Established in remote 1848, Prudential is an international company which has more than a century and a half experience in the sphere of providing financial services. Reviewing the 2011 brief of Prudential on saving for retirement, I chose the components of creating a positive image of ageing, importance of saving and presenting Prudential as a reliable company and a champion in the sphere as the keystones for my ads.
The success of the ad depends upon promoting active leisure as a natural and integral part of retirees lives, pointing at the financial services as an effective method for achieving these goals and establishing Prudential as an experienced and reliable partner.
The first component is aimed at influencing the common perception of retirement as the end of life associated with slippers and pipes Prudential February 2011 Brief . Creating a positive image of ageing and showing the attractiveness of active leisure during retirement, advertisers can motivate potential consumers to think of their future and impose appropriate measures for ensuring the necessary financial basis for it.
Taking into account the existing saving gaps, the ad should promote the financial services as an efficient way for collecting the necessary costs. The final component presupposes emphasizing the benefits of cooperating with Prudential as the champion in the sphere.
Combining these three components of creating positive images for ageing, financial services and Prudential as the service provider will allow evoking reactions in potential customers and affecting their consumer behavior.
Analyzing the 2011 brief of Prudential, it can be stated that the strategies of the company are aimed at changing the public perception of ageing, retirement and corresponding saving programs and presenting its services as an effective solution for the existing savings problem. These principles can be used for creating an effective ad.
Creating an effective ad for Prudential saving programs requires influencing the consumers cognitive perception of ageing and retirement along with affecting their feelings and invoking emotional reactions for communicating the main message to the audience and influencing their consumer behavior.
Combining the three main components of creating positive images for ageing, financial services and Prudential presupposes taking into consideration both cognitive and affective sides of the pictorial ad.
The first element of promoting active and happy life during the retirement period requires affecting the cognitive abilities and feelings of the audience. The offered ads present elderly people enjoying their lives.
As opposed to widely spread misconceptions, these characters go out, do not concentrate on their illnesses and obviously respect and love each other. Looking at these elderly couples, the 30-40-year-olds as the target audience of Prudential campaigns may ask themselves if they are as happy as the people in these ads.
The aim of this component is to influence the public perception of ageing and retirement by replacing the idea of the end of life with the idea of carelessness and absolute happiness. Thus, if an individual does not feel as happy as the elderly couples in the ads at the moment, the promotion of happy retirement can be compared to stimulating the belief of the audience in better tomorrow after retirement.
Going out and enjoying themselves, the couples in the ads seem to be deprived of troubles associated with their health or financial well-being. Thus, looking at these ads, the target audience is expected not only to change their views on ageing and retirement, but also to get certain emotional reactions to the images of happy elderly couples.
By the way, in one of the ads there is a waiter who is smiling and looking at the couple, and the audience can associate themselves with this outside observer. At this point, these ads create the link between the cognitive and affective aspects of the first component which is aimed at creating a positive image of ageing.
Looking at the ads under consideration, the spectators are supposed not only to get a new idea of retirement as a careless period for enjoying life but also empathize and envy those people in the pictures.
The second component of establishing the links between the happy elderly couples in the ads and the financial basis which is required for ensuring the careless and comfortable existence of the retirees is not overemphasized but plays an important role in these ads.
Everyones awareness of the savings gap caused the anxiety about the retirement period, while 6 million UK citizens do not believe that they will have enough costs for retiring at all ( Prudential February 2011 Brief ). The aim of this ad is to create public awareness of the existing saving programs which make retirement controllable and offer a routine but orderly financial path to careless retirement period (Ekerdt and Clark 56).
It is obvious that the clothes of the retirees and their active leisure are costly. The choice of the colors and the composition of the ad have impact upon the spectators perception of its content. The main emphasis is certainly put upon the happy retirees, and in one of the ads, there is nothing else in view but for the happy elderly couple.
This approach allows not only showing their face expressions, but also demonstrating their separation and protection from the rest of the world which was achieved through retirement saving program. Not implying it directly, these ads claim that people should think of their retirement plans beforehand.
The hidden context of the reverse side of retirement in case if an individual does not have enough money for sustaining comfortable living has impact upon the audiences fear of the lack of funds at their elderly age. Showing only a positive side, the ads inevitably imply that under different circumstances, these pictures would be different. Feelings (emotions) actually influence consumer behavior (Hansen and Christensen 82).
Fear is recognized as one of the strongest motivators. In that regard, both the informative and affective goals of the second component are achieved through the combination of the information on the benefits of the existing saving programs and the implied idea of retirement for those who do not care of their future beforehand.
The third component which requires creating a positive image of Prudential as the champion in the sphere of providing these services is successfully incorporated into the ads under consideration by communicating the main message o the company.
An advertisement can be said to be simple when it represents the brands core idea or key positioning statement, i.e. the advertising execution is stripped to its critical essence and captures the key element that needs to be communicated (Shimp 211).
The label of Prudential along with the promotional motto are placed at the bottom of the ads, not taking too much attention, but noticeable enough to be considered by the spectators. Promising the same comfort and the same joy during retirement, Prudential positions as a reliable partner aware of the consumers needs.
Creating positive images of ageing, saving programs and Prudential, the ads under consideration influence the public perception of their services and affect the feelings and consumer behavior of the target audience by motivating them to think of their future and believe in possibility of better tomorrow.
Works Cited
Ekerdt, David and Evelyn Clark. Selling Retirement in Financial Planning Advertisements . Journal of Aging Studies March 2001: 55-68. Print.
Hansen, Flemming and Sverre Christensen. Emotions, Advertizing and Consumer Choice. Copenhagen Business School Press, 2007. Print
Prudential February 2011 Brief . Prudential, n.d. Web.
Shimp, Terence. Advertising Promotion, and Other Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications. Mason: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print.
Communication is the process of conveying information, which requires the sender of the information, the receiver, and the message to be delivered to the recipient. The process plays an important role in passing of information and interaction between human beings. This can be either verbal or non-verbal and the choice between the two depends on the suitability to the users and the environment.
In nonverbal communication, the use of body language is essential where effectiveness in this type of communication depends on the users understanding. This essay analyzes non-verbal communication by looking at the use of body language as well as the actual communication using communication theories basing on observations made.
The shopping event
The communication event took place between a friend who was a customer and a shopping mall attendant in a busy downtown shopping mall where both non-verbal and verbal communications were used for effectiveness. To begin with, the customer walked to the counter and begun addressing the mall attendant and after the attention of the attendant, he pointed to the Corner of the store where different types of shoes were displayed.
He again looked at the shoes that he was wearing and continued talking to the attendant who listened attentively. At one point, the attendant nodded his head and raised his right hand towards the corner where shoes were displayed to confirm that the type of shoe that the customer required was available.
The attendant then left the counter and directed the customer to the position where shoes had been displayed as the customer followed him. The customer then selected the type of shoes he required then went to the counter together with the attendant.
A discussion between the two people followed and it seemed as if there was disagreement between them. Later they reached an agreement and the attendant packed the shoes for the customer. At this point, they smiled at each other and finally the attendant waived his hand to the departing customer.
Expectancy value model
In any communication, there are expectations from both the sender and the recipient of the message. These expectations determine the behaviour of the two parties and their attitude towards the message. In the observed event, the customer expected the attendant to respond and listen to him carefully while the attendant expected the customer to describe the type, size and the quality of the pair of shoes required.
Expectancy value model therefore apply in the conversation where Palmgreen (1984) states that, People orient themselves to the world according to their expectations, beliefs and evaluations . Expectations determine behaviour of a person, which then plays an important role in determining the persons attitude towards the message or the other person.
The theory of planned behaviour
Bandura (1986) stated that, from experiences, people are able to plan, which also applies in communication. Getting the attention of the listener is important to the speaker and at the same time, impressing the listener is of equal importance. The speaker avoids a situation whereby the message he or she passes becomes irrelevant or lacks attention.
The theory of planned behaviour suggests that the intention of a person determines his/her behaviour and attitude determines the intention. In the shopping mall communication event the attendant seemed to have a good experience of what the customers needed where the attendant gained this experience from interacting with several customers.
On the other hand, the customer seemed to know that the attendant offer useful guidance in the selection process and from his experience, the customer explained the details of the pair of shoes to the attendant accurately expecting him to listen to the details. Pajares (2002) found that, prediction plays an important role in communication and it is a direct consequence of the theory.
In communication, a person predicts the reaction of the other where these predictions are usually on other persons response, reaction, and choice of words. In the mall conversation, the customer and the attendant sometimes predicted the next action of the other person. For example, when the attendant walked back to the counter, he expected the customer to follow him.
The self-cognitive theory of communication
According to Parraga (1990), the environment plays an important role in determining a persons behaviour and therefore affects communication. Environment determines peoples behaviour, which in turn determines their attitude. Human beings on the other hand have the ability to counter the effects of the environment through self-organization.
Pajares & Schunk (2002) suggested that, Environments and social systems influence human behaviour through psychological mechanisms of the self system. The self-cognitive theory of communication suggests that people are proactive and they are able to control their behaviour from effects of the environment.
In the communication event under analysis, the shopping mall had a noisy and a busy environment and this was a determining factor in the communication methods and approach taken. It is however observable that both the customer and the attendant were able to adapt to the environment by being attentive, moving close to each other and using body language.
References
Bandura, A 1986, Social foundations of thought and action, A social cognitive theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall.
Pajares, F & Schunk 2001, Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, self-concept, and school achievement, In R. Riding & S, Rayner (Eds.), Self-perception (pp. 239-266), Ablex Publishing, London.
Pajares, F 2002, Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy, retrieved, November 19, 2011. (MEST) from HTML.
Palmgreen, P 1984, Uses and gratifications, a theoretical perspective. In: Bostrom, R.N. (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 8 (61-72), Sage Publications, Beverly Hills.
Parraga, I 1990, Determinants of food consumption , Journal of American Dietetic Association, 90: 661-663.
Benefits of AAC in an early childhood program for children with limited spoken language
The opportunity to use AAC can be discussed as rather beneficial for those children under 5 years who have some developmental disabilities and limited spoken language. AAC provides the variety of techniques and methods which allow increasing the childrens possibilities to interact and communicate with each other effectively.
For instance, the usage of gestures and body movements in order to help to perceive and comprehend the necessary information can contribute to breaking the possible barriers in communication. Moreover, the usage of symbols and pictures is significant for the children under 5 years because their perception of the visual information in connection with the auditory material is more effective due to its stability, prolonged character, and concreteness of the meaning (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2000).
Teachers can successfully draw the childrens attention to the object and spoken information about it with the help of gestures, movements, facial expressions, signs, eye contact, pictures, and symbols along with speech.
The techniques of AAC can stimulate the childrens response to the spoken or demonstrated messages with involving them in the further communication. Furthermore, the early intervention of the methods of AAC contributes to the progress of the childrens functional communication and decreases the risks of the development of the communication difficulties in the future (Cress & Marvin, 2003).
Using AAC to promote the inclusion of all children in a pre-school classroom
The methods of AAC are effective for involving all the children from the classroom in the communication activity. It is possible because of a range of ways to attract the childrens attention and stimulate their responses. AAC methods can also contribute to expressing the childrens initiative in communicating.
From this point, it is effective to use unaided as well as aided types of AAC with paying much attention to the facial expression, eye contact, Key Word Signs, using real objects and pictures or photos. The influential aspects of the process are the childrens interest, comprehension, and the active participation in the communication.
The value of AAC in a classroom is based on the development of possibilities for the childrens interactions. It is extremely important to provide children with the possibility to communicate with each other, especially when they have the limited abilities to do it effectively.
In this case, AAC is used in order to meet the childrens rights in the sphere of communication. The usage of AAC helps to overcome the barriers for children in their communicating with each other in order to share the definite information.
Thus, children receive the opportunity to satisfy their communication needs and be involved in social activities. Moreover, AAC techniques are developed and researched to provide the most effective vocabulary or methods of communicating (Trembath, Balandin, & Togher, 2007).
It is important for parents to concentrate on the fact that the outcomes from using AAC techniques and methods can be more successful when the efforts of teachers and families are combined, and intervention of AAC techniques is realised in the pre-school classroom (Dunst, 2000).
References
Cress, C. & Marvin, C. (2003). Common questions about AAC services in early intervention. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 19, 254-272.
Dunst, C. J. (2000). Revisiting Rethinking early intervention . Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(2), 95-104.
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2000). Promoting healthy development through intervention. In J. P. Shonkoff and D. A. Phillips (Eds.), From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Board on Children, Youth and Families, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Trembath, D., Balandin, S., & Togher, L. (2007). Vocabulary selection for Australian children who use augmentative and alternative communication. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 32(4), 291-301.
Londons history of telecommunications remarkably starts with the development of telephony and telegraphy. Famous inventor Alexander Bell introduced his devices enabling people to communicate at distance (Huurdeman 159). Telegraph technologies started the invasion in 1868 and were marked with the creation of the Indo-European Telegraph Company. (Huuderman 127). At the beginning of the twentieth century, the telephone lines were limited and allowed to connect to a limited number of towns. In the post-war period, the Socio-Technical system design was created and was the first step to the Internet introduction (Tatnall 190).
The start of the computer advancement was in the 1940-1950 period, but the full realization of its competitive advantage and economic benefits appeared in the 70s when a rigorous competition burst out between the United States and Japan (Cortada 145). In 1961, the computers were recognized as fully operational and won their place on the market.
Symbolic programming and digital electronics appeared in the mid-60s when the first computers were installed. Such an introduction triggered a vigorous competition of France with such countries as Great Britain and the United States (Mounier-Kuhn n. p.). In this regard, Cuffighal developed the first computer that was not analogous to the American model (Ceruzzi 201).
Japan developed into a technology empire only in the 80s of the past century. However, its firms made considerable advances in producing integrated circuits, establishing a solid platform for the computer industry (Ceruzzi, 200, p. 11). Before this advancement, Tokyo made successful attempts to conquer the American and European markets and introduce its IBM models in the late 70s. The particular accent was also made on mechanical engineering and electronics (Uchida n. p.).
The inception of the Internet
The importance of introducing information technologies and telecommunications both to London and to Great Britain was recognized by the UK government. In this regard, the Internet captured the UK market in the late 90s of the past century (Simme 191). Regional authorities acknowledged a strategic role of technological development for encouraging the advancement and telecommunication technologies in London (Simme 192). The concept of information city creation was perceived as an attempt to increase the influence on the global economy and international market.
Since the first trials of the Internet take their roots in the United States, it is logical to suggest this introduction was first accepted by New York. Particularly, the invention of the ARPANET system has given rise to the development of cyber networks all over the United States (Banks and Card 3). The U. S. government has developed a number of research groups on electronic engineering to fulfill the technological gap and enhance its competitiveness (Banks and Card 2).
Like other leading economies, France also started cyberspace network development on time. However, its start was not that successful compared to one introduced by the United States and Japan because it had certain weaknesses in terms of technological changes and system optimization. Nevertheless, French ICT infrastructure has considerably developed due to the enhancement of the scientific base in Paris and the provinces (Simme 220). On a whole, the era of innovation and the introduction of the Internet in Paris is closely associated with a rigorous competition that emerged in the 70s and 80s of the past century.
The Internet development in Tokyo starts in 1976 with the foundation of Japans broadcasting corporation (Banks and Card 184). Despite its current privileged technological status, its ascent to the summit of telecommunications and cyber networking was slow and gradual. In this respect, the inception of the Internet era started much later compared to London and New York, but it did not prevent Japan from achieving the highest results in that matter(Simme 153).
Political, Economical, and Social Implications of the Internet
The development of telecommunications in London was aimed at spreading their strategies and policies at the corporate market and establishing a competitive advantage at the international level to compete with the leading countries that already chose the course on the Internet market (Simme 193). The UK government realizes the necessity for enhancing the ICT infrastructure enabling it to enter a competing platform. In addition, a developed network of telecommunication will also allow London to introduce a favorable ground for the social sector through training and improving specific skills and abilities.
It is recognized that the introduction and development of cyber technologies and online networks have considerably changed the political, economic, and social environment in New York, like in other developed regions in the United States (Cortada 59). In this regard, the leading firms and corporations have to adjust to the ongoing changes and transform their strategies along with the transformations that occurred to online networks and e-commerce.
Paris, being the main political and economic center of France, realizes the importance of the innovation introduction where the Internet is not of the least significance (ICT to France n. p.). In particular, the country plans to expand research in the sphere of information technologies to increase opportunities for developing international company business and for arranging a strong mobile infrastructure, internet services, satellite equipment, and mobile telephones (ICT to France n. p.).
According to Simme, Japan plans that the weakness of basic research compared to Western countries should be balanced through the technopolis plan and it keeps the technological standard in the top position for the future (152). In this regard, the government considers industrial and scientific development a priority because it can create more favorable conditions for technological advancement.
Carrying out Business Operations
In London, information labor counts about 45 % of the total workforce percentage (Li 36). The information aspects of the economy significantly influence business operations in London. In particular, it affects the production spheres where people have to improve knowledge management skills.
Nearly 50 % of the New York population is engaged in all labor activities and most business transactions and operations are carried out via the Internet. Both, at an individual level and an organizational one, people are involved in e-commerce interactions (Li 72). The city realizes that the Internet and telecommunications significantly increase New York companies capacity to interact with other companies within the country and outside it (Li 72).
The major fields that are planned to be advanced and improved in France include ICT services, system security, E-learning, ITPV, and VolP (ICT to France n. p.). In addition, French businesses are realizing the necessity to plan technology improvement and enable customers to buy their products via the Internet (ICT to France n. p.). While considering past failures to adjust to technological changes, the current situation provides a much distinctive feature of drastic improvements in the sphere of innovations.
The development of ICT technologies in Japan has provided great opportunities for supply chain management (Li 213). In particular virtual networks and online communication greatly fosters the conclusion of important agreements and favor international relations with other leading companies.
Works Cited
Banks, Michael, and Orson Scott Card. On the way to the web: The Secret History of the Internet of its Founders. US: Appress, 2008. Print.
Ceruzzi, Paul E. A History of Modern Computing. US: MIT Press, 2003. Print.
Cortada, James W. How Societies Embrace Information Technology: Lessons for Management and the Rest of Us. US: Wiley-IEEE, 2009. Print.
Hurderman, Anton, A. The Worldwide History of Telecommunications. US: Wiley-IEE, 2003. Print.
ICT to France. Australian Government. 2011. Web.
Li, Feng. What is E-Busines?: How the Internet Transforms Organizations. US: Wiley-Blackwell. 2007. Print.
The era of technological breakthrough, which people witnessed with the advent of the new millennium, has triggered a range of changes in the process of interpersonal communication. With the introduction of information technology, particularly, the Internet and the social networks that it has to offer, there seem to be no boundaries for the process of communication any longer. People all over the world may converse whenever they want and whoever they want with. Such impressive changes have caused not only major improvements, but also considerable challenges.
Despite an amazing range of opportunities, which IT of the 21st century has to offer, the boundaries, which these technologies set for communication process, are much more restricting than people may conceive; therefore, in order to avoid losing their basic communication skills due to the lack of non-verbal elements in online communication and the restricted amount of opportunities for emotional involvement in the course of conversations via social networks chat rooms and other media provided by modern technologies, people need to learn moderation in the use of contemporary technological advances in their conversations.
A closer look at the way, in which IT shapes peoples regular communication process, will reveal that, along with positive effects, there is a consistent deterioration in quality. Turkle (2012a) warns that the excessive use of modern technology as a communication media may result in a loss of major skills essential for successful interpersonal and social communication. More to the point, Turkle (2012b, Apr. 21) argues that the process of gradual loss of crucial capacities for conversation has already commenced: Weve become accustomed to a new way of being alone together.
Technology-enabled, we are able to be with one another, and also elsewhere, connected to wherever we want to be (2012b, Apr. 21, para. 3). People substitute their personalities with fake symbols, which are later on taken for granted in the course of conversations, thus, leading to even greater misconceptions: it can take place on social-networking sites as well, where ones profile becomes an avatar of sorts, a statement not only about who you are but who you want to be (Turkle, 2012a, p. 180).
Online communication admittedly has its benefits when compared to the traditional conversation methods. The absence of the restrictions and responsibilities that a standard real life conversation entails is, perhaps, the most attractive feature of IT devices allowing for the simulation of the former. Indeed, chatting online, especially on a forum, where real people are hidden behind nicknames and where their location cannot be disclosed, allows for defying social norms and crossing the line that marks antisocial behavior (Donath, 2014b, p. 251).
Moreover, it is fast and efficient. Indeed, with the help of virtual communication, it has become possible to keep in touch even with the people that are thousand miles away from where one may live. However, it is the complete safety that fails online communication in its attempt to ensure an unceasing conversation process. As long as people know that they are capable of creating an inseparable bond with their friends, there is no need to make an effort to maintain this bond alive the Internet will presumably take care of it As a result, relying on technology as the means of substituting pure, raw emotions of real life communication, people reduce the process of conversing with each other to its simplified and, therefore, extremely cheap substitute.
Herein another problem regarding online communication and its availability lies. Being under the impression of complete security and consistence of their communication with their friends, the participants of social networks, online chat rooms, and other media tools for perpetuating the concept of communication availability, therefore, devalue the very principle of sharing their feelings, ideas and emotions.
Speaking of which, the issue concerning emotional aspects of communication and the problems regarding the transfer of emotional involvement onto the field of online conversations, should also be touched upon. The phenomenon described above can be explained comparatively easily by reminding of the necessity to include the nonverbal components into communication. While the verbal elements allow the participants of a conversation express their opinions on a certain topic and, therefore, become engaged into information transfer, acquisition and sharing, these are the nonverbal elements that create the premises for emotional involvement with the topic of the discussion and the experience of the participants. Seeing that online conversations reduce the ability of those involved to manifest their emotional responses, one must admit that Internet discussions deprive their participants of a great chunk of communicational experience.
The issue concerning the lack of emotional involvement and the inability of online discussion participants to express their feelings the way that they could in a real life communication process invites the question whether a proper development of emotional intelligence (EI) is possible within the environment of the Internet communication.
Traditionally identified as the ability to navigate in the world of ones motions and acknowledge the latter, as well as analyze them (Cherry, Fletcher & OSullivan, 2013), EI is an essential component of personal development and a crucial part of peoples personal development. Unless one receives enough emotional contact, the development of EI slackens, therefore, causing other developmental issues and questioning the success of ones personal and emotional wellbeing. Consequently, a loss of identity may ensue (Donath, 2014a, p. 228).
While Internet communication and the evolution of social networks as the fastest and the most efficient communication tool can be viewed as a positive phenomenon from certain perspectives and the process of online communication has its moments, the deprivation of personal conversation, which active users of social networks suffer from, makes one question the reasonability of transferring the process of conversation to the virtual realm. Despite the fact that modern technologies in general and Internet in particular can be viewed as outstandingly useful tools for improving the quality of the communication process, one must not deceive oneself with the idea that the former can replace the latter completely.
Deluding oneself and, therefore, getting trapped in the net of virtual communication is dangerous due to the jeopardy that it poses to ones social and personal development and the threat that it creates for ones social skills. Therefore, the emerging technologies must be viewed solely as a supplementary element of communication and in no way as an integral part of the latter. As long as people use the emerging IT elements in their conversation in a rational manner, they will be able to avoid the threat of losing their social skills in an exchange for a dubious pleasure of using a cheap substitute of real life conversations that does not entail the same amount of responsibility that an actual conversation does. Meanwhile, awareness concerning the threats of excessive online communication must be raised.
Reference List
Cherry, G., Fletcher, I. & OSullivan, H. (2013). Exploring the relationships among attachment, emotional intelligence and communication. Medical Education, 47(3), 317325.
Donath, J. (2014a). Constructing identity. The social machine (pp. 223244). Boston, MA: MIT Press.
Donath, J. (2014b). Embodied interaction. The social machine (pp. 245278). Boston, MA: MIT Press.
Turkle, S. (2012a). Alone but together. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Modern educators focus on finding the most appropriate and effective means to teach students and guarantee the active teaching and learning processes. In this case, the developed information and communication technologies (ICT) provide a lot of possibilities to plan and implement the effective teaching and learning methods and techniques.
The sphere of ICT develops quickly, and today there is a range of technologies which can be successfully used in the everyday learning process at school and university. From this perspective, educators choose to integrate ICT into the teaching process because of a variety of advantages associated with the usage of contemporary technologies (Simon & Nemeth, 2012).
Thus, different ICT which are available for educators can be successfully used to enhance the learning process, to stimulate students skills and abilities, to develop motivation, and to improve students performance. It is necessary to pay attention to the effectiveness of using such game-oriented ICT as multi-touch systems and such ICT as vodcasts in different age groups.
Although the representatives of various age groups perceive the information presented with the help of ICT in a different way, the levels of the students performance and motivation can be discussed as high, and this fact allows speaking about the effectiveness of using different ICT in education.
To conclude about the effectiveness of using ICT in the learning and teaching processes, it is necessary to focus on such aspects as the impact of using ICT on students learning and motivation, perception, and performance.
The Impact of Different ICT on Students Learning and Motivation
There is no single idea in relation to the effect of ICT on students learning and motivation because of impossibility to state strictly about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of traditional teaching methods. ICT are actively used by educators in order to make the material presented more understandable and interesting for students and to stimulate their certain activities.
From this point, ICT are used in their combination with the traditional teaching methods and techniques (Ardito et al., 2013). Moreover, appropriate ICT can be selected according to the needs of the age group, topic of the planned activities, and the objective set by an educator.
Thus, to achieve the education goals in primary and secondary schools, it is effective to orient to the game activities. Modern ICT provide the opportunity to discuss a game as a part of the learning process. Different types of material can be presented to students in various ways. The form of the game based on using ICT provokes the additional interest of students to the activities.
As a result, the usage of ICT can be considered as the additional motivator for students who become involved in the learning process (Ardito et al., 2013). To guarantee the understanding of the material and the development of definite skills, educators combine the methods of traditional teaching with ICT. This technique allows making the teaching process complete.
The focus only on a game, ICT, or traditional methods cannot provide the effective results of the students learning process (Sluis & Nijholt, 2012). Moreover, this situation can lead to decreasing students motivation and interest in the process.
That is why, the complex approach is more advantageous. Thus, the historic material presented in the form of a game based on the multi-touch system is learnt by students more actively (Ardito et al., 2013).
Students studying at high school, college, university, or student teachers can develop their motivation and improve learning with the help of more progressive or complex ICT. Different kinds of computers, computer programs, podcasts, and vodcasts are used to improve the teaching and learning processes.
The development of new technologies provides new opportunities and previous effective technologies can be discussed as out-of-date. Thus, today vodcasts are discussed as more effective than podcasts which were actively used in education years ago. Vodcasts can provide students with more materials, information, and stimuli than podcasts (McNeill & Fry, 2012).
Students need illustration and demonstration in order to follow certain instructions and perform definite activities. In this case, such ICT as vodcasts function as illustration for students in order to provide them with the certain knowledge. Multi-media systems can be used effectively when an educator uses the appropriate instruction (Sluis & Nijholt, 2012).
For instance, vodcasts can be ineffective to stimulate students learning process if they are not provided with the appropriate instruction to control students activities (McNeill & Fry, 2012).
The Effects of ICT on Students Perception
Students are inclined to react more actively to vivid and interesting objects or materials which attract their attention immediately. The students interest in relation to the material can guarantee their further high performance regarding this or that subject. That is why, educators should focus on methods to stimulate students perception and reaction to the information and new knowledge.
ICT can be discussed as the rather effective means to influence students perception (Ardito et al., 2013). Students perception is based on analyzing the new information and on its comparison with the knowledge with exists in students minds and memory. Thus, the new information is perceived during several stages, and these stages do not depend on the form of information perceived.
However, the abilities of students to perceive this or that kind of information presented in the form of written text, audio, or an image are often different because students have various dominating types of perception (McNeill, Mukherjee, & Singh, 2012).
Nevertheless, different ICT can contribute to the development of students perception abilities in spite of the kind of the information presented. Thus, game activities involve the usage of the written text, images, and audio, and the students concentration increases as well as the participation in the learning process can become more active (Ardito et al., 2013).
Such technologies as multi-media systems and vodcasts can contribute to students active participation in the learning process because they depend on the diverse presentation of information. From this point, the students reaction should be also active. The technology-based learning is discussed as more informal and active.
Thus, students become the centre of the learning process, and they can use all the advantages provided by modern information technologies (Ardito et al., 2013). The informal learning with using the Internet, multi-media systems, podcasts, and vodcasts is more attractive for students because of their possibility to participate in the process more actively and consciously.
For instance, attending lectures and seminars, students can prepare the vodcasts independently (McNeill & Fry, 2012). Modern technologies can be considered as providing more opportunities for teachers to improve their strategy and for students to improve their skills and abilities.
Students interest and understanding of the material can be influenced by using different resources and methods. Educational games, puzzles, quizzes, and tests can be presented not only with the help of traditional teaching techniques but also with the help of modern technologies which expand the range of variants for using this or that resource, method, or technique.
Multi-touch displays, online educational games, online tests, podcasts, and vodcasts can be effective to change the approach to teaching and learning processes (Ardito et al., 2013).
Furthermore, the usage of ICT stimulates communication between students, and this fact is advantageous for completing group and team tasks effectively. Thus, ICT can stimulate students perception with references to using resources and technologies which help apply the academic material to the real world situation.
The Connection between Using ICT and Students Academic Performance
Those technologies which are used in the classroom environments are oriented to develop students abilities and to improve students performance. Thus, the usage of ICT in education can be discussed as ineffective approach if students performance is not affected positively with references to technologies.
That is why, researchers focus on examining changes in students performance depending on the frequency of using different technologies in the classroom.
According to Ardito and the group of researchers, positive trends connected with increasing students results and improvement of their performance are observed after several weekends of the regular usage of ICT in the classroom environments in order to provide certain material, present instruction, and stimulate activities (Ardito et al., 2013).
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that such ICT as multi-touch displays and systems are effective to promote and control a lot of everyday classroom activities which are usually associated with using many resources. From this point, these technologies not only influence students performance positively but also minimize the resources used by an educator along with maximizing positive effects.
The changes in the students performance can be discussed with references to such aspects as changes in students learning activities, perception, and behaviour. Thus, the integration of ICT affects the teaching and learning processes as complexes, and high performance is the result of changes in the students understanding or comprehending the material.
The assessment of students performance allows drawing conclusions about the general effectiveness of using ICT in education. Simon and Nemeth focus on the fact that the alternations in performance can be directly associated with the changes in the students attitude toward the learning process (Simon & Nemeth, 2012).
The concentration on informal learning provokes students positive attitude and interest because of decreasing the stress and making the process more diverse.
The improved performance is also connected with the concept of self-improvement. Thus, using vodcasts and online materials, students receive the opportunity to assess their successes independently and pay attention to the moments which should be changed or improved (McNeill & Fry, 2012).
From this perspective, new technologies help educators make the teaching process more focused on students. Individualization is one of the main characteristic features of the modern approaches in education (Ardito et al., 2013). ICT with a range of opportunities provided respond to the needs of the modern education oriented to students and stimulation of their successes in study.
Educators use ICT in order to differentiate instruction and reduce those forms of explanation which can decrease students attention and concentration on the object of discussion. ICT are appropriate to be used at different stages of the teaching process and to control the students involvement into activities (Ardito et al., 2013).
This feature of ICT also works for the benefits of students because they can participate actively in the process during all the stages without reducing concentration and attention.
For instance, focusing on vodcasts, students can improve their performance while analyzing their mistakes and paying attention to achievements (McNeill & Fry, 2012). The communication based on ICT with the other students can also stimulate their motivation and activities with improving performance results.
Conclusion
The evaluation of ICT usage in the field of education can be possible only with references to assessing changes in the students performance and to appropriateness of the techniques for helping teachers realize set objectives.
ICT are important to be used in the field of education because researchers predict that further changes in the sphere will be closely associated with the development of new technologies with improved and extended functions. The focus on using ICT in combination with the methods of traditional teaching and learning can be rather effective for the development of students perception and performance.
It is important to note that modern technologies can be effectively used by educators not only for improving the teaching strategies but also for stimulating students motivation. From this point, it is necessary to choose technologies which can be used successfully in different classroom environments depending on the students age category. ICT in education can affect the changes in approaches to developing education strategies.
If ICT are used appropriately, they contribute to maximizing the advantages of the teaching and learning processes. That is why, further research is significant in order to focus on the most effective ways to integrate ICT in education to receive the highest results.
References
Ardito, C., Lanzilotti, R., Costabile, M. F., & Desolda, G. (2013). Integrating traditional learning and games on large displays: An experimental study. Educational Technology & Society, 16(1), 4456.
McNeill, M., & Fry, J. (2012). The value of ICT from a learning game-playing perspective. Journal of Research, 7(1), 45-52.
McNeill, M., Mukherjee, S., & Singh, G. (2010). Podcasting in physical education teacher education. ICHPER-SD Journal of Research, 5(1), 16-19.
Simon, F., & Nemeth, K. (2012). Digital decisions: Choosing the right technology tools for early childhood education. USA: Gryphon House.
Sluis, F., & Nijholt, A. (2012). Designing a museum multi-touch table for children. INTETAIN, 4(7), 139-148.
The research paper was aimed at investigating the differences in communication exhibited by the Emirati men and women in their places of work. The study wanted to bring out a balanced perspective regarding gender relations in the UAE labour industry by looking at the differences within and across gender.
Design
A qualitative approach was used in this study. A set of semi-structured interview questions was used as the tool for data collection. There were 418 participants in the study, who were all citizens of the United Arab Emirates. There were slightly more male participants than the female participants; 218 and 200 respectively. The subjects were supposed to be at least 20 years old, with the upper age limit being 55 years. The first phase of the interviews were comprised of postgraduate students (76) undertaking masters courses in the Abu Dhabi University. In the second phase, the students merged into groups and a total of 342 nationals who were not members of a university were interviewed. The age bracket of between 20 and 55 years was selected, as most employees belonged to this age bracket.
Findings
Men appeared to be direct, point specific, and quick to speak during group meetings. Men portrayed boldness in voicing their views in group settings. On the contrary, women were timid and only seemed freer to talk with female colleagues in the group settings. Women, however, spent longer periods communicating via phone compared to the males. Regarding other communities, the Emirati women were freer to communicate with persons from other nationalities, but shied off from Emirati women. During communications, men paid a lot of attention to body language than women. While men were quick to form opinions about things, women tended to go with the majority than following their own hearts. On the contrary, men subdued their emotions and avoided sharing the feelings, as opposed to women. In fact, women would freely express their emotional states to the extent of crying publicly if they were upset. Regarding listening and attention, men were poor listeners as they paid less attention as opposed to women. Women, on the other hand, gave total attention to detail. Men liked handling one issue at a time at the workplace, while women were great at multitasking. The greatest advantage that men had over women is the ability to convince others during marketing, owing to their courage and ability to provide facts and evidence.
Research Limitations/Implications
As expressed by the author, the study faced similar limitations that apply to all studies that use a qualitative approach. For instance, bias could have been introduced during the interview process. Chances of loss of objectivity and transparency were also high. The interviewers could also introduce inaccuracies easily. However, the major limitation observed was that the authors drew conclusions from a limited sample size. In such cases, stereotyping is always inevitable.
Practical and Social Implications
These findings would be highly relevant and valuable to all persons intending to start a business or wishing to work within the UAE. The study findings would be of great value, particularly, in choosing the workforce that would drive the organizations objectives. Similarly, the information would be of value to human right groups, who invest in fighting for the rights of women. This study provided a good picture on the state of women in the workplace in the UAE.
Originality/Value
In the Western countries, there is plenty of information regarding differences in gender and the gender related communication. Nevertheless, some findings, such as that reported by Tannen (10-20) and Gray (90-97) still remain controversial. On the other hand, as explained by Alkhateeb (6), data regarding this topic in the UAE is limited. It implies that negative stereotyping is very common in the Middle East, especially touching on the roles of men and women in the society, as well as stereotypes revolving around the Islam religion. The timeliness of this study cannot be underestimated, given that the UAE is growing at a very promising rate, in addition to the increase in the participation of women in the labour industry.
Keywords: Gender Differences, United Arab Emirates, Work Behaviours, Communication
Critique
Negative
Though the paper is timely and its findings seem to be of great value, the validity of this data remains questionable owing to the many flaws evident in the methodology used. From the methodology, the reader is left to assume that age was the only inclusion and exclusion criteria, as no other information concerning this is provided. The rationale behind selecting masters students for the initial interview is not known, as this study targeted the workplace and not the education system. Furthermore, whether the 324 persons interviewed by these students were employed or not cannot be established, which raises credibility issues about the data collected.
The nature of the questionnaires used is also unknown. Perhaps, the authors could have provided the set of questions as an appendix so that the reader can have a picture of the questions that the subjects were asked. No raw data, such as direct quotations is provided, thus it is easy to think that the authors expressed their individual opinion, rather than the actual findings from the study. The conclusion that the same differences are observed in various job categories is misleading. The situation cannot be the same in senior government offices, in business, or in casual labour jobs market. It would be better if the author highlighted the differences in these categories. The use of students to carry out such a research is not ideal because students may lack actual research experience. Consequently, there is a higher possibility of generating errors, particularly at the crucial interviewing stage. Such an error could have been translated into the final analysis and reporting.
Positive
The timing of this research work was excellent. One major boost to this study is the fact that the author established a good background for the study with a detailed literature review and drawing comparisons with the Western countries. The manner in which the findings were reported was ideal, as it is easy to read and understand the findings. The author used simple language and terms that can be easily understood. Another boost to this study is the manner in which the author explained the applicability of the study findings. Choosing to explain where each individual finding can be applied makes it easier for any investor to apply the information only relevant to their investment or business. The primary objectives of the study were met, therefore, there is a clear picture of the state of gender differences in communication at the workplace in the UAE.
Conclusion
The research was timely and highly relevant. The information from the study is of great value to any individual, within or outside the UAE, who has intentions of investing in the UAE. However, the study would be of greater value if the concerns raised about the methodology of the study were addressed.
Works Cited
Alkhateeb, M. Haitham. Gender Differences in Mathematics Achievement among High School Students in the United Arab Emirates, 1991-2000. School Science and Mathematics 101.1 (2001) : 5-9. Print.
Gray, John. Men Are From Mars And Women are from Venus: A Practical Guide for Improving Communication and Getting What you Want in your Relationship. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. Print.
Tannen, Deborah. You Just Dont Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: William Morrow, 2007. Print.
A website within which the users are allowed to undertake content modification by either deleting or adding some details is termed as a wiki. The modification of the website is usually carried out through web browsers by utilizing simplified rich-text editor or the markup language. The wiki software is used to power the wikis. In most of the cases, wikis are developed by numerous users collaboratively. Examples of wikis are such as corporate intranets, community websites, knowledge management scheme, as well as note-taking. Wikis can serve numerous diverse purposes. Some wikis allow the control of various functions (access levels); for instance, rights editing may permit removal, addition, or changing of material. Others allow access without imposing any access control1. Other regulations may be enforced to undertake content organization. The premier wiki software was developed by Ward Cunningham. This wiki software was referred by the name WikiWikiWeb. Cunningham originally defined it as the most simplified online database, which could practically work. Basically, wiki is a term derived from the Hawaiian language, which is literally translated as quick or simply fast in the English language.
Ward Cunningham began formulating the WikiWikiWeb in 1994 within Portland, Oregon. After the WikiWikiWeb was developed, it was installed on the c2.com internet domain on the 25th of March 1995. The name of this premier wiki was borrowed from that of the buses, which ply within the Honolulu International Airports terminals, which are known by the name Wiki- Wiki Shuttle . In accordance with Cunningham, wiki-wiki was the ideal choice of name, which made him not to name the website as the quick-web. Cunningham got the inspiration to develop the website partly from Apples HyperCard. Apple developed a unique system, which enables its users to make virtual card stacks which had supportive links within different cards. Moreover, Cunningham made use of the ideas of Vannevar Bush thereby permitting users to either post comments on other users text or change the text details.
Within the initial years of the 2000s, wikis were adopted in big margins as enterprising collaborative software. The most basic applications of wikis were such as intranets, documentation, as well as, intranets, principally for the technical users only. As at present, wikis is the only single collaborative software, which is available in a good number of companies. Most of these companies make use of wikis as a substitute for the static intranets. Moreover, in various learning institutions such as schools along with universities group learning is enhanced through the use of wikis. There is a high likelihood that wikis are used greatly behind firewalls rather than within the Net.
Wikis are developed to easy amend errors instead of proving it difficult to undertake corrections. Therefore, while wikis remain wide open, they offer procedures of verifying the recent added materials validity. The most common, within almost all wikis, is the page entitled Recent Changes . This page particularly contains the edits, which have been recently made, or the edits, which have been undertaken within a specific timeline. Certain wikis can filter the list such that minor edits are removed. Edits made by automatically importing scripts are also removed in the filtering process. In the majority of the wikis, various functions are accessed through the changelog. By viewing the revision records, the user can identify the former page versions.
Moreover, a diff feature is used to make highlights on the differences between two sets of revisions. By making use of the revision records, a user can view, as well as, restore an article to its previous version. Different features are also utilized while deciding if such actions are necessary. Regular wiki users access the edit diff feature within the page of Recent Changes . If the edit is considered as unacceptable, the history is consulted, and the previous revision is thus restored. This process is somehow streamlined in relation to the wiki software, which is in use.
In the event that unacceptable edits pass unnoticed within the page of recent changes , other wiki engines offer extra content control. It is possible to monitor a wiki webpage to make it certain that its quality is maintained. Individual volunteering to maintain wiki pages receives warnings on-page modifications, thereby enabling the person to conduct validity verifications of the novel editions in a quick manner. The basic implementation of this system is termed as the watch list. Other wikis make use of patrolled revisions whereby editors who possess the required credentials can label part of the edits as genuine. The flagged revisions method can be used to obstruct edits from being accessible until a review of them is carried out.
Certain wikis allow at a minimum, title searches and in other occasions full-text searches. The search scalability relies on the nature of the database used by the specific wiki engine. Some wikis, for instance, PmWiki, utilize flat files. MediaWiki was the first wiki site to make use of flat files. However, Lee Daniel Crocker rewrote the MediaWiki during the early years of the 2000s to become a distinct database application. Indexed database accessibility is essential for speedy searches, especially on the enormous wikis. On the other hand, outside search engines, for instance, Google Search, are applied on wikis, which have restricted searching functions to achieve results, which are more precise. Nevertheless, the indexes of the search engines of numerous websites can be quite outdated.
Due to the fact that Wikis are web-based, it becomes easier for a large number of people to search for information from them. In addition, the wikis cover a lot of topics and information, which many researchers want. There are also excellent pieces of writing provided by the wikis, which cannot be found on another site. Due to this advantage, many people endeavour to use them over other sites on the internet. There are minimal errors in the wikis. This contributes too many people having to benefit people from them. Also, the wikis are controlled by software, which enhances control of information in the World Wide Web.
The open wiki philosophy, which allows every individual to carry out content editing, lacks the verification of the editors intentions. Some of the editors may harbour bad intentions. It is for that reason that vandalism comes about as a principal problem. Within the enormous wiki sites; for instance, those operated by firms like Wikimedia Foundation, vandalism remains unnoticed for a specific period. Naturally, wikis are susceptible to deliberate disruption termed as trolling . Wikis mostly approach the vandalism problem with a soft spot. Wikis are concerned more in simplifying the process of undoing damages instead of attempting to prevent the occurrence of damages. The increase of wiki sites provides people with a variety of sites where they can seek any information they want.
Sophisticated methods are utilized within large wikis, for example, bots that identify, as well as, revert vandalism automatically along with JavaScript enhancements, which illustrate characters, which have been introduced within every edit. Through such measures, vandalism is reduced to mere minor vandalism which can also be termed as sneaky vandalism . Within the minor vandalism, the eliminated or introduced characters are so minimal such that bots are unable to identify them and wiki users usually overlook them. This has contributed to the elimination of defects, which occur during research. Programmers can easily detect the sneaky vandalism, thus making users comfortable with the provided information.
The degree of vandalism experienced within every wiki depends on the openness of the specific wiki. For example, certain wikis permit unregistered users, known by the IP addresses, which they are using, undertaking content editing. Other wikis limit the function of content editing strictly to the registered users. Majority of the wikis permit anonymous editing, but the additional editing responsibilities are reserved for the registered users only. However, to become a registered user in the majority of the wikis is usually a short process, which is considerably simple. However, within certain wikis, new users have to wait for a specific period before they can gain access to all available tools. For instance, within English Wikipedia, only the users who have been operating an account with the site for more than four days are allowed to rename pages.
Other wikis, for example, the Portuguese Wikipedia apply an editing obligation rather than a time constraint. Within this wiki, a user is granted extra tools upon making a set amount of edits to demonstrate their usefulness along with trustworthiness as editors. Generally, wikis, which are closed up , are considered as more secure, as well as, reliable but expand slowly. On the other side, wikis, which are more open, expand at a considerable rate although they end up being easily vandalized. The best examples of open wikis are Wikipedia along with Citizendium. Wikipedia is exceedingly open such that any person with access to a computer, which is connected to the internet, can edit it, leading to its vast growth. However, Citizendium requires individuals to register with their real names, as well as post their biographies. This has influenced negatively on the wikis growth but has resulted in the creation of an ambience, which is almost very free from vandalism.
Wikis are also faced with the malware problem. Malicious users introduce links, which connect the wikis to sites that harbour malicious code. For instance, an article featured within the German Wikipedia containing information on the Blaster Worm was revised to introduce a website hyperlink, which could infect the computers of other users. Nevertheless, countermeasures have been introduced which bar the links connected to dangerous malware sites from being introduced into the wikis through the use of certain software. Also, Wiki software should block JavaScript along with other scripting genres, which malicious users may attempt to introduce directly within the page in the course of editing secessions. Besides, edits wars emerge as users always turn certain pages to their favourable versions.
Nonetheless, the wiki administrators can make use of certain wiki software to bring to an end those edit wars; by locking the affected page from additional editing until when a consensus is reached about the most appropriate version. All in all, certain wikis are capable of controlling the users behaviour through the use of an external governing structure. For instance, an institutional instructor may warn students against making unnecessary edits within a private class wiki.
Communication models (Buhler, Jakobsen, and Schultz von Thun)
There are various communication models used within the Wikis. These communication models are such as Buhlers, Schultz von Thun along with Jakobsen communication models. The communication model, which was developed by Buhler Karl, is termed as the Organon model. This model defines communication functions through which a description of linguistic communication can be carried out. Buhler came up with this communication model after getting inspiration from Roman Jakobson. Buhler proposed three distinct communicative functions. These are the expressive function, conative function along with referential function. Most of the wikis make use of all of these functions as introduced by Buhler. Wikis clearly fulfil the expressive function because they allow users to express their ideas about various topics within their sites2. In the event that there were no wikis, numerous academicians would lack the chance to publicize their ideas on various topics. Moreover, it is through class wikis, which are established in various learning institutions that students are able to propose their ideas on certain topics covered within their syllabus. The referential function is not left out in the development of wikis. All wiki users are obliged to making reference to their source of information. It would be unethical if all the information presented within the wiki pages were left unreferenced. In relation to this function, the wiki users describe various topics of main concern and then at the end of their work outline the sources from where they obtained their information.
On the other hand, the conative function is basically an appealing function. Wikis comply with this function by requesting users to provide useful information and avoid any malicious behaviour such as introducing malware within the wiki pages. Also, all wiki pages advice their users do not rely hundred per cent on the information presented within them because it is subject to further research.
The Schulz von Thun communication model is commonly referred to as the four-side model. In accordance with the model, news or any information is considered to consist of four messages. The news four sides are the fact, appeal, self-revealing along with the relationship. On the fact side, which is also termed as matter layer, an individual makes a presentation of information about various statements as well as facts. The individual must make the presentation a clear and easily comprehendible manner. Basically, wikis fulfil this function because most of the information available within them contains several statements along with facts3. Moreover, the information within the wikis is regularly edited to make it clear and comprehendible. Appeal function makes individuals undertake a duty, which they were not ready to do. It also entails convincing individuals to avoid certain wikis. Concerning the appeal function, wiki users are advised to carry out further editing of the information presented within the sites. In respect to the same function, users are also requested to discern the previous mentioned bad behaviours. Certain wikis require the users to post their biographies within the wiki pages. This regulation aims at fulfilling the function of self-revealing within the four-side model. The relationship function is achieved within then wikis by allowing the users to post comments on their ideas about the information presented within them. The comments posted about certain wiki pages assist the wiki developers to establish whether they are achieving any sort of success, or their work is bound to fail.
The other communication model applied within the wikis is the Jakobsen communication model. In accordance with Jakobson, for any communication to take place, there must be six diverse functions, which are involved. The two basic functions are the sender and receiver. The other four, which exist between the two, are the message, code, context along with the channel. In each wiki, the registered members are the senders. The wiki page acts as the channel and code within which the message and context are presented. Those who finally use the information can be regarded as the receivers.
Comparison of two wikis in terms of language style, layout, and users
There is a big difference between Wikipedia and Citizendium. To begin with, Wikipedia uses Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). This is a writing language, which describes the semantics and written in HTML. The design of CSS enhances the separation of the content in the document from a presentation of another document and enhances the presentation of elements such as fonts, colours, and layout. However, Citizendium has been programmed using the Computer Programming Language (CPL). In particular, it uses the C++ language to format its documents and its graphics. Wikipedia and Citizendium have been written in the HTML although Wikipedia is more developed than the latter.
Wikipedias Cascading Style Sheets has been developed to enhance document separation and improve the layout of the main document. This has benefits such as improvement of accessibility of the document by the users. Also, it is very easy to provide more flexibility and control of the formatted documents. Through the tableless web design, it is very easy to format a document and reduce its complexity by the users. Many users also find the structural content of Wikipedia very useful because it is very easy to understand. CSS allows users to be presented markup in different styles, thus enhancing its enhancement for the users.
Wikipedia content has been designed in such a manner that it can be accessed by any device regardless of its size. This is why users who have different sizes of screens can assess Wikipedia content at any time they wish. A CSS style sheet is designed in such a manner that it can override any kind of sheet, which has been designed by its users. This is because it contains a scheme, which contains the set rules, which match with the elements provided at different levels. Furthermore, the specifications of CSS have been developed and maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). This enhances the implementation of the existing rules, which prevent people from copying information provided by Wikipedia.
On the other hand, Citizendium uses the Programming Language (BCPL), which is designed to enhance users to access information faster than any other form of language. This form of language helps to combine arrays and structs to enhance the usability of the information4. BCPL has adopted many forms of programming languages such as C++, and this helps to enhance the usability of the information. Moreover, BCPL has standardized many programming languages to form a unique language, which contains various forms of fonts, layouts, and structures, which can be understood easily by the users.
Some of the advantages of using BCPL language is that the users and the programmers have less control over the hardware because it contains softwares which have features such as the sensitivity of cases, semicolons which help in ending statements, parameters which are combined in pairs. This allows temporary variables to be contained inside the blocks. The procedure for using Citizendium is thus easy as compared to Wikipedia. This is because Wikipedia is designed with the layouts structured in an alphabetical manner, while Citizendium is structured in such a manner, which can be understood by the users.
It is very easy to enhance profiling of information and documents while using Wikipedia. This is because the users have the ability to use information as provided by the programmer. The programmer is the individual who decides on the important information to use to enhance visibility. The language used in the coding of information is very simple and uses a low-level approach to guide users to understand the layout of information. On the other hand, in Citizendium, the language has been programmed in such a manner that the information has not been coded into C++. Users who lack the knowledge of JavaScript and C++ find it difficult to understand the used language. Wikipedias CSS helps to define non-visual styles like speed, and the emphasis is on the aural text. It is thus an improvement from the original mark up used by HTML5. This enables information to be provided in a number of sources, which have been defined by the language.
Many users of Wikipedia include researchers, programmers, students, and teachers. All these people use Wikipedia in search of information. There is a wide variety of articles, which have been posted in Wikipedia, which contain a lot of useful information. These articles have been written by people who have Wikipedia accounts. These articles are posted freely, and they enhance people to use free information. The information, which is contained by Wikipedia, has references and it is thus easy to refer it from its source. Unlike Citizendium, it is easy to derive the source and the basis of the information as provided by Wikipedia.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Wikis have contributed a lot in the society by providing people with free information. The Wikis are powered by the wiki software, which controls the information through the World Wide Web. As a matter of fact, the Wikis have been developed by many people within the globe who contribute articles for research. The Wikis have been designed to serve numerous functions, which include providing researchers with free information, providing users with new researched content and providing information for research. There are also applications of wikis were such as intranets, documentation, as well as, intranets, principally for the technical users only. Wikis clearly fulfil the expressive function because they allow users to express their ideas about various topics within their sites. To sum up, the existence of Wikis has contributed to innovations in research in the world today.
Bibliography
Chatfield, T B. The Complete Guide to Wikis: How to Set Up, Use, and Benefit from Wikis for Teachers, Business Professionals, Families, and Friends. Ocala, Fla: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2009.
Mader, S. Wikipatterns, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Myers, G. The Discourse of Blogs and Wikis. London: Continuum, 2009.
Teehan, K. Wikis: The Educators Power Tool. Santa Barbara, Calif: Linworth, 2010.
Footnotes
Mader, S. Wikipatterns, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Teehan, K. Wikis: The Educators Power Tool. Santa Barbara, Calif: Linworth, 2010.
Myers, G. The Discourse of Blogs and Wikis. London: Continuum, 2009.
Chatfield, T B. The Complete Guide to Wikis: How to Set Up, Use, and Benefit from Wikis for Teachers, Business Professionals, Families, and Friends. Ocala, Fla: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2009.
Chatfield, T B. The Complete Guide to Wikis: How to Set Up, Use, and Benefit from Wikis for Teachers, Business Professionals, Families, and Friends. Ocala, Fla: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2009.
Communication is among the most important factor that is considered while building business or personal relationships. Throughout the world, people have dedicated much effort in establishing and improving their communication skills. Similarly, Greene and Burleson state that a lot of research has been conducted in order to provide people with the information needed to facilitate effective communication.
In Saudi Arabia, international communication has for a long time been hampered by language barriers and cultural beliefs, which limits peoples ability to communicate with foreigners.
However, due to globalization, technological advancement, education and economic aspirations, there has been a notable improvement in this regard. As such, majority of the Saudi citizens acknowledge the importance of communicating to foreigners and others desire to communicate to the visitors in order to advance their own interests.
This can be evidenced from the increase in international relations between Saudi and other foreign nations, the significant increase in the number of foreign tourists visiting Saudi and the fact that most Saudi citizen can speak at least one or more foreign languages. This section shall set out to detail the methodology used to gather information regarding Saudis citizens desire to communicate to visitors.
To this end, a brief overview of the research method selected shall be provided and an explanation as to why the research method is the most appropriate for this kind of research shall also be provided.
The processes used to gather the information shall also be detailed and the ethical and legal considerations that have to be made highlighted. All this shall be done to ensure that the data collected is credible and acquired in a manner that is ethically and legally acceptable.
Research methodology
Catherine (2002) defines research methodology as the structured process used by researchers in order to collect data on the issue being studied. Depending on the type of data being collected, research often fall under two main categories: qualitative and quantitative research.
Quantitative research method refers to the processes used to gather scientific and statistical data, while qualitative research methods are applied in social sciences studies. Considering that the topic under discussion relates to social sciences, this research shall adopt qualitative method of data collection.
Research design
Ranjit (2005) states that application studies can be classified into two broad categories. These categories are: pure research and applied research. The author further states that applied research is done when the researcher seeks to solve a specific and practical question or to understand a given phenomenon.
This research fits this description and it shall be descriptive in nature. According to Liamputtong (2009), descriptive research sets out to systematically describe a given situation by evaluating the attitudes the participants have towards the issue or phenomenon being studied.
Considering these facts, this study shall be a descriptive research since it seeks to describe, explain and understand Saudi citizens desire to communicate to their visitors.
Sample population
A stratified random sample shall be used to select participants for this research. Stratified random sample refers to the process through which the population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as age, gender, educational level and financial status among others. After dividing the population into such groups, random sample are drawn from the selected groups.
The sample population will consist of 100 randomly selected participants. 25% of the selected subjects shall be aged between 25 and 30 years, 50% shall be aged between 30 and 50 years and the remaining percentage shall consist of participants above the age of 50 years.
The rationale behind this selection is that people aged between 30 and 50 years constitute the largest percentage of the working class in Saudi.
As such, they are better placed to give valuable information as to why the Saudi citizens desire to communicate to visitors and the importance of such communications from an economic and socio-cultural perspective. The main channel of contact shall be through interview schedules and random face to face meetings at different avenues.
Primary data collection
Primary data regarding this topic shall be collected through interviews, surveys and questionnaires. These tools of data collection are the most appropriate since they enable the researcher to collect accurate and reliable data from the selected subjects. Khanzode (2004) asserts that an unstructured approach is most convenient when conducting a qualitative research.
He bases this assertion on the fact that the unstructured approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process (Khanzode, 2004, p. 19). Unstructured approach to inquiry is appropriate in this research since it enables the researcher to explore the nature of the phenomenon being studied and to evaluate the variations in that situation.
The questions designed for the interviews, surveys and questionnaires shall focus on answering the research questions. In this research, intercept interviews shall be conducted.
Kothari (2008) asserts that intercept interviews are convenient because they enable the interviewer to reach known period within a short time, they are the only method that can be used to reach people with unknown addresses and they involve talking to people in their homes, offices or on the streets. The surveys and questionnaires enable researchers to gather large amount of data quickly and conveniently.
Seeking consent
There are ethical issues that must be considered before collecting data for a research. Mainly, they involve the researchers conduct throughout the research and the concerns raised by the selected participants. To ensure that this research is conducted in an ethical manner, all participants shall be required to sign an informed consent form.
According to Catherine (2002), an informed consent form is a document signed by a research participant showing that he/she understands all aspects of the research including why the research is being conducted, how the research shall benefit the participants or society, the risks of the research and how the findings of the research shall be used.
Ensuring that all participants of this research have signed an informed consent shall guarantee that the process of data collection was done in an ethical manner.
Processing data
According to Konthari (2008), processing and analyzing collected data is a process that consists of various closely related operations. The purpose of this process is mainly to organize and summarize collected data in a manner that it answers the research questions designed for the given study. The operations used in this research shall include:
Editing
This is a process through which the researcher examines the collected data with an aim of identifying and correcting errors where possible. Editing is important since it enables the researcher to detect errors and omissions that may influence the results of the research.
Classification
Classification is a process through which edited data is arranged in groups depending on common characteristics that are important to the phenomenon being studied. In this case, data collected shall be classified in different themes such as economical benefits, social benefits and cultural benefits.
Tabulation
This is a process through which collected data is summarized and displayed in a compact form pending further analysis. In most cases, it involves arrangement of data into rows and columns for purposes of comparison, space conservation and statistical computations.
Data analysis
Data collected in this research shall be subjected to content analysis. Content analysis is the process through which a researcher examines the content of the responses given by participants in order to identify main themes that appear and are related to the topic being studied.
Reporting the findings
This section shall serve as a summarized version of the methodology section. In this section, I shall summarize what has been done, what was discovered and the conclusions that I have made from the findings regarding the topic.
Limitations
Like any other research, there are some foreseeable challenges that I may face as a result of my research methodology. Firstly, there is always the risk that the subjects may not give me accurate data during the interviews, the survey and the questionnaires.
Secondly, there is a room for error and bias if I ask the wrong questions and during the sample selection process. Despite these challenges, I believe that this quantitative method is the most appropriate for this specific research.
Conclusively, this paper has explained the methodology of conducting a research, various factors that should be considered when coming up with a research methodology have been highlighted, and their relevance to research discussed.
References
Catherine, D. (2002). Practical Research Methods. New Delhi: UBS Publishers Distributors.
Khanzode, V. (2004). Research Methodology. New York: APH Publishing.
Kothari, C. (2008). Research methodology: methods and techniques. New Jersey: New Age International
Liamputtong, P. (2009). Qualitative research methods. London: Oxford University Press.
Ranjit, K. (2005). Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, (2nd.ed). Singapore: Pearson Education.
There are many communication channels that managers can use when conveying vital business messages. However, the effectiveness of a particular channel is determined by the level of authority, type of information, urgency of information, the number of recipients among other factors. This paper focuses on three scenarios in which the managers are expected to decide on the most effective communication channels.
As Robbins and Judge (2011, p.344) suggest communication should involve the transfer and acceptance of meaning . In as much as a manager anticipates the desired outcomes, the circumstances of the scenarios must dictate the proper communication channel.
Scenario one
In the first scenario, the vice president of operations charges our team to develop a new entry strategy into the international market for a new beverage that has shown great success in the domestic market. Under these circumstances, timing is an important determining factor because the strategy must be developed in a weeks time.
Daft and Marcic (2010) claim that business managers are aware and understand the richness associated with communication channels. In this respect, my knowledge and understanding compels me to think of downward face-to-face communication as the richest communication channel and formal reporting as the least rich channel.
Although feedback is not solicited in this communication channel, direction is provided and to the team to be done as the manager sees fit. Face-to-face communication is not only cheap and time-saving, but allows me as the marketing manager to steer the decision making process as the outcomes will reflect what I have portrayed to the team members.
Immediately, I would call a meeting of all team members because of the urgency and significance of the assignment. This will make it much easier to communicate the message and relay the urgency and significance of the project. Misinterpretation and information loss associated with other channels like electronic mails and phone calls will be avoided (Robbins & Judge, 2011).
In addition, having a group discussion enhances the speed of the project as the physical gathering serves more than an opening. Initial tasks can be accomplished as well as assigning other tasks to individuals according to their potential.
When conveying the devised strategy to the vice president of operations, I would consider a formal and face-to-face communication channel rather than email. Although written communications can be edited and stored, they have major implications like misinterpretation.
I will present to the vice president a PowerPoint containing important details such as global marketing decisions and distribution channels which the company can use to reach a wider global market. The reason that I choose this channel of communication is the need to clarify any point that might not be included in the presentation.
If the vice president agrees with our strategy, a downward communication will be adopted to convey the message to relevant divisions and facilities. The channel is of interest because as the marketing manager and originator of the strategy, I will most likely be elected as the project manager and hence the need to keep in touch with the relevant departments.
Scenario two
The second scenario involves a manager of a large travel company who manages eleven employees. He discovers that the company login and password are no longer working. The manager must then contact the offsite IT department in order to understand the problem.
He is also obliged to communicate the new login and password to the employees. As a competent manager, I realize three vital factors that would determine the most appropriated communication channels: information security, span of control and urgency of the information.
When contacting the IT department, I would opt to use the telephone so that I can get first-hand information regarding the problem. The first thing I understand is that the IT department is not within our site and must be reached through a fast and reliable channel. Telephone as a channel of communication will enable me to reach the relevant personnel immediately (Daft & Marcic, 2010).
Secondly, information about company login and password is vital and requires high security. Therefore, a telephone call will guarantee a high level of confidentiality (Deswarte, Cuppens & Jojadia, 2004).
In addition, the information under question is vital to all business operations and the problem might delay almost all the activities. In response to this need, a telephone allows me to keep in constant touch with the IT department and perhaps press them to speed up in case of delays.
When communicating with the employees, downward communication will be the most appropriate to keep them informed and provide them with new login and password details (Robbins & Judge, 2011, p.344). When the new instructions will be provided, I will pass the details to the assistant manager who would then pass to other employees.
For instance, I might choose to send an email to the assistant manager who will then send a priority email to the rest of the employees as they have an up and running email that can be used.
This is the best channel of communication because, as the manager, I would be required to report to my superior. While my designated employee is conveying the message to others, I would be explaining the problem and the solution to my superior.
Scenario three
The third scenario involves a business owner of an editing company having ten employees working for him. He critically needs to reduce the workforce in order to raise profit margins.
A close assessment of the situation reveals two important factors that determine the appropriate communication channel: number of recipients and nature of the information. Robbins and Judge (2011) are of the opinion that non-routine messages are complicated and have potential misunderstanding and managers can therefore communicate them effectively by selecting rich channels.
When informing the employees about the reduction of the workload, I would use face-to-face channel of communication.
This type of channel has the highest richness while formal reports have the least richness. Information about employee reduction is non-routine and might follow the suggestion put forward by Robbins and Judge. There is likelihood that I will be misquoted if I used other forms of communication such as electronic mails. Furthermore, the number of employees is small and I can easily convene a meeting to relay the message.
However, when informing the affected employees that they are being let go, I will use a formal method of communication. I will send a letter to each employee that will be affected by the reduction. This is an appropriate channel of communication because the subject is emotional and explaining the situation to each employee formally is an indication that I care.
Indeed, no feature of communication has more meaning and significance than emotions (Nielsen, 2008). Robbins and Judge (2011) identified emotions as a major barrier to effective communication that managers should overcome by selecting channels that eliminate emotional judgment such as formal letters.
References
Daft, R. L. & Marcic, D. (2010). Understanding Management. Florence, KY: Cengage Learning.
Deswarte, Y., Cuppens, F. & Jojadia, S. (2004). Information security management, education and privacy: IFIP 18th World Computer Congress: TC11 19th International Information Security Workshops, 22-27 August 2004, Toulouse, France. Florence, KY: Springer.
Nielsen, J. (2008). Effective Communication Skills. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation.
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2011). Organizational Behavior, Communication. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.