Category: Communication

Computer-Mediated communication (CMC) is critical in human communication due to its affordability, reliability, and connectivity. As the world steadily becomes a global village, communication experts have embraced computer-Mediated communication in providing communication solutions and enhancing interaction between socializing agents.

Therefore, what factors directly affect the success of different CMC modes in relational maintenance and behavioral patterns in human communication environment?

Thus, this reflective treatise attempts to explicitly applaud on the modes and behavioral patterns observed across the gender divide and how the same can be related to success of CMC in provision of communication solutions to socializing agents drawn from a cross different cultural divides, gender, age, and exposure.

In order to comprehensively understand and interpreter the research question, the treatise review three previous literature on the topic by examining the articles.

The Cyber Factor: An Analysis of Relational Maintenance Through the Use of Computer-Mediated Communication by Houser, Fleuriet, and Estrada, IMing, Text Messaging, and Adolescent Social Networks by Bryant, Sanders-Jackson, and Smallwood, College Students Use of Relational Management Strategies in Email in Long-Distance and Geographically Close Relationships by Johnson, Haigh, Becker, Craig, and Wigley, and Assessing the Measurement Invariance of Relational Maintenance Behavior When Face-to-Face and Online by Andrew Ledbetter.

The article, Cyber Factor: an Analysis of Relational Maintenance Through the use of Computer-Mediated Communication by Houser, Fleuriet, and Estrada dwells on the link between interpersonal communication and CMC. Adopting both qualitative and quantitative analysis, the article identifies significant relationship between gender variance and use of CMC modes.

Intrinsically, the authors conclude that success of different CMC strategies are largely influenced by mode adopted in the process of relational management.

Thus, as opined by the authors of this article, there is a quantifiable relationship that actively operates in the interaction between relationship type; as determined by gender of the client, and CMC mode for that specific gender divide. Women are noted to be more reliable and consistent that men (Houser, Fleuriet, & Estrada, 2012).

On the other hand, the article, IMing, Text Messaging, and Adolescent Social Networks by Bryant, Sanders-Jackson, and Smallwood is a continuation of research on the link between CMC networks and adolescent age group in development of technologies that are socially interactive.

Concentrating on quantitative research, the article is specific in identifying the aspect of inconsistent or quantifiable between teenage participation in socially interactive technologies (SIT) and traditional mode of communication (Jackson, Bryant, & Smallwood, 2006).

However, the authors identified socially isolated teenagers as major users of SIT due to passiveness and other minor reasons. Here, use of SIT which is part of CMC among teenagers is largely determined by the behavioral patterns of the subjects. Specifically, those who are weak socially in this group are likely to use this mode of communication that those that are socially active.

The third article, College Students Use of Relational Management Strategies in Email in Long-Distance and Geographically Close Relationships by Johnson, Haigh, Becker, Craig, and Wigley examines the significant of emails in enacting maintenance behaviors exhibited in the daily interpersonal interactions and relate this to the aspect of geographical distance between subjects interacting.

Through embracing maintenance strategy topology, the study identifies the aspects of self disclosure, positivity, and social networking as the assuring factors that promoted effectiveness of CMC modes used across the generational divide (Johnson, Haigh, Becker, Craig, & Wigley, 2008). However, the geographical distance had negligible influence on assurances and social networking through CMC.

Though not as comprehensive as the other articles, the article, Assessing the Measurement Invariance of Relational Maintenance Behavior When Face-to-Face and Online by Andrew Ledbetter examines existing differences in the five identified relational maintenance behavior (RMB) types in different instant messaging and face-to-face communication (Ledbetter, 2010, p. 4).

Specifically, the article borrows heavily from the Relational Maintenance Strategy Measure (RMSM) in statistical analysis of the existing variance in answering the research question. Interestingly, the findings are in line with the RMSM in extrapolating the intrinsic relationship that exist in the interaction of instant messaging, CMC, and relational maintenance.

From the literature review as indicated by the articles, the main factors that affect the success of CMC modes of communication are the aspects of social activeness, age, gender, purpose and relationship between the subjects communicating. Notably, it is apparent that cordial relationships would prefer assurance in use of CMC modes that casual acquaintances.

Besides, gender determines reliability of the users noting that those females are generally more consistent than their male counterparts. Among the younger generation, that is adolescent and teenagers, use of CMC is highly influenced by confidence and social activeness.

As noted in the research by Bryant, Sanders-Jackson, and Smallwood, it is factual that CMC models are likely to be explored more by those teenagers that are not socially interactive. Due to their loneliness, they would rather prefer this mode of communication to the traditional face-to-face communication that requires a lot of confidence in expression.

Therefore, in designing an appropriate CMC model for human communication, it is critical to factor in behavioral patterns noted in the above studies to create practical and reliable communication designs for reaching different gender, age, culture, and exposure.

References

Houser, M., Fleuriet, C., & Estrada, D. (2012). The Cyber Factor: An Analysis of Relational Maintenance Through the Use of Computer-Mediated Communication, Communication Research Reports, 29(1), 3443.

Jackson, A., Bryant, A., & Smallwood, A. (2006). IMing, Text Messaging, and Adolescent Social Networks, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11, 577592.

Johnson, J., Haigh, M., Becker, J., Craig, E., & Wigley, S. (2008). College Students Use of Relational Management Strategies in Email in Long-Distance and Geographically Close Relationships, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 381404.

Ledbetter, A. (2010). Assessing the Measurement Invariance of Relational Maintenance Behavior When Face-to-Face and Online, Communication Research Reports, 27(1), 3037.

Abstract

Saudi Arabian flight 163 left Riyadhs international airport a few minutes before 10.00 pm on August 19, 1980 headed for Jeddah. Around six minutes after takeoff, indicators revealed to the crew that smoke was coming out in the back of the cargo section. In the next four minutes, the crew used the time trying to verify the signals and locating the smoke alert process in the planes instruction manual. It was during this time that the captain resolved to go back to the airport. Even though this happened, the aircraft landed without any problems at Riyadh airport. The crew did not however stop the aircraft for another few minutes and the other engines were not shut down either. It was not until twenty minutes later that the plane engines stopped and the fuselage entered. This led to the death of all the 310 passengers due to inhaling of dangerous fumes from the smoke. This research paper looks at the role of effective training to captain and crew members alike.

Introduction

Saudi Arabian flight 163 left Riyadhs international airport a few minutes before 10.00 pm on August 19, 1980. The aircraft that had 287 passengers and 14 crew members was heading for Jeddah. Around six minutes after takeoff going up to 15, 000 ft, audio and indicators revealed to the crew that smoke was coming out in the back of the cargo section. In the next four minutes, the crew used the time trying to verify the signals and locating the smoke alert process in the planes instruction manual. It was during this time that the captain resolved to go back to the airport. (Kilroy, nd) Engine 2-thrust lever jammed and the crew had to stop it. Even though all these things happened, the aircraft landed without any problems at Riyadh airport. The crew did not however stop the aircraft for another few minutes and the other engines were not shut down either. This did not allow rescue team to enter the plane and to add to this they were not aware of the exit points for the passengers. It was not until twenty minutes later that the plane engines stopped and the fuselage entered. This led to the death of all the 310 passengers due to inhaling of dangerous fumes from the smoke. (Ayers, 1980)

Main Body

The cockpit crews were not able to do their work properly due to lack of experience. It was clear that the first officer had very little knowledge on the L-1011. This is because he did not help the captain on the aircraft or even checking the communication system if they were all right. The second officer was not well equipped either since he took most of his time looking at the aircraft-working manual while at the same time he kept saying there was no problem. They did not also work as a team to evacuate the passengers. This shows lack of knowledge and coordination and thus they were not able to do their work efficiently. (Flight Safe Foundation, 1980)

The captain was not able to bring coordination with his crewmembers to help evacuate the passengers. He did not delegate responsibility as it should have been and this can be attributed to lack of proper training or ignorance. The captain has the final authority but he did not use his position well to allow proper coordination. This shows lack of basic training and information on the part of the pilot. It also shows he was not familiar with aircraft rules that should be followed in case of such an emergency. (Ayers, 1980)

The whole process came down to lack of proper training to all the crewmembers. They did not have effective communication skills that could have helped in such an emergency. There was also lack of coordination and leadership skills on the part of the captain. This is because even when calls for evacuation were made he did not effect it thus, evacuation did not begin. There was also failure by the crew to act fast which is important once there is an emergency. (Sky brary, n.d)

Conclusion

The accident could have been avoided by having effective communication and coordination among the crewmembers. Had they been able to coordinate, they would have acted fast to evacuate the passengers. The crew members should have effective training on how to deal with emergences. Their lack of knowledge caused the death of 301 passengers even though the plane had landed safely. They should have been able to open the exit location fast enough for the passengers to escape. It is important for the concerned institutions to give proper emergency and evacuation training to the crewmembers to avoid such a disaster. The pilot should also be well equipped and able to delegate the necessary duties in case of an emergency. He should be given proper training before receiving a license to fly an aircraft.

References List

Ayers, A. (1980).Saudia 163. Web.

Flight Safe Foundation. (1980). Cockpit voice recorder transcript of the August 19, 1980 fire of a Saudia Lockheed L-1011 TriStar 200 (flight 163) at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Web.

Kilroy, c. (nd). Saudi Arabian flight 163. Web.

Sky brary. (n.d). L101, Saudi Arabian Airlines, Riyadh Saudi Arabia, 1980 (AW HF FIRE). Web.

To date, many communication scholars investigate the concept of communication from the standpoint of the traditions that have considered context as the fundamental component for the most favorable understanding of meaning in any communicative behavior (Romero-Trillo & Maguire, 2011). The present paper illuminates contexts that give any instance of communication its meaning.

The term context has been defined by Bosco et al (2004) as &a series of factors that contribute to reconstructing the meaning intended by a speaker in a communicative exchange (p. 467).

A thread of extant literature (e.g., Berger 2005; Hargie, 2010 ) demonstrates that the core of any communicative behavior is shared meanings between people as we dont merely exchange words when we communicate; rather, we always endeavor to comprehend what each others words and behaviors stand for , represent, or imply.

Following this description, Bosco et al (2004) argue that known contextual factors come into play to assist individuals in a communicative exchange to reconstruct meaning.

The first contextual factor that will be discussed is pattern. Available literature demonstrates that for people to be able to share meaning in any communicative exchange, their communication must reveal a pattern that is grounded on elements that are recognizable, repetitive and repeatable (Romero-Trillo & Maguire, 2011).

The patterns of communicative exchange that people are used to, and that they share with others in their social interactions, facilitate them to behave in new but related ways, and to comprehensively understand new forms of behavior (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1989). A patterned behavior such as a communicative instance, according to this particular author, implies that it is not only guided by rules and principles, but is predictable, observable, and analyzable.

In an expressive act do you like wine? posed by one woman to her boyfriend, for example, the boyfriend may be guided by the contextual factor of pattern to respond differentially depending on how he understands his girlfriends communicative intention. If the couple has been engaging in drinking, the boyfriend may respond Yes, please.

However, if the couple has just met, the boyfriend may respond I have a tumbler of wine with every meal. This example serves to demonstrate how communication is behavior with a pattern as it shows the ordered forms of responses that can be given by the boyfriend depending on the shared meaning of the communicative exchange.

The second contextual factor is organization, which denotes that there exist standardized and known ways of doing things that people engaged in interpersonal communication must follow every time they wish to communicate if they expect to realize the meaning of their communication (Berger, 2005).

Organization, according to Hargie (2010), brings order into the communication process, thus is instrumental in ensuring agents in a communicative instance benefit from the internalization of meaning. A simple example is that it would be practically impossible for a native Chinese with no formal training in English to communicate with an Englishman with no formal training in the Chinese language.

This example demonstrates that the Englishman and the Chinese must follow standardized and known ways (train in each others language) if they wish to communicate.

The third contextual factor deals with rules. It is clear that every instance of communication is guided by rules, although people learn to interact with others communicatively without necessarily being able to state the rules or principles that guide their interaction (Romero-Trillo & Maguire, 2011).

This implies that the rules and principles that guide our communication with others operate below our level of consciousness as they are not always subject to conscious intent (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1989). This particular author introduces the concept of practical consciousness, which implies the knowledge of how individuals communicate with others appropriately using the rules that they know but which they are not supposed to verbalize in the practical sense.

Leeds-Hurwitz (1989) also introduces the concept of tacit knowledge to demonstrate how a lot of our knowledge of communicative interaction is 1) unspoken during the communication process, 2) hidden from the communicators awareness, and 3) kept in the background as people interact and communicate.

In my interactions with friends (see appendix for transcript), I overheard one ardent football fan telling her male friend that the Pensioners would win the match by three goals. The male colleague refuted this claim and said the Citizens would win the match by a two-goal margin. Although we shared the same table, I could not participate in the discussion since all I knew was that the match involved Chelsea and Manchester City football clubs.

However, the two ardent football fans were able to communicate and identify meaning as they shared some rules which guided their communication but they were not under any obligation to express these rules; that is, give them direct discursive expression (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1989).

The last contextual factor relates to the observable nature of communicative interaction, which holds that individuals can learn to observe social action  deliberately and closely  with the view to describe the underlying patterns (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1989). To a large extent, this factor relates to the non-communication cues formed by people when they are engaged in communication.

Indeed, extant literature demonstrates that behavior can be observed as it naturally occurs in the everyday world and in real-life situations (Romero-Trillo & Maguire, 2011). When patronizing a bar, for example, a person can observe the non-verbal cues of most women patrons to describe underlying patterns of behavior even without necessarily communicating with the subjects.

Some movements and body positions, sustained eye contact, sexy facial expression and telling body language, for instance, are enough observational characteristics to communicate to a male patron that he might be dealing with a sex worker.

References

Berger, C.R. (2005). Interpersonal communication: Theoretical perspectives, future prospects. Journal of Communication, 55(5), 415-447.

Bosco, F.M., Bucciarelli, M., & Bara, B.G. (2004). The fundamental context categories in understanding communicative intention. Journal of Pragmatics, 36(3), 467-488.

Hargie, O. (2010). Skilled interpersonal communication: Research, theory and practice. Oxford: Taylor & Francis.

Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1989). Communication in everyday life: A social interpretation. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Romero-Trillo, J., & Maguire, L. (2011). Adaptive context: The fourth element of meaning. International Review of Pragmatics, 3(2), 228-241.

Introduction

Since time immemorial, the need to convey messages has been an integral part of human life. Today, communication is almost a basic necessity. Communication, which is the transmission of messages, takes different methods. Throughout the ages, the methods of communication have continuously evolved.

This communication evolution has moved from the early development of language and symbols to the present day use of advanced computer technology. The use of computer and internet forms the basis of data communication, which refers to transmitting digital messages.

These digital messages that thereafter received by other electronic devices called receivers. According to Blanchard (2007), the amazing development brought about by todays use of data communication and networking is the enormous distances, short time period and accuracy in which messages are sent.

Communication network is concerned with connectivity of the computers, in order to enable sharing of data between the communicating parties. Such communication networks include the Local Area Network (LAN) for short distances and Wide Area Network (WAN) for long distances.

With the ever evolving and advancement of technology in communication networks, focus has now shifted to fine tuning the accuracy of transmission and security of the message being transferred.

The challenge here is brought about by the increasing need to convey data to distant places and to multiple destinations, which technologically results to distortion of messages as well as exposing the message to possible disclosure to unintended persons. Data communication has therefore, hugely eased message transmission.

In addition, data communication has continued to advance, while adhering to the rule of increasing the rate of data transmission with the least possible data interference and guaranteed data security (Strangio, 2012).

References

Blanchard, E. (2007). Introduction to data communications. Calgary, AB: Southern Alberta Institute of Technology.

Strangio, C. (2012). Data communication Basics. Introduction to Digital Transfer, 55, 3-7.

Introduction

Communication is an integral process in a legal institution. It is a process by which information is relayed from one link to another. It bonds two separate entities. In law, communication may link the prosecution and the defense, the jury and the prosecution and the jury and the judge.

Verbal communication refers to the use of spoken words. It employs the word of mouth and can also be called oral or interpersonal communication because it enhances interaction of various people in a particular setting. Forms of oral communication in law may include meetings , discussions, interviews, interrogations, report writing and statement writing.

Non-verbal communication, on the other hand, is a method in which information is transferred by using wordless cues. It represents what is not uttered orally. In law, information is exchanged between the defense and prosecution without the use of spoken words.

This channel is crucial and legal experts prefer it. It involves the use of gestures, body language, eye contact or facial expressions. This form of communication can be deceptive and only an experienced panel of language experts can detect it.

The police

A good law enforcing agency like the police is accredited by how reliable it is to the public. The competence of a police agency is defined by its ability to carry out its mandate without fear or favor.

It is expected to uphold justice at all times. Both verbal and non-verbal communication play an important role in a public setting. Certain people are better public speakers than others and therefore qualify as professionals. They are given first priority in the art of communication.

Professionals in the police force gain expertise based on their experience in writing reports. Assessment and evaluation of performance equip them with essentials for growth in the writing domain and in relation to law. Writing in this case involves reports and statements involving victims and suspects of crime. Professionalism inspires leadership and respect in the police force.

Most of the police agencies use language to impress, convince, persuade, motivate or inform on a particular aspect. Certain police spoke persons are known to have the special ability to create a convincing argument. This fact may mean that professionals may be wrong or deceptive and it may be difficult to make out their real message during communication.

Eloquence is a quality that certain police professionals exploit to earn their living. The press in the police agencies should structure its use of language in order to address specific targets and to also create the intended reactions from their recipients. The press should therefore adhere to structural guidelines when disseminating information to the public.

This idea prevents careless issuance of information to the public. Verbal communication is an effective tool for the police since it basically describes the power of authority. The police are able to ensure that the law is enforced and abided by. However, verbal communication can be affected when information gaps arise exposing the state to severe damage of property and life.

Misreporting of events by police communication organs can cause tension in the public and feelings of insecurity. Non-verbal communication is also applied in the verbal world and it is referred to as paralanguage and this includes interaction and stress. Paralanguage is crucial when it comes to dealing with witnesses of crimes, interviewing of suspects and writing of reports.

Non- verbal communications represent two thirds of all communication. Written texts also contain non-verbal components like writing style, word arrangement and page layouts. The three components are expressed in reports and statements. It is only when the body language matches the verbal communication that it becomes convincing and appealing at the same time.

Courtroom settings

A court is a key institution as far as justice and law are concerned. The court cannot work without the involvement of the police. The information collected by the police is usually relayed to the court to be used during court sessions. Report writing can be fundamental especially when insufficient evidence exists against a suspect. Reports can expose vital facts and have the power to facilitate justice.

The information featured on reports ensures the guilty is punished and the guiltless is vindicated. The judiciary enforces methodological approaches to achieve its goals. The judiciary has always employed the use of communication experts like detectives who, in turn, use their skills to harness details that can help the judges to make accurate and wise decisions.

Verbal and non-verbal communication ensure proper management of information between the civic system and the citizens. The use of gestures and exchange of notes is a common practice within court settings. The use of sign language aids is important in courtroom settings. The aids are commonly referred to as language interpreters who mostly assist the deaf to understand the proceedings of the court.

Proper legislation measures should be adopted to avoid commission of mistakes by all stakeholders in a courtroom context. Courts should create innovative ways of improving communication in order to enhance public confidence in them.

Correction facilities

Correction facilities employ effective communication channels to ensure that the rights of the accused are upheld. Proper communication mechanisms within the facilities ensure that disputes and complaints arising within the facilities are dealt with decisively. Communication within the facilities generates an atmosphere that may be conducive or improper depending on the type of information that is exchanged.

Good verbal and non-verbal communication between the employees in correction centers inspire confidence and uniformity among them when they are performing their duties. However, good communication between peers or inmates may inspire solidarity which can also be used destructively especially by inmates.

Rules that govern language use whether spoken or unspoken must be adhered to by all parties in the communication cycle. The cooperation of the language users enhances tolerance and respect for communication structures which also helps the victims to understand their rights (Wallace & Robinson, 2009).

It is important to acquire knowledge on legal issues governing correction bodies. The workers in correction facilities have an obligation of employing legal knowledge accurately and effectively in order to promote good communication in the centers.

Juvenile facilities

In juvenile centers, non-verbal communication is vital. Employees in the juvenile institutions just like in the correctional facilities should inspire confidence in the youth when communicating. Their words and body language should demonstrate authority and order (Barnlund, 2008).

Without authority, the law cannot be followed. Any juvenile facility would encounter administrative challenges due to the rebelliousness of the youth in it. Juveniles need to be given directions, counseled and well governed. Educated and informed juveniles embrace change and uphold it among themselves.

References

Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory 2nd ed. New Jersey, USA: Upper Saddle River.

Wallace, H., & Robinson, C. (2009). Written and interpersonal communication methods for law enforcement (4^th Ed). New Jersey, USA: Upper Saddle River- Pearson Prentice Hall.

Introduction

Demonstrative (nonverbal) language refers to the practice of communicating by means of wordless signals (Hargie, 2012). This form of communication comprises all non-worded messages that are employed in everyday communication.

When communicating orally these non-worded messages are conveyed through accentuation, tonal variation, pauses during speech, the posture of the body during conversation, gestures, and changes in facial expressions. Nonverbal messages play a significant part in our day-to-day communication and makes up more than 90 percent of our total communication.

Therefore, effective communication demands that one understands the different signals applied in nonverbal communication and the different ways of decoding these signals. This paper looks at the various forms of nonverbal communication as well as their effectiveness to the sender as well as to the receiver.

Various Forms of Nonverbal Communication

From the time a child is born, he uses signs like crying to pass messages. Most people attach meaning to body gesture and nonverbal signals depending on their social conditioning. The following section looks at some of the commonly used forms of nonverbal communication.

Body Posture

This refers to the orientation of the narrators body. The posture of the body should not be confused with body gesture. Unlike gestures that change considerably during conversation, posture is a steady state. The positioning of the body is often meant to serve a certain objective. It can also be due to the expectations in a certain setting.

For example, the body posture expected in a classroom or office is different from the posture at home or in a social gathering. Certain postures such as leaning or slumping denote relaxation and ease. However, such postures can send a negative signal of the speakers attitude about the topic. The listeners posture is also important as it reflects his attentiveness or feelings towards the issue being discussed.

Intonation

Intonation refers to alterations in a persons voice during speech. It is through intonation that we establish whether a person is asking a question or making a statement. In case the sender asks a question, the pitch is raised at the end of the sentence.

However, the tone usually falls towards the end of the sentence if the sender makes a statement. Intonation can also be used to indicate punctuation in speech such as commas and exclamation marks. Intonation also aids in putting emphasis on certain words that the listener is supposed to observe.

Tone of Voice

The voice tone should not be confused with intonation. The tone of voice refers to the way the speakers attitude about the issue being discussed is reflected in speech. It is the speakers way of seeking a response from the listener.

The tone of the voice varies considerably based on the place of discussion as well as the topic being discussed. In a heated debate, for example, the tone is often upbeat while when reporting facts on a weather channel, the tone is factual and plain. Other scenarios may witness varying degrees of change in voice tones such as hostile, critical, friendly or excited.

Body Gestures

These are actions made using parts of the body like the hands or the head to stress, denote, approve, state, or support an orators message or attitude. It usually accompanies oral communication, but can also be used when talking to a deaf person.

Body acts that do not require verbal supplement are usually referred to as emblems. For instance, high five or waving when saying goodbye contains explicit meaning on its own without the addition of verbal messages.

Facial Expressions and other Forms of Nonverbal Communication

Facial expressions are a good way of telling the emotions of the speaker or the receiver about a certain issue since the face is often seen as the main source of sensations. The expressions vary considerably throughout the interaction and can transition from a smile to a frown or sneer based on the senders emotions on the topic.

Other forms of nonverbal communication include long or short pauses in the middle of a conversation. Such pauses have significant impact on the communication process depending on their timing and length.

The Impact of Nonverbal Communication

Not only is nonverbal communication important in a face-to-face communication setting, but it also plays a significant role in mediated scenarios such as interpretations where the listener cannot visualize the speaker (Thompson, 2002).

For instance, using the wrong tone can send the wrong message to the receiver and can distort the intended meaning. The sender must, therefore, understand the meaning of what he wishes to pass on and the context of the conversation to avoid such misunderstanding.

The main challenge of nonverbal communication lies in the interpretation or misinterpretation of certain signals. Signals are construed differently based on ones culture and socialization. Another problem arises when the receiver does not understand the context of the message.

For instance, a formal message delivered in an informal or friendly tone may not be taken seriously. Gestures can also be misinterpreted. The interpretation of such a message by the listener is also vital to the way he understands the message.

Conclusion

Since culture plays a vital role in the interpretation of nonverbal messages, it is important for the receiver to understand the culture of those around him and take nonverbal cues in their cultural context. This is because some messages mean different things when taken outside their cultural context. The sender must also try to ensure that he does not send the wrong signal especially in professional settings such as during interviews.

References

Hargie, O. (2012). The handbook of communication skills. New York: Routledge.

Thompson, S. (2002). Communicate in the workplace. Sydney, Australia: Max Johnson.

The internet has enabled people to communicate in a more timely and efficient way. It has changed the way people conduct their personal and business activities, thus changing nearly every aspect of life. Internet communication tools include websites, e-mails, forums, chats, and streams (Fenell, 2010). The following are some of the terms used in online communication tools:

User ID: a distinctive combination of characters, like letters or numbers which users accessing their accounts are required to provide for identification. Many users prefer to use their first and last names for identification. A user named Mike Cooper might select M Cooper as his user ID.

Host name: this is an identifier for devices communicating over the internet. Host names are essentials in emails or usenet for identifying devices (computers). Host names can be straightforward names having one word or phrase, or have complicated names with Domain Name System (DNS) identifier.

Snail mail: known as paper mail, snail mail refers to the traditional physical mails that take longer time to reach the recipients as compared to e-mails.

E-mail client: this is a computer application that helps users to organize their e-mail since it can access the mailbox. Apple mail and Mozilla are examples.

POP (Post Office Protocol): is a standard used by users to efficiently access or receive e-mails from a distant server within a TCP/IP network.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): is a standard used by mail servers, user-level clients, and mail transfer agents in sending and receiving e-mails over IP networks.

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): is a flexible standard that enables an email client to retrieve e-mail from a distant mail server. It has rich functionality as compared to POP, since users can track the status of mails and access many mails simultaneously (Shelly, Napier, & Rivers, 2009).

To line: it consists of the email addresses of those people who are required to receive the message and act upon it.

Cc line: Cc is carbon copy. This line denotes the people who should receive the copy of the message without necessarily responding to it.

Courtesy copy: is a business e-mail term used to notify stakeholders about the message being conveyed within the business. They are not supposed to respond but they should be aware of the message. It is also known as Cc.

Bcc line: Bcc is blind carbon copy. This line specifies the email addresses that receive the copy of the message but such addresses are hidden from the recipients.

Blind courtesy copy: It is a term used in business environments to refer to Bcc. The receivers of the message are unable to know the people who are blind carbon copied.

Subject line: shows the topic of the message that enable the receiver to know the exact content of the message.

Attach line: is where users can click and select the files to send with the e-mail.

Attachment: files that are transmitted together with the e-mail.

Message body: it is the full explanation of the subject matter, normally includes a request for action and time frame for the action.

Signature file: a short text file placed at the end of e-mail messages for identification. The file might contain name and address of the sender.

Message header: it shows the path that a message used as it passed mail servers. It is normally used for tracking and monitoring purposes.

HTML-formatted message: a message that is constructed using hypertext markup language tags. Web mails such as Gmail support HTML formatted messages.

Flaming: this is an unfriendly and abusive interaction between e-mail or chat users. People who introduce such conversations are known as flamers.

Emoticon: this is a facial appearance that is depicted through punctuation and letters, normally to enable users express their feelings in writing messages (Stair & Reynolds, 2006).

The above terms are the basics of an online communication tool. E-mail is one of the most popular online communication tools due to various reasons. First, e-mail allows people to send messages without any postage expenses, making it easy to communicate. Second, business information or messages can be conveyed in real-time because e-mail is faster than traditional physical mails. Third, e-mail enables businesses to generate immediate response to customer registration and online purchasing activities.

This can be done through links that give clients an opportunity to access business offerings. Fourth, e-mail is used as a target market tool. Companies can separate lists into categories so their e-mails go to the anticipated customers. Fifth, e-mail expands the awareness of business products and services through the forwarding capability that enable users to send messages to others. Lastly, e-mails acts as storage tools for vital information about individuals (Shelly et al., 2009). Attachments can be retrieved easily at any time even if the original file was corrupted by computer virus or accidentally lost. Therefore, organizations see e-mail as an indispensable business communication tool.

References

Fenell, Z. (2010). Internet based Communication Tools. Web.

Shelly, G.B., Napier, H.A, & Rivers, O. (2009). Discovering the Internet: Complete Concepts and Techniques. 3rd Ed. Boston: Cengage Learning, Inc.

Stair, R.M., & Reynolds, G. W. (2006). Fundamentals of information systems. (3rd Ed.). Boston: Thompson Course Technology.

For as long as there have been two different genders, there was a difference in communication styles between men and women. It was evident before and later, when women began fighting for equality rights and fair treatment. Verbal and non-verbal differences in communication lead to prejudice and partially, it comes from the fact that men and women are different not only biologically but mentally as well.

Charles Greenwood mentioned that even looking at The Early Communication Indicator (ECI), children of very young age have particular communication styles, ranging from gestures to vocalizations and utterances (Greenwood et al., 2013). As a result, the unique nature of each particular style of communication comes from biological and social or environmental factors.

Women would communicate both verbally and non-verbally in a way, which the modern society describes, as feminine. This is due to the influences of male preferences and social roles. Since birth, both boys and girls are conditioned to behave in a certain way, which is representative of their role in society and family.

Girls are taught to be more sensitive and rely on their feelings while boys are given lessons in masculinity. The society expects a certain style from each gender and thus, the separation in professional and leisure-time communication has been created (Ashford & LeCroy, 2010).

Communication styles can be qualified as instrumental and expressive since each one is specific to males and females. Men are more focused on finding out the neutral and clear cut facts about something, which leads them to being more direct and assertive.

There is a much greater reliance on logic and the instrumental nature of things. As such, males are interested in how something can be used practically and in an application to the physical factors. One piece of knowledge or information usually, leads to another, thus creating a thinking chain. Women use a much different technique in communicating, as it stems from better insight into the matter of things.

Because women were segregated for such a long time and prevented from taking up higher and more prominent positions, they have developed a unique method of communicating in reaching their goal. Women tend to center on the person, deeper insight into the context and personality of the speaker and the general situation.

This allows for better qualitative analysis of information, linking it to the individual presenting the facts. Their communication is more personal, and is directed to the emotional side of the person.

Of course, it would be unwise to conclude that all men and women exhibit these qualities, as there are women who want to have all the authority and men who have profound insight, but the standard for the majority is upheld by existing evidence. It is interesting to note that professionally, there is a difference as well.

Desjarlais-deKlerk and Wallace write that healthcare professionals use unique set of communication skills to attend to a particular gender and person. Especially in rural areas, medical staff is well aware of the families, their cases and so, the communication style adjusts on a more personal level.

This type of communication decreases anxiety and develops trust (Desjarlais-deKlerk & Wallace, 2013). This can clearly be aligned to womens communication style, as they develop a more individual understanding towards a person, thus connecting on a closer and more effective level. At the same time, it is difficult to say which style is the best because every individual has their unique technique in the interaction with other people.

But the modern times have made gender differences less noticeable with men being great negotiators and women strong fighters. This is much noticeable in the relationships that exist today. Sexual communication has stayed very much prevalent for centuries.

One of the oldest gender constructions came from the functioning of the family. This is where conflict might arise, as women were taught to have a role of homeowners, raising children and teaching children how to be more sensitive to the surrounding environment. Men were hunters and centered their life on providing for the family, so strength and calculation would be something a father would teach his children.

Even though the world has greatly changed, the separation is still noticeable through social and private roles in communication. Each gender has their own way of communicating in a relationship or family, and the goals or expectancies each individual has are also unique.

The majority of positions of power are still held by men, thus the communication style tends to be authoritative, depriving women of a chance to demonstrate their strengths. Women are forced to communicate in a non-demanding way, allowing the man to be in charge.

Often, the conflict stems from inability to understand the meaning behind the communication, as each gender bases communication on own understanding of others and the environment. As a result, each person uses their own style, and it becomes difficult to align to the thought process and emotions of the other person (Krolokke, 2006).

References

Ashford, J. & LeCroy, C. (2010). Human behavior in the social environment: a multidimensional perspective (4th ed.). Belmont: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Desjarlais-deKlerk, K, & Wallace, J. (2013). Instrumental and socioemotional communications in doctor-patient interactions in urban and rural clinics. BMC Health Services Research 13(1), 261-268.

Greenwood, C., Walker, D., Buzhardt, J., Howard, W., McCune, L., & Anderson, R. (2013). Evidence of a continuum in foundational expressive communication skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(3), 540-554.

Krolokke, C. (2006). Gender Communication Theories and Analyses: From Silence to Performance. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.

Abstract

Human-computer interaction is about the connection between systems and the people that use them concerning their place of use. This paper seeks to look into a system that has been introduced into society but failed due to a bad implementation of the human-computer interaction process. As a case for this paper, it will dwell much on iPhone 4, its introduction, and the matters that have led to the much criticism it has fetched about the human-computer interaction systems.

Problem background

Any system is always led by huge expectations before its introduction into the market. This is an issue that results from various advertisements and other marketing strategies (Card, 1983). The iphone4 was long anticipated to be a hit in the market though it came up with much negative feedback from its users who categorized it as a flop. The main reason for this negative outlook was the design factors that made the phone users encounter some problems in usage and handling, calling call dropping, branded features among other factors as they will be discussed in the paper.

HCI vs. iphone4

Human-computer interaction falls into various categories which can be classified as technological and cognitive features, in the technology part, the design of the software and the hardware are some of the crucial factors to be considered. At the same time, it has the cognitive function which is more on how knowledge is passed by the machine to the user. In this field, the focus is on how people and machines interact and in the end, the person gets what he required from the machine. As the person is interacting with the gadgets or the computers, he should be favored by the design in that the system should be in such a way that it supports human usability.

It should also be clear that the system should be in such a way that the person using it should have easy access to information. This means that the computer system or the gadget under discussion should be designed in such a way that it should aid the person in the access of information (Moggridge, 2007). This can be through normal information retrieval procedures like browsing the internet.

Iphone4, upon its release, got a lot of criticism in various fields. In such a short while after acquiring the phone, many people started complaining of the poor reception that the phone had and that it dropped calls. In many common phone designs today, the reception of the network depends upon the placement of the antenna. In this particular phone, the antenna had been dedicated to one part thus was always blocked once a person tried to make or receive a call which resulted in interrupted reception. This has also been seen to have the extra risk of increasing the closeness of radiation to the body as the phone tries to communicate with the network masts.

This is a very serious flaw in the design of the phone which does not take care of the security of the user. The user context is one of the core HCI components and thus the design failure was a poor consideration of the HCI design.

The name of the phone, the iphone4, implies that it is a 4th generation phone while in an actual sense, it is a 3rd generation gadget (3G). This means that it cannot use wireless standards which use 4G. In the HCI components core structure, the particular computer system comes in. while buying this phone, people would have been duped into believing that it was a 4th generation gadget that they were buying whilst they were buying a gadget that would only operate on 3rd generation networks. This is a serious design and software flaw that again goes against the HCI considerations.

The phone was meant to be designed in such a way that the stainless steel band around it would improve wifi. This proved not to be the case since during the testing of the product; the wifi connection was not working very well. For a person to get a good connection, it is almost a requirement that there is a wireless router nearby otherwise the connection will be bad. Looking again at the core components of good HCI design is a consideration of the environment in which the computer system is to be used. The environment has to be favorable to the user particularly for the intentions that the system was made for (Saffer, 2006).

A mobile phone has features that enable any particular user to use the gadget irrespective of his or her location including while in transit. The iPhone was integrated with the wifi feature as part of the whole system but not on conditions that some other devices were to be nearby. It hence follows that the understated performance of the wifi is a gross inconsistency with the considerations of a good HCI system. The main deterrent of a proper HCI conducive environment was the questionable environment question (Dawes, 2007).

The design of the phone was aimed at making it a slim product that was easy to handle. The thin nature of the phone has a shape that makes it so easy to slip out a users hand. Looking at the essence of slimness, there is a stylish behavior that comes with it. The nature of the phone to easily slip out of the hands and fall and the other factor in design where the phone is made of glass makes people worry much.

The glass cover on the phone was designed to be three times stronger than plastic but on testing, it cracked almost entirely on being dropped four times. This then makes the phone users buy an extra protective case to make sure that it gets protection upon slipping. Looking at both cases, the design of the phone beats the slimness logic as the users cannot use it in that condition comfortably. The HCI component of the computer system at hand is then surpassed and also the component of usability.

Lastly on the design issues, the phone designers did not consider the information age of the users. Most of the users of the phone buy it considering the internet connectivity and searching of the required material over the net. Considering this matter, the phone was integrated with the Bing search engine whilst most of the users are conversant with Google. This was an outright in consideration of the users of the phone beating the components of good HCI design

Principals of good HCI design left out

In Human-Computer Interaction, there is a basic goal of improving the interactions between human beings and computer systems. In the long run, the field aims at reducing the barriers that do exist between human beings and machines. Professionals in this field have had a gross consideration of the effects in both the user interfaces in graphics and also the web. When a system has been designed such that this is not put into consideration or even after being put into consideration is somehow not fulfilled, then this system will have failed in the implementation of the HCI techniques (Jones & Marsden, 2006).

The analysis of Apples iphone4 has shown that most of the key components of HCI were closely related to the huge public outcry of the phone buyers in a negative way. This is clear evidence that the failure of the gadget to hit the market as was calculated was due to the failure in the implementation of the HCI design components.

Conclusion

The case of the launch of the iphone4 into the market is a good indicator of a system that has failed to a bad design of the human-computer interaction. The four core functionalities which were the major causes are the user, the task, context, and the particular system (Myers, 1998). The user was the iPhone buyer who did not get the product that he was eyeing. The task is using the phone through calling, web browsing, and other tasks which had failures in most cases. The environmental context was affected through the probability of breakage through falling and environmental cases. The particular system was the phone itself which has been seen to have quite a lot of problems.

References

Card, S. (1983) The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. Erlbaum, Hillsdale.

Dawes, B. (2007) Analog in, digital out: Brendan Dawes on interaction design Behaviour & Information Technology 3: 25-76.

Jones, M. & Marsden, G. (2006). Mobile Interaction Design International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 7(1): 123-135.

Moggridge, B (2007) Designing Interactions ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction3 (2): 78-98.

Myers, B (1998) A brief history of human-computer interaction technology. Interactions 5(2):4454.

Saffer, D. (2006) Designing for Interaction Human-Computer Interaction 23-65.

Communication in a group or in mass of people depends on the means of communication or in short model of communication used. Group is smaller than mass of people and communicating will be easier than in mass. Hence there will be a great need of networking to relay the information faster and more effectively. Mostly interpersonal communication is most reliable for quality communication.

Interpersonal communication is generally between two people achieved by creating a relationship that could either be long-term or short-term. At times its also referred to as dyad communication. This type of communication can be explained using schramms model of communication whereby communication is a two way process. There is an encoder through an interpreter to a decoder who relay message to a decoder through an interpreters help to an encoder. Both the sender and the receiver play the role of communicator and receiver.

Encoding is the process by which the sender puts an idea that is relevant and understandable, which is sent through a medium for instance a telephone. Interpreting involves understanding the message being conveyed and also being able to reply the relevant answer to the communicator.

For easier interpretation the sender must use a code that is standard and recognized by everyone, most especially, the receiver of the message. Decoding is the process of receiving, interpreting and understanding the message, in this case both the sender and receiver.

Group communication, on the other hand, involves a few people who share information, solve problems and create relationships. It involves group norms, non-formal groups and informal groups. This type of communication could also be said to be a two-way communication process using schramms model of communication.

Group norms are believes or cultural practices by a particular group who associate themselves with the facts that enable them to communicate and solve problems together. The other form of group is termed as a formal group. This kind of group maybe described as people who work together hence have a common problem they share and are able to associate with.

Lastly, there is an informal group of people who meet for the first time and may have a common problem or course that brings them together, thus they look forward to forming a relationship. This kind of group may grow to form grouping over a period of time.

The most important thing to consider when forming a group is to identify a problem. The group then moves to the next step to formulate means of solving the problem through consultation and finally making a common decision. The group must have a leader who will direct the discussion and avoid time wasting.

When choosing a leader in a group, there are certain factors to consider. This is either an authoritarian person or a democratic person. An authoritarian does not consult whatsoever. He believes he/she always right and no one can be smarter than him/her. On the other hand, a democrat participates in the group discussion and encourages everyone to contribute. He offers guidance to the group, throughout its sitting. Therefore, a good leader should be a democratic one. (Tuckman 44)

A good leader will take control from the storming, norming, and performing stages. These maybe termed as group dynamics including forming stage as well. The most effective stage of the group is the performing stage. It is at this stage that the group reaches maturity to perform its task.

Most importantly, consensus must be built which enables eradicate waste of time through arguing and settling for a weak idea to avoid conflict, among other reasons. However, differing in opinions in a group is very crucial as much as initial agreements are detrimental to the quality of the decisions made. Therefore, there should be an instance of voting, bargaining and more so revisiting the initial agreements.

There are two major problems to look out for in a group. These are group-minds and group-think. Group-think pressurizes the member to conformity, which in my own opinion is wrong. Other setbacks in group setup are absenteeism, lateness, non-contributing members, pessimism, domineering members who do not give others a chance to contribute, unwise individuals whose contribution is out of topic or weak academically, interrupting individuals who keep chatting when someone is talking, or members who are simply not interested.

Otherwise, these setbacks should not be allowed to drag the groups work behind. Therefore, when forming a group, look for members who are academically equipped and individuals who are professional in developing consensus in the topic of discussion. Other than choosing the academicians and professionals, the individual member can make a decision to fit in the group.

This will help the group to achieve its success effectively. In additional, the issue of feeling guilt when a member goes against certain behavior or ideas of other people forcefully should be handled with a lot of caution. This is because I believe that feeling of guilt does not qualify a members point as wrong or irrelevant. However that does not mean that the member should agree to every idea put across. They should have a mind of their own and object when needed in wisely

There are different ways in which a group can conduct. One is going out into the field gather information and coming back to the table and discuss every members finding.

The other avenue is watching a video, a presentation, journal which relates to the issue at hand. This should be followed by discussion and coming up with conclusions. Lastly, the group members can just come up with a topic and discuss it from their individual point of view as per their understanding. (McLuhan 23)

Group communication has been eased by the modern technologies like phones, video cameras, recorders and computers. The establishment of television and radios has also greatly contributed to effective group communication.

For example, when different members of a group are located at different locations, the members can choose a suitable means of media to involve each member at the current location without travelling. In my own experience, I have seen my group members discuss the conduct of a member through Skype video and each member contributed their views effectively.

Group communication has also been credited for good and bad political situation a given society. I therefore believe a well organized group communication using media is the most effective and the most reliable mode of communication. The speed of information transfer to the target group is supper good.

Works Cited

McLuhan Marshall. Understanding Media. Global Village Thesis, 1964

Tuckman Bruce. Group Communication, 1965.