus the computer world needed more logical laws for governing the computers and the Internet since the earlier laws had become obsolete here. Computers and the internet were single handedly responsible for radically enhancing communication and manipulation of data raising numerous controversies and questions regarding ethics. (Bennington, 87-103)

Although technology has leaped ahead of time, morality needs to catch up to it since without the understanding of computer ethics people will not be properly ready to handle the world of our online societies. Every individual, irrespective of which field or career he or she belongs to will have to enter into this world either for work or to socialize, and at that point will be faced with ethical problems. Computer ethics helped the users in analyzing the total impact and the overall nature of computer and technology and justified the formulation of rules and policies so that technology and computers were used ethically. (Chatzidakis and Mitussis, 305-320)

Computer ethics have also become a necessity due to millions of computer crimes that take place daily in the form of malware attacks, copyright infringement, illegal distribution and identity theft. Hackers and attackers have been illegally using the computer as a medium for committing crimes making cyber crime one of the gravest challenges for the police authorities and prosecutors. Sometimes certain legal computer activities also pose ethical concerns, like the invasion of an individuals privacy when their computer activities and communications are monitored by others. The unlimited amount of data available through the Internet has increased the concern of businesses and individuals regarding computer ethics. It becomes very difficult for one not to take advantage of simple data manipulations through information technology and use it at the cost of others for their own good. But this creates the so talked about ethical concerns. With the increased competition among individuals and organizations certain strategies need to be developed so that technological innovations can be completely utilized but at the same time the boundaries of tolerable ethical considerations are maintained so that the system maintains its stability and the users benefit from it. (Bennington, 87-103)

The issue of obscenity comes into play when discussing the Internet or the World Wide Web because there is a lot of matter available through them which can be fairly categorized as obscene or inappropriate. The Internet provided people with a whole new media presenting them with so much information which one had never dreamt of. People were not only able to access a wide rage of information but were also able to communicate with each other all over the world within seconds. But some of this information was obscene and inappropriate too and those people who could never access such information or would not have done so, was easily able to assess it. Children too could access these obscene matters since the internet does not have any age barriers. Children, who did not understand what ethics were able to access obscene matters like pornography, join hate groups and even get information on building bombs all through the Internet. Although, the internet has proved to be a powerful tool for some, to other its cons have outweighed the pros. (Chatzidakis and Mitussis, 305-320)

With the growth of the internet we have also witnessed the growth in computer crimes which often involve the availability of obscene pictures on the Internet. Children are often found to be allured into sex or pornography by pedophiles through the Internet. Obscenity on the computer or the Internet presents us with the same legal problems which we face with obscenity in magazines or books. Obscenity, although extremely serious, sometimes does not seem to be as pressing as the various other criminal activities that take place on the Internet. Precise and reliable statistics have not yet been drawn regarding the quantity of computer crimes that take place and the number of victims that have been lost to it. Obscenity is a grave issue as it leads to silent crimes which cannot be easily detected either by the law enforcers or the victims and is thus, very little reported to the proper authorities. Computer technology and the internet have brought about a number of uncertainties due to which the establishment of clear ethical and behavioral codes has become a difficult task. Computer technology is being dramatically abused as company sites are being hacked and thefts are taking place online. (Bennington, 87-103)

One way to tackle the problem of obscenity is by censoring the inappropriate matter. But censoring does not help since something that is obscene to one may not be so to another. The basic problem with obscenity is that the idea of deeming something to be obscene or inappropriate changes with age, it is sometimes dependent on ones religion and is sometimes considered with a specific social condition. Thus, at times enforcement of immediate rules and regulations of moral values against obscenity are not always possible.

The only thing that could have done differently after critically analyzing this paper is that it could have concentrated a little more on the concerns regarding our present computer ethics, which include censorship, copyright and privacy. These topics are equally important considering the aims of my thesis and thus needs to be elaborately discussed. Another issue which I should have discussed is that of domain names which also falls under computer ethics. (Chatzidakis and Mitussis, 305-320)

Conclusion

From this article we learn that although computers and the Internet have provided us with a vast resource of information and technological potentials, they have also brought up concerns about ethics and cases of obscenity. Presently we have very few rules and regulations which can govern an individuals ethical behaviors or obscenity on the internet. After reading this article one will come to know about the issues of obscenity and computer ethics facing our world today. I hope that the readers understand how important computer ethics are for our world today. Parents need to be especially alert so that their children can be kept away from obscene matter on the internet and thus they need to realize what a huge issue obscenity on the computer can be. Through this article I want the readers to understand what computer ethics means and the ill effects of obscenity both on the computer and on the internet. They need to understand and realize these issues so that they can protect their families from any related issues and keep their children safe from online obscenities. After writing this article I have realized how harmful obscenity on the internet can be and why we need to have computer ethics.

Works Cited

Bennington, Tammy. Ethical implications of computer-mediated evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation 56.84 (2008): 87-103.

Chatzidakis, Andreas and Mitussis, Darryn. Computer ethics and consumer ethics: the impact of the internet on consumers ethical decision-making process. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 6.5 (2007): 305-320.

Introduction

The invention of computers basically as a vital communication tool has revolutionized mans lifestyle in a big way. It has made the world today to become too small and be referred to as a global village. This new development has led to emergence of a new wave of crime associated with computers. Unfortunately, the cyber security men have a very cumbersome task to curb this new form of crime. This is because cyber crime is a very complicated type of violation to control. First of all, it is not easy to identify the perpetrator of the crime. It may range from just an innocent young teenager hacker who is out to adventure to a well organized gang with a sole purpose to commit crime. To make matters worse, parents get worried more against internet predators, online child predators and pedophiles. The bright side of the matter, however, is that law enforcing agencies are working hand in hand to alleviate cyber crime. In this paper, I am going to examine in detail the growing crimes related to computers as well as diagnose some of the measures that can be put in place to counteract the vice.

Hacking

You may ask yourself a question, who are these hackers? They are all over. We hear about them in the news time and again. &Or worse yet, maybe you or your family or your friends have been the victim of hacking (Schwartau, 2000). Dangers of being hacked are open to all computer users. It is almost inevitable to elude this reality once you belong to this global society. Unfortunately there is a lot of misconception on hacking activities. Most people have had access to wrong information on hacking. Schwartau (2000) argues that hacking is not really what you thought it was after all. He emphasizes that hacking is deeply entrenched in the society we live in. The impact of this cyber crime, he adds, has more severe repercussions to every individual beyond our universal understanding. Hacking is a very serious vice that may end up consuming the societal fabric long before it is realized.

The society has changed and transformed through a series of stages, one of it being information technology. There is even greater need to conform and be flexible to the challenges brought about by this information age. In a sad note, however, we have created a global society where economists dont yet understand the global economy (Schwartau, 2000). The World Wide Web consists of computer network everywhere. This vast network controls sensitive activities like money transfer, movement of automobile machines like planes, and educational value to our children. Sincerely speaking, computers influence our daily activities in a variety of ways. Therefore, any crime associated with computers (hacking for instance) results in major consequences to every member in the society. The United States of America Department of Defense in April 1998 announced that it had been hacked 250,000 times in one week (Schwartau 2000). The media failed to report on that occurrence appropriately. To them, it seemed like it was not significant. However, according to Schwartau (2000), this event marked the first time the D.o.D openly admitted to attacks on such a vast scale.

There are several threats and risks that computer enthusiasts face in this global village. Outsiders who seek information from our computers without permission may pose a real threat to information security. Unfortunately, most hackers are insiders-white collar criminals, disgruntled employees harboring real or imagined grievances (Nichols, Ryan & Ryan, 2000). Another source of hackers may come from those who lose their patriotism and betray their countries. They do this with a promise for money or ideological incentives (Nichols et al., 2000). This explains why our information systems are highly vulnerable to both internal and external threats. It also gives us an objective view point why hacking is a very protracted form of cyber crime which may not be eradicated but rather it can only be minimized to lower levels. Nichols et al., (2000) unanimously agree that threats to information and information systems are paired with a specific line of attack or set of vulnerabilities

To deal with hacking more effectively, both threat and vulnerability factors should be put into consideration. We cannot depend on elimination of a vulnerability to neutralize a threat, or elimination of a threat to mean that vulnerability can be tolerated safely (Nichols et al., 2000). It is also very important to note that computer crimes can be used to commit a wide range of criminal activities such as credit card fraud, counterfeiting, bank embezzlement, and theft of secret documents (Nichols et al., 2000). If someone physically steals a data disk carrying a 2.0MB of important information, it amounts to theft. Equally, getting access to restricted sites in a computer is considered crime. This is why the society is so vulnerable and at the same time faces potential risks in this information age.

There have been several anti-hacking activities both in the past until to the present attempting to tame the vice. A case in point is the renowned Operation Sundevil of the 1990 which received a lot of public recognition (Bruce 1994). It was characterized by countrywide computer crackdown and had much success. According to Bruce (1994), Operation Sundevil was not intended to combat hacking in the sense of computer intrusion& The Chicago Computer Fraud and Abuse Task Force strategies were directed towards eradicating hacking. However, Operation Sundevil was a crackdown on those traditional scourges of the digital underground. (Bruce 1994). It took a different approach in facing out stealing of credit card and misuse of telephone codes. This operation left an indelible mark in the fight against hacking although its efforts were not directed towards anti-hacking. To fight this present age crime, decisive efforts by the relevant arms of governments are paramount. Nevertheless, regular cooperation among anti-hacking agencies is required.

Children Vulnerability

Parents are a worried lot. For those parents who think that their children are safe from cyber crime, they are wrong. All children who can read and write are vulnerable to this risk. According to Hitchcock & Page (2002), any child can become an online victim of child predators, harassment, stalking, pornography and more. Worst among children is the online pornography. It is then followed by enticement and the least risky threat is molestation.

Community policing in reporting any child related sex exploitation seem to be the basic solution to this. The NCMEC&added CyberTipline to its website&for the public to report&child sexual exploitation. It has worked (Hitchcock & Page, 2002). This organization is said to have recorded thirty seven thousand complaints since it was launched. It is, however, quite difficult to prosecute online cyber offenders and so most perpetrators go unpunished. Children should be well informed that everyone you meet online is a stranger, even your friends (Hitchcock & Page, 2002). Unless those friends get the approval of their parents, they remain to be strangers and no serious business can take place. In addition, helpful information for children who browse through the web is that they should not believe on every detail from online acquaintances. Some messages may be full of lies and misleading. According to Hitchcock & Page (2002), they should not give out personal information online to strangers. The same information might be used against them or their family members by these computer criminals.

Computer Protection

Finally, protecting your computer against possible threats is a worthy step to take. Consider these intruders into your computer; the Trojan, virus and hackers. They are nuisance and form a big network of cyber crime. A Trojan, for example, is a program designed to perform functions in a computer without the computer user knowing its there (Hitchcock & Page, 2002). This can be very destructive both to an individual user and to a corporate organization. Data loss and computer software damage are some of the obvious impacts. Viruses will similarly wipe out data because they are programs meant to disrupt safe and comfortable working of computers.

Hackers are people who want to taste a Web site or internet connection just to see if they can break in& (Hitchcock & Page, 2002). Some hackers do this for purpose of fun while others are well organized gangs out to create havoc to information security like credit card counterfeiting.

Stay Safe

It is still possible to avoid, even if not completely, the crimes related to the use of computers. Hitchcock & Page (2002) suggests that you should select a gender-neutral user name for the first part of your email address or chart or discussion forums. This will conceal your identity to cyber criminals and let you not be a victim in waiting.

Conclusion

In summing up this literature review, all of us must acknowledge the grim reality of the negative challenges brought about by the invention, growth, and development of computers. Whereas we have been fully absorbed in the comfort of Information and Communication Technology age, to an extent of being oblivious of the potential dangers and risks, it is high time individuals, corporate, and government agencies take a decisive step in addressing this twenty first century crime.

Our email addresses should be maintained as a private entity and should be used for people well known to us. This will keep fraudsters at bay. Other ways through which these criminals can catch up with you is through personal ads, free news letters, greeting cards, and guest books. Every possible caution should be taken when handling these online material exchanges.

Reference List

Bruce, S. (1994). The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier. Champaign, Ill. Project Gutenberg.

Hitchcock, Jayne A.; Page, L. (2002). Net Crimes & Misdemeanors: Outmaneuvering the Spammers, Swindlers, and Stalkers Who Are Targeting You Online. Medford: N. J. Information Today.

Nichols, Randall K.; Ryan, Daniel J.; Ryan, Julie J.C.H (2000). Defending Your Digital Assets Against Hackers, Crackers, Spies, and Thieves. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Schwartau, W. (2000). Cyber Shock: Surviving Hackers, Phreakers, Identity Thieves, Internet Terrorists and Weapons of Mass Disruption. New York: Thunders Mouth Press.

Introduction

The focal point of paper is to present a discussion on over dependence on computers in the modern era. For the purpose the paper would summarize and compare the studies. The first one is Shelley B. Wepners Technology Run Amok: The Top Ten TechnoBlunders published by International Reading Association, Inc in 2004 and the second article is Leslie P. Hitchs Being prepared for Technology Snow Days, published by Center for Applied Research in 2002. There would be other studies included in relation to the issue that would be helpful for the discussion.

Background of the problem

Production of electronic equipments and components has come a long way since the days of radio receivers in 1940s. From a simple power driven tool designed to carry out only one process, previously carried out by a single craftsman, most of the present day machines have become a highly integrated complex of mechanical equipment performing a series of processes automatically. This evolution or better described as revolution has had deep rooted effects on our socio economic environment, thus effecting human life. The most precious bequest of modern technology to mankind is computer and everyday human beings are becoming more dependent on it. Givens (2008) questions, But is this accelerating development of personal technology a good thing? Would the world we know and understand come crashing down around us if computer technology suddenly vanished from the face of the earth? (Givens, 2008)

Views of Hitch

Before the growth of information Technology revolution it was obvious for students to communicate face to face or through telephone with the teacher. Assignments were also presented in hard copies. However, with the availability of IT facilities students are relying more and more on information Technology and most of the data, if not all, are stored in the computers. Under such parameters the author constructs a scenario where it is found that no IT facilities are available and with it all the data of the students are lost. The author then prepares a list of remedies under such fictitious yet possible situation in order to prevent the data from loosing.

The alternate solution to the possible crisis is to prepare for such crisis. Here the authorities should formulate proper policies to counter the situation. In case there are no such policies then the legal risks should also be taken into consideration. Furthermore, the current policies should be evaluated in order to make it aligned with electronic education delivery system. Alongside, there are several recommendations for the students, like keeping backups and using alternate communication systems. However, the most important and practical measure stated by the author is up gradation and budget preparation. Planning for technology failure carries budget implications. Equipment must be upgraded and services regularly to function properly. Redundant equipment is an additional expense. Personnel cost of training and support must also be considered. (Hitch 2002) The author is not against technology but is sceptical and cautious.

Views of Wepner

Wepner indicates that one of the ten fundamental mistakes the people make about technology is that it can never fail. Even if technology fails, people feel that the help is right there for taking. She also mentions people feel that there would always be an active support system in case of techno blunder and they have superficial faith over software manufacturers. People also tend to use even difficult or boring websites even if manual work would have been easier. People also underestimate the technicalities of technology and overestimate their own command of it, making things more difficult. There is also a myth that teaching with technology would be much better than conventional teaching. Lastly, the author indicates that there is simply no existence of plan B and that could prove costly at times.

Wepner is more open about the use of technology in classroom. She actually feels that technology ultimately makes us better teachers because it improves our ability to tailor instruction and expose students to new information and communication tools. (Wepner 2004) Nevertheless, like Hitch, she prepares the readers about failure of technology but she mainly blames the wrong perception of the mass about technology and the myths associated with it in public mind.

Discussion

Invention of computer has miraculously changed the whole scenario. Computers not only impinged on global economy by increasing production, enhancing efficiency etc. Along with business sectors like banking, stock exchange etc, which witness extensive use of computers, other sectors have also been influenced by computers. Educational institutions, hospitals, etc are now days increasingly using computers. Due to their vast facilities of computers are becoming more and more popular among house holds also. Increasing number of people are using computers in their day to day life. (Malcolm 2000)

Along with several advantages of computer, many disadvantages also exist. Computers being machines containing many sophisticated parts, always have the risk of wear and tear and system smash up. Repair and reinstallation of computers becomes very expensive. Thus the computerized systems are at the same time both delicate and complicated in nature. Another disadvantage of computer systems is misuse of computers. Now days several illicit soft wares are available, which make possible unauthorized use of computer accounts, Illegal access to computer systems. Deliberately infecting computer systems with viruses or jamming computer systems, spoiling data fortification schemes, illegal accessing of others bank accounts, leaking question papers before examinations by hacking computer systems, harassing people on network, publishing illegal documents on network etc are general ways of misuse of computer systems. Use of computer system in several production units and organizations resulted in reduction in use of human resources. This leads to unemployment, further resulting in poverty and increasing crimes. Now days, with the advancement of technology and extensive use of computers, man is becoming more and more depended on it. Thus the whole generation is in jeopardy of losing the Sovereignty of emancipated thought and self confidence. (Mewar, 2007)

Conclusion

All the authors are in favour of preparing the students, teachers and authorities for a possible collapse of IT. However, while Hitch is more on the traditional or conventional side of teaching, Wepner is happy to make IT a part of her life and profession but they both are cautious and worried about Techno Blunder and find it a better option to prepare for the worst rather than suffer. However, it should be noted that There has been an unprecedented acceleration in mans knowledge of and power to control his material environment, such as, first of all steam, then electricity and now atomic energy simultaneously with these discoveries and inventions, there has been a similar accretion of knowledge about the materials used in manufacture and a progressive refinement of the machines them selves. Computer is the driving force of all these sections and thus the impact of computers on society is huge and it is fundamentally positive in the overall scenario but it is always better to b prepared for the worst condition and the authors suggests a development of Plan B in such state.

Bibliography

Givens, J. (2008) The Increasing Human Dependence on Computers. Associated Content, Inc.

Hitch, L.P. (2002) Being prepared for Technology Snow Days, Center for Applied Research, vol. 2002, no. 24.

Malcolm, C. (2000). Who Made the First Computer? The University of Edinburgh. Web.

Mewar, P. (2007). Health Problems Caused By Use Of Computers. Web.

Wepner, SB. (2004) Technology Run Amok: The Top Ten TechnoBlunders, International Reading Association, Inc. Web.

Modern Computers and Their Functions in Human Lives

The use of computers changes human life considerably in different ways. People discover more ways on how to improve their work, communication, and calculations. Within a short period of time, a computer becomes an integral part of this life, and there is no person in the world, who has not heard about it.

Nowadays, there are many means by which computers are able to exchange information. Input and output devices allow fast and reliable transfer of information, and the demands of the quality of such devices raise considerably day by day.

Du to such qualified competitions, modern computers no longer contain such devices like serial ports and floppy drives.

Floppy Drives and Serial Ports

Floppy drives are the devices, by means of which, it is possible to read and write floppy disks. The middle of the 1980s was known due to a kind of revolution, when floppy disks became the most frequently used devices to share information. Unfortunately, small sizes and low speed turned out to be crucial for these devices, and people start inventing something more comfortable and reliable.

The destiny of serial ports is a bit similar to the destiny of floppy drives. This physical interface aims at transferring information between a computer and terminals or other possible peripherals.

The necessity to create the same ports at other devices creates numerous challenges and leads to the idea of create another kind of port to unite machines.

• Inability to transfer huge amounts of information;
• Low speed and constant wasting of time;
• Considerable sizes of the device itself;
• Too old technologies and their incompatibility with other devices;
• All these are the reasons of why floppy drives become unnecessary for modern computers. People introduce more interesting and reliable things, which may replace the functions of floppy drives.

However, some professionals still make use of these drives to make the system work in accordance with the already established norms.

• Considerable place to take;
• Too complicated construction to use;
• Ability to supersede for something better;
• Inability to promise constant connection all the time.
• These points play a very important role for the use of serial ports.

Still, server computers and some industrial automatic systems use these ports due to the inability to make some changes, improve the system, and not lose something really important.

Instead of Floppy Drives and Serial Ports

USB ports and FireWire substitute serial ports with time and provide computer users with an opportunity to transfer info faster and more reliable.

Varieties of CDs and DVDs and their abilities to store more information in an appropriate view attract the attention of users and make their work easier. Memory cards become one more invention that does not take much place and still store the same or even more amounts of information.

So, it is useless to analyze what device is better for computer users now, but the fact that floppy drives and serial ports are out of use and fashion is obvious. Just because of the reason that new time requires new ideas and new services.

Abstract

The study aims at looking at how the knowledge of human behaviour will help the manufacturers of computers in coming up with better computer designs that are human friendly after incorporating much of how human behaves and relate. After the identification of the dominant human behaviour that can be incorporated in the manufacturing of computers, the study will go ahead and identify some of the cognitive perceptions that have already been made and their application has either been short or long-term.

Introduction

The advent of technology has changed how things are done. More and more is being done using computers and there is no substitute to this as they have become more persuasive than manual ways of doing things. This era has forced humans to co-adapt to technological changes by coming up with cognitive models that would guarantee good interaction between the invented machines and human beings. This has prompted scientists in the technology business to come up with methods that will identify how human behaviour will influence the manufacturing of computers and related devices that will make their usage easy because human behaviour was taken into consideration in coming up with the design. For the topic of cognitive human behaviour in the designing and manufacturing of computers can be understood more easily, it will look at the existing human behaviours and examples of programs that have been identified.

Background study of the topic

Human cognitive is a study that is being used by scientists to identify the best ways that can assimilate human behaviour in the manufacture of computers. Human cognition is the field in the technology world that is involved with the study, design and construction of human-computer interaction. The human-computer interaction models are meant to make the usage of computers more human friendly and lastly in the implementation of the findings by incorporating the discoveries made into the manufacture of more human-friendly computers (Jacko and Sears, 2003). This understanding will help in co-adapting humans to the constantly changing technology in the manufacture of computers which has now become part of our lives. It is in black and white writing that technology has induced new ways of doing things in almost all fields in human life and the roles played by humans.

Interaction of humans with computers

To understand what human cognition entails, it is important to understand how humans interact with computers. It should be noted that interaction between the user and the computer occurs in a stage referred to as the interface. The interface incorporates the various components of a computer that is, the hardware and the software. The software concerning its designer displays different features, for instance, characters such as letters or graphics on the monitor which the user identifies. These characters are fed into the computer using hardware devices like keyboards, touchpads among others. The interaction of users and computers involves the flow of information and this loop of interaction has several aspects in it. They include; the objectives set by the user and the type of connectivity the computer has. Here, what is important is whether the connectivity is plugged into a network or not (Card and Moran and Newell, 2004). Thirdly, is the entry of raw data into the computer that is processed to produce some output and lastly, the interface provides the user with feedback.

The above knowledge is cardinal because it helps us understand the process of human interaction with the computer and as a result come up with the best human cognition strategies that will ascertain the most important facet of this topic, customer satisfaction will be guaranteed. The success of any application that is available on the computer depends on its effectiveness to provide the required necessities to complete a task the user wants to be completed. It is an essence that in the manufacturing of computers, human behaviours are taken into consideration because poorly designed interfaces can lead to complexities and therefore problems. Therefore, to achieve the required results of good human-machine interaction, we need to identify that, the human cognitive depends mostly on humans for it to be successful. This is by understanding human beings as possessing knowledge that helps them organise general, but very complex task-oriented information using the computer. To achieve their objective, they may have to carry out many activities where some can be inventive or routine. The execution of these tasks by different individuals brings out a differing perception of an interface in a computer. Every user is unique and this will influence their perception of the interface because of their different interaction with the computer. This finding should help the user interface developers to come up with software that is present more acceptable and has a usable computer interface that will satisfy a wide range of users.

The main objective of human cognition is the improvement of the ways that humans interact with machines and this can only be achieved if the manufacturers make the use of these gadgets easier and manageable. The reception of human instruction follows lesser commands or procedures to get things done.

Human cognitive studies long term objectives are aimed at identifying systems that will reduce the rift that exists between the human cognitive designs and other systems that are present. This will help the users in using the computers with the ability to understand what the users want to be done more effectively (Salvendy and Smith, 2011). This has prompted the manufacturers to come up with recent human cognitive designs that aim at retaining constant communication between the user, the computer and its designers. This interaction has enabled the manufacturers to come up with human cognitive models that are designed based on the human experiences into the computers.

The user-centred design (UCD) whose designers have stressed the importance of the users taking the centre stage in stipulating what should be incorporated in the designing of the interface. Another design that is projected to take the leading role in designing these interfaces is the virtual reality interface which will incorporate virtual simulations such as the three dimensions entertainment scenarios or military training. Designs that are expected to cater for the handicapped are also being designed. This handicapped interface will enable the blind and the deaf to interact with computers easily just like the rest of the population. The software for the handicapped will apply a sensory interface in interacting with the user.

So that the above long-term human cognitive interfaces are achieved, the manufacturers have to come up with the latest good display designs that will take into consideration all the interests of the user as the inspiring factor (Antonio, 2008). Display design refers to human-invented artefacts that are made to represent the system variables that are inspired by the users of the computers. These artefacts facilitate the effective and efficient processing of information to give the required results. It should be noted that so that a design is made, the intention that it is expected to achieve should first be defined for instance; is it meant to navigate, entertain, point, help in the decision making process among others. This will enable the designer to come up with a product that will fulfil the users expectations (Hippe and Kulikowski, 2009). Any legitimate user knows the outcome they expect to be processed by the computer. Therefore, the human cognitive software should always support the views held by the users, the expected outcomes through awareness and a general understanding of the interface process.

The short-term human cognitive designs have failed to provide sufficient solutions to the users and the designers of user-friendly interfaces. This process involved the development of interfaces based on scientists and manufacturers-based approaches that never took the opinion of the public. This should be reversed by designing more user-friendly interfaces.

Conclusion

In conclusion, an effective human cognition interface is a very important aspect of user-computer interaction. It is therefore prudent to conclude this study has identified that, it is very important that the designers should check out the most appropriate inputs of design that will satisfy the users most. This will lead to absolute interaction between the user and the computer.

Reference List

Antonio, J. 2008. Human-computer interaction and cognition in e-learning environments-the effects of synchronous and asynchronous communication in knowledge development. New York: Cengage.

Card, S., K., Moran, T., P. and Newell, A. 2004. The psychology of human-computer interaction. New York: Cage.

Hippe, Z., S. and Kulikowski, J., L. 2009. Human-Computer Systems Interaction: Backgrounds and Applications. New York: Springer.

Jacko, J., A. and Sears, A. 2003. The human-computer interaction handbook: fundamentals, evolving technologies, and emerging applications. New York: Routledge.

Salvendy, G. and Smith M. J. 2011. Human Interface and the Management of Information. Interacting with Information. Chicago: Cengage.

Introduction

Several questions are often asked when it comes to the use of information technology to commit crimes and the possibility of deploying the same technology in detecting and apprehending people who commit cyber crimes. Computer forensics is a strategic field, especially for organizations that need to protect their information technology systems from possible security breaches and steps to take when such breaches occur. This paper argues that a lot of technical issues still present in the use of information technology for gathering evidence on cyber crimes, in spite of computer forensics being widely used in unearthing evidence in a substantial number of cybercrimes. This paper presents research about the deployment of computer forensics in solving cyber crime. The paper brings out a number of cases concerning crimes in the cyberspace to elaborate on the diverse approaches of computer forensics. Here, the paper focuses on the use of computer forensics in politics and money scheme related cases.

Overview of computer forensics

The use of scientific knowledge, especially computer and information technology, is critical in the collection and analysis of information on particular incidences that occur in the cyber environment. The contemporary developments in the cyber environment result in the ease with which transactions are made. It also results in the ease with which people advance criminal activities by utilizing the computer networks. Therefore, computer forensics is a relatively new field that entails the search for information and evidence that link certain people to certain crimes. It is important to note that computer forensics as a field is not only used to detect crimes that occur within the cyberspace, but it also helps in detecting and analyzing crimes that occur outside the cyberspace. As a relatively new discipline, computer forensics is meant to enhance efficiency in the criminal justice system by aiding in linking crimes to suspects using computer technology. Therefore, the legal elements combine with the technological elements to enhance a detailed analysis of information relating to crime. The information is collected from different technological devices like computer networks and systems, mobile devices, and the wireless communications. However, standardization has not yet been achieved in computer forensics. This makes it hard to deploy computer forensics across all the criminal justice systems in the world. The comprehension of the technical and legal aspects that go into computer forensics is a critical step for the criminal justice systems that want to embrace computer forensics (Baggili 81-82).

Bennett (159) observes that conducting forensic exercises is a difficult undertaking. In addition, it might not result in the correct and accurate linkage of crime to offenders in a number of cases. There are other sets of legal enforcements, like the Fourth Amendment, that can impede the continuity of the forensic practices by making it difficult for computer forensic experts to conduct their exercise (Manes and Downing 124).

Cases that attract computer forensics

According to Watney (42-43), crime in the contemporary society is mainly accomplished through the electronic platform. The development of the electronic platform as a result of the advancement in information and communication technology makes it hard for the players in the criminal justice system to conduct investigations of crimes. There is a wide range of crimes that are committed by people today because of the presence of a wide range of information and communication technology tools. Therefore, the escalation of crime in the cyberspace necessitates the deployment of computer forensics as a way of apprehending the large number of criminals who keep enhancing crime by utilizing the larger electronic platform (Vacca 4). Crime easily spreads across different countries in the world because of the expansiveness of the computer network systems. This is why different states continue to advance surveillance at the state level as a way of enhancing national security. Different countries increasingly incorporate aspects of control in the cyberspace to tame crime (Watney 43-44). It is in line with the contemporary developments that the United States has reiterated the need to cooperate with other countries in the world to apprehend the cyber criminals who take advantage of the global interconnectedness of the computer systems and networks to commit crime. The balance between the privacy concerns and civil liberties has been given priority in the cooperative cybercrime treaty that pulls a substantial number of countries together (Senate Ratifies Treaty On Cybercrimes 8).

Based on the fact that states make use of computer networks to establish security networks, breaches in the security networks by other states result in increased surveillance by states through computer forensics in order to establish the extent of such breaches (Watney 42). However, it is also important to note that computer forensics is used in civil and criminal cases where the gathering of evidence is mostly done through the aid of computer technology.

Civil vs. Criminal

Vacca (4) observes that the process of acquisition, examination, and application of digital evidence is important in detecting and apprehending cyber criminals. Therefore, computer forensics has been intensely deployed in apprehending cyber crimes across the United States. Unlike the old forms of crimes, crimes in the contemporary times can hardly be committed without leaving behind the digital or electronic trail. This is one of the indicators that computer forensics is vital in enhancing criminal justice. People who commit crimes often use digital tools to enhance communication. Therefore, tracing the information that is passed through these devices is one of the critical leads for the investigators, attorneys, and judges who are working in the criminal justice system. They find it easy to establish cases and make judicial determinations through the acquisition of information from the computer networks and systems (Garfinkel 370).

It is easy to detect the transactions made by an individual by relying on digital forensics provided that the transactions are carried out through the support of the digital electronic tools. While it is easy to apprehend criminals through the use of technology in what is referred to as computer forensics, it is critical to note that there are complexities related to relying on digital forensics in making judicial determinations in criminal cases. Corroborative evidence often comes from the digital devices that are used by the offenders, thus tracking these devices and accessing the content of communication in these devices is one way through which the evidence concerning the crimes committed is gathered. In most cases, the victims devices are used to track all forms of communication that point to the crime committed. One of the challenges that bring out the complexity is the presence of diverse technologies that present the problem of compatibility. An example is the ability of Bernard Madof to track the victims information in the money laundry scheme. However, it was impossible to translate the data because of the technology platform on which the crime was performed. It became apparent that Madof took advantage of the gap in technology development to commit the crime (Garfinkel 371).

The civil law oversees the relationship between private parties. Crimes are often committed in the course of cooperative relationships between individuals and organizations, or business dealings between individuals and organizations. Therefore, computer forensics can also be applied in the determination of civil cases. Some offenses that are committed in the cyberspace can be classified as both civil and criminal depending on the nature of evidence that is established. What is important in civil and criminal cases is the availability of evidence to link the suspects to the offenders. In this case, the electronic evidence that is provided through the use of computer forensics acts as a basis on which judicial determination is made in civil and criminal cases (Maras 29-31).

Misdemeanor vs. Felony

One of the inherent complexities in the determination of cases of fraud is the difficulty in establishing objectivity as far as the access and use of information on computer networks is concerned. This stirs up the issue of a misdemeanour versus a felony. It is important to separate between the genuine users of the computer networks and the people who use the cyberspace to advance felony. The increase in the cybercrime incidences in the United States and the world over has resulted in a substantial amount of investment in cyber space security. An example is the 2008 cyber security breaches in the US. Two pieces of legislation in the United States that are accused of enhancing harsh conviction of the cybercrime offenders are the Cyber Security Enhancement Act, which is one of the latest laws, and the USA PATRIOT Act that was enacted earlier. In other words, the federal laws that govern the use of the cyberspace have faults and need to be reassessed to provide a fairground on which computer crimes can be dealt with (Skibell 909).

The most essential thing in the enhancement of cyber security and the prevention of over-criminalization of the supposed cyber offenders is the need to review the cyberspace legislation in the United States to differentiate between the sets of breaches that are conducted in the cyberspace and the ascertainment of the intention of the cyber users accused of such crimes. This is critical in the accurate classification of cyber crimes into either misdemeanours or felonies, instead of the current modalities of classification that result in the categorization of most of the suspects as felons (Skibell 944).

Galbraith (320) reiterates the need to sieve information as part of the strategy of minimizing unfair accusations of people who use the cyberspace. He also notes that the law that deals with cyber crime cases has to ensure that there are regulations when it comes to the use of different online platforms by different people. Even the publicly accessible websites need to be regulated to reduce the chances of unlawful use of the online platforms. This is a regulatory mechanism that is preventive in nature, instead of pieces of law like the CFAA that are responsive in nature.

Conclusion

Research indicates an increased in the deployment of computer forensics in the justice system of the United States. From the research conducted in the paper, it is worthwhile to note that computer forensics gain acceptance in both criminal and civil litigations because of the increased use of computer and other technology tools. Therefore, it is easy to track the codes of communication and recover electronic evidence to link people to all kinds of crimes. However, the gaps in technology are bound to advance the complexities in computer forensics.

Works Cited

Senate Ratifies Treaty On Cybercrimes. CongressDaily 2006: 8. Academic Search Premier. Web.

Baggili, Ibrahim. Digital Forensics and Cyber Crime: Second International ICST Conference, Icdf2c 2010, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2010, Revised Selected Papers. Berlin: Springer, 2011. Print.

Bennett, David. The Challenges Facing Computer Forensics Investigators In Obtaining Information From Mobile Devices For Use In Criminal Investigations. Information Security Journal: A Global Perspective 21.3 (2012): 159-168. Print.

Galbraith, Christine D. Access Denied: Improper Use Of The Computer Fraud And Abuse Act To Control Information On Publicly Accessible Internet Websites. Maryland Law Review 63.2 (2004): 320-368. Print.

Garfinkel, Simson L. Digital Forensics. American Scientist 101.5 (2013): 370-377. Print.

Manes, Gavin W., and Elizabeth Downing. What Security Professionals Need To Know About Digital Evidence. Information Security Journal: A Global Perspective 19.3 (2010): 124-131. Print.

Maras, Marie-Helen. Computer Forensics: Cybercriminals, Laws, and Evidence. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2012. Print.

Skibell, Reid. Cybercrimes & Misdemeanors: A Reevaluation Of The Computer Fraud And Abuse Act. Berkeley Technology Law Journal 18.3 (2003): 909-944. Print.

Watney, Murdoch. State Surveillance of the Internet: Human Rights Infringement or e-Security Mechanism? International Journal of Electronic Security and Digital Forensics 1.1 (2007): 42-54. Print.