Category: Communication

Introduction

Social media has generated new approaches to communication for people across the globe hence resulting in tremendous effects on their daily lives. For example, social media has brought individuals with similar interests together and widened the horizons of sharing ideas and knowledge across the globe. This has brought about both negative and positive effects on human behavior and society. Some of the numerous communication benefits of social media include breaking down worldwide boundaries and cultural hindrances (Akram and Kumar 347-349). Nevertheless, it has promoted a fake sense of online correlations and valueless friendships resulting in psychological and emotional problems. Social media communication may also become easily addictive hence interfering with personal and family time over and above weakening interpersonal skills, which causes increased antisocial behavior. There is a need to curb the negative effects of social media on communication behaviors to prevent them from robbing the trust and confidence that people had in one another or substituting human fellowship and emotional support with virtual ties.

Main body

Social media has caused negative effects on communication behavior such as eliciting a false feeling of connections and friendships. It has become a trendy medium for repeated discussions and created room for a continued rehashing of conversations regarding the arising problems (Akram and Kumar 349-354). This makes people become obsessed over the shared issues, which are mainly minor problems, such as self-consciousness of appearance, worries concerning peer reception, and feelings that love is not reciprocated. As a result, face-to-face relationships that are vital for advancements of interpersonal skills, communication, and social skills have been cut off from peoples lives, particularly younger generations. The effect of this is that children and adolescents are experiencing challenges interacting with one another, which may trigger unsociable behavior.

Negative effects of interpersonal and social skills have made people unhappy with their current situations hence evoking problems of depression and poor self-esteem. When a person shares a problem on social media, it attracts both negative and positive comments, which create a buildup of obsession and anxiety (Siddiqui and Singh 71-72). This is worsened by the fact that once something is posted on social media, it becomes difficult to take it back since even if it is deleted, it may still exist elsewhere on the platform as another person may have taken its screenshot and reposted it. Such occurrences subject the person who initially shared to heightened anxiety and depression.

Social media is being used as a platform for the perpetuation of hearsay and negativity hence causing an increase in violent behaviors in society. Studies have established that most violent games on social media contribute to a rise in hostile behaviors and inclinations, mainly in children. The increasing rumors of kidnappers over Facebook and WhatsApp have resulted in the deaths of innocent individuals in different parts of the world (Siddiqui and Singh 73-75). Moreover, with social media, it is almost impossible to evade bad news and negative impact on peoples lives. In the majority of occurrences, it has contributed to lasting psychological consequences. Negative effects of social media on communication behaviors are generating thoughts of the world disintegrating, nervousness, and depression.

Attributable to the possibility of promoting lies on social media; some people have increasingly been attacking and hurting others in several ways. Furthermore, criminals have devised means of taking advantage of social media communication where they conceal their identity or engage in impersonation and practice illegal activities such as cyberbullying, terrorism, drug dealing, and human trafficking to mention a few. Such criminal activities have negatively affected the lives of innocent social media users in different ways (Akram and Kumar 348-350). For example, victimization and bullying have been linked to a rising risk of suicide, in addition to mental health disorders. To prevent such negative effects, sharing of hostile messages on social media should be criminated. Countries around the world are increasingly regulating the usage of social media by such practices as passing laws against cyberbullying to protect the victims.

Despite the numerous negative effects, communication on social media has had positive influences such as bringing people together, allowing easy sharing of knowledge and promoting education. About 90% of university and college students around the world use social media platforms. To promote education and other positive uses, students should be enlightened on the proper application of social networks (Siddiqui and Singh 71-73). For example, social media has improved the quality and level of collaboration among students and teachers by allowing them to communicate without difficulty and share information promptly. It has also encouraged students to write posts that facilitate their knowledge skills. Additionally, some teachers are conducting online assessments through social media platforms, which is a beneficial approach to enhancing the learners knowledge.

The positive application of social media has made clients collaborate and link up with businesses on a more personal level through different networking sites. Companies and organization across the globe are increasingly promoting their businesses and operations through social media platforms. Social media has also increased creativity in peoples thinking by enabling them to share their opinions easily and work with one another. This allows people to explore and be actively engaged without the dread of rejection irrespective of their religion or nationality. This has created a situation where a person can connect with anyone and learn from them or share ones thoughts and views (Akram and Kumar 347-349). Although spending many hours in social media gaming cannot be advocated, such games promote social connections, boost ones self-efficacy, enhance cognitive flexibility, and promote self-control. Furthermore, they teach people proper ways of dealing with failure and accomplishment in life. Connection with family members, friends, security agencies, and some government officials on social media has made people feel safe as they visit different destinations. Social media platforms have also made it easy for people to find jobs in their profession and fields of interest hence reducing crime that rises with increased unemployment.

Conclusion

The daily application of social media has risen so greatly that it is gradually creating an inflection into peoples behavior. Though the use of social media has had numerous communication benefits such as enabling people to connect with family members and friends internationally, it has its drawbacks too. For example, social media has created tools for human and drug traffickers, terrorists, and other criminals hence making it easy for them to carry on with their operations. Other positive influences of social media communication include bringing people together, enabling easy sharing of information, improving business operations, increasing creativity, facilitating social connections, reducing the level of crime associated with unemployment, and promoting learning. The negative effects of social media on communication behaviors should be addressed effectively to thwart them from robbing the trust that individuals had in each other or replacing human fellowship and emotional support with online ties.

Works Cited

Akram, Waseem, and Raman Kumar. A Study on Positive and Negative Effects of Social Media on Society. International Journal of Computer Sciences and Engineering, vol. 5, no. 1, 2017, pp. 347-354.

Siddiqui, Shabnoor, and Tajinder Singh. Social Media its Impact with Positive and Negative Aspects. International Journal of Computer Applications Technology and Research, vol. 5, no. 2, 2016, pp. 71-75.

A meaningful relationship is one that contributes to the general well-being of both parties and is supported by open dialogue, respect, and boundaries. People may better grasp the many various types of relationships in their lives by being able to convey their concerns to others. Comprehending the obstacles to intimacy and learning techniques for strengthening intimacy help establish a meaningful relationship. My parents are the prime example of a meaningful relationship in my life, and their bond has shaped how I view creating such a communication.

Healthy relationships require being able to communicate problems, develop intimacy, and show commitment besides having a strong affection for one another and sharing common interests. My parents are my role models when it comes to meaningful, long-term relationships since I watched them develop strong communication habits as a child. A persons readiness to discuss personal difficulties and ask for guidance or aid when necessary may be positively impacted by purposeful connections since they are frequently of significant worth (Block et al., 2022). My parents and I were always willing to express our concerns and seek advice when needed.

Their communication taught me the value of being transparent and not being ashamed to reach out for support, which I am now able to acknowledge and implement into my personal relationships in the future. According to Czy|owska et al. (2019), long-term partnerships seek intimacy through encouraging communication between the couples, accepting one anothers viewpoints, and sharing happy feelings. My family frequently held differing opinions, including those that were political or religious. They completely accepted each others thoughts and perspectives, never attempting to impose their views on one another, which I feel is a tremendous sign of intimacy in their marriage.

Kinships have a chance to endure and develop as long as the parties involved are prepared to commit to one another. According to Corey et al. (2018), being in a committed relationship is a prerequisite for having a meaningful connection since individuals stay together out of free will and not out of obligation or convenience. Indeed, as I have observed over the years, my parents have always chosen to remain committed even when things are difficult or there is occasionally hardship. Their devotion is facilitated since they have similar goals and interests and are open to examining their relationships shortcomings and working to improve unfavorable circumstances. The necessity for each person to advance in a direction that is personally meaningful was also emphasized by Corey et al. (2018). My mother and father both have flourishing jobs and are enthusiastic about the quality of their life and their current undertakings. Their independence helped me to see the value of finding personal and professional fulfillment apart from a romantic relationship. Therefore, now I concentrate on being treated with respect in my personal and work-related incentives as well as feeling supported.

There is no one magic formula or straightforward guide to building a great relationship but thinking about the patterns of relationships with individuals I admire has helped me better understand my objectives and needs. By taking the time to focus on how they might wish to change parts of their interactions with others, people can choose the kind of relationships they desire and breathe new life into their current ones. My family has instilled in me important values and traits like commitment, closeness, and problem-solving skills that I am currently looking for and will strive to use in my future interactions.

References

Block, V. J., Haller, E., Villanueva, J., Meyer, A., Benoy, C., Walter, M., Lang, U. E., & Gloster, A. T. (2022). Meaningful Relationships in Community and Clinical Samples: Their Importance for Mental Health. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. Web.

Corey, G., Corey, M. S., & Muratori, M. (2018). I Never Knew I Had a Choice: Explorations in Personal Growth (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Czy|owska, D., Gurba, E., Czy|owska, N., Kalus, A., Sitnik-Warchulska, K., & Izydorczyk, B. (2019). Selected Predictors of the Sense of Intimacy in Relationships of Young Adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(22), 4447. Web.

During the Montgomery bus boycott and the subsequent events in the years to follow, Kings inspiring involvement elevated him to becoming the most recognized and beloved leader of the Civil Rights movement in America. This was primarily due to his superb oratory skill and his ability to reach out to audiences of both black and white skin. His continued message of non-violent protest and appeals to common human needs shared by all races was of major significance in the social equality gains for blacks during these years. His ability to make complex ideas understandable made it apparent that non-violent strategies were defensible in court according to the U.S. Constitution. This gave additional credence to the protests, which inevitably led to the awakening of the black plight to many unwary whites who then joined the cause and helped to eradicate racist Jim Crow type laws forever. People, both black and white, were now willing to violate absurd, archaic local segregationist laws because they believed they were abiding and defending a higher law, the Constitution (Garrow, 1987: 45-46). Martin Luther King Jr. provided this movement with a focus, both in his physical presence and in his oratory skills, yet he did experience many failures throughout his career. By investigating the pulse of the Civil Rights movement, one can begin to gain a sense of how Kings strengths and weaknesses served to set the course for decades to come.

Kings selection as head of the MIA was not an accident. From early in his career, it was recognized that King was a born speaker, intuitively seeking the knowledge and experience he would need to make an educated argument and carefully cultivating his contacts to place him in a position to take a leadership role. He had already considered possible structural changes that could be made in America while he was in school. He had studied the work of Mahatma Gandhi and took a degree in sociology, helping him to formulate his own ideas of peaceful co-existence and non-violent protest (Zimmerman, 1995: 55ff). Undoubtedly, his insights and knowledge in these areas contributed greatly not only to his own speeches, but also to the strategy sessions held by the various groups of which he was part when organizing protests.

His non-violent stance and expertise also held weight with his fellow ministers, who recognized a need for change and were seeking a means of channeling the growing energy they were feeling within the community into a positive and effective direction. His oratory ability had been demonstrated even before he graduated from school as well. Samuel DuBois Cook recalled that King delivered a Senior Sermon in the Morehouse Chapel a week before graduation. He knew almost intuitively how to move an audience, Cook remembered.

He asserted that there are moral laws in the universe that we cannot violate with impunity, anymore than we can violate the physical laws of the university with impunity (Carson, 1997: 168). In addition to his involvement in the MIA, King also helped to found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), which linked churches across the South in the common cause for all black people.

The original objective of the SCLC was to build upon the success of the Montgomery bus demonstration by launching similar boycotts in other cities, but this effort had few successes. King followed the end of the bus boycott by making speeches, preaching everywhere, and attending various demonstrations in an untiring way, constantly promoting the concept of non-violent protest. It was King who first identified the source of the black peoples power:

I came to see that what we were really doing was withdrawing our cooperation from an evil system, rather than merely withdrawing our support from the bus company. The bus company, being an external expression of the system, would naturally suffer, but the basic aim was to refuse to cooperate with evil. We were simply saying to the white community: We can no longer lend our cooperation to an evil system. From that moment on, I conceived of our movement as an act of massive non-cooperation. (Rockwell, 2005).

However, at this time in Montgomery, the MIA was fundamentally unproductive in rebelling against other manners of discrimination. It would take the examples set by other organizations and student groups throughout the South to show King and his supporters the way.

This is evident in the way in which the movement stalled, despite Kings best efforts, until 1960 when a sit-in movement initiated a novel and more aggressive yet still non-violent chapter of the civil rights battle. The now-famous first sit-in occurred at a Woolworths lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, when four black students sat down at a whites only establishment and requested service. The strategy quickly spread to wade-ins at segregated city swimming pools and beaches, pray-ins at segregated churches and stand-ins at all-white theatres. These activists that braved the threat of being beaten and jailed in order to advance their cause of racial justice were inspired by the illustration of courage by those who participated in the Montgomery bus boycott; however, the SCLC had no part in organizing the original sit-in protests that gave rise to these further actions (Brunner, Borgna & Haney, 2006). The examples set in these somewhat spontaneous demonstrations helped inspire King and others for further efforts. A youth activist group was founded by student leaders after consultation with King and SCLC leaders in April 1960 (Colaiaco, 1988: 38). The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee added another dimension to the movement and appeared to embrace Kings pacifist methodology for social change.

The SCLC was also not party or privy to the succession of Freedom Rides into the South in 1961. The Congress of Racial Equality sponsored and directed these rides designed to ensure that the Supreme Courts decision in Boynton v. Virginia, which further defined and extended its earlier ruling that abolished segregation laws regarding interstate transportation, was being complied with at the state level. The Freedom Riders clashed with whites in Anniston, Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama, which prompted President John Kennedy to send 600 U.S. marshals to safeguard the protestors. Yet, these, too, taught King and others many lessons regarding the most effective means of bringing about social change. The Freedom Rides supplied an important strategic lesson for King and the SCLC: in order to arouse public sympathy sufficient to pressure the federal government to enforce civil rights in the states and localities, white racists had to be provoked to use violence against non-violent protestors (Colaiaco, 1988: 39). With this knowledge, King helped to organize the March on Washington in August of 1963, during which he delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech.

King took part in the activities of other groups as well, joining their efforts mid-stride to support what they were doing or to warn against potential problems associated with a particular approach. These efforts were not always successful. In 1962, James Meredith became the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi, but only after President Kennedy used 600 U.S. Marshals and 15,000 federal national guardsmen to restore order (Viorst, 1979: 373). The rioting on the campus upon Merediths decision to attend the then all-white university resulted in the deaths of two people and the injury of 375 more including 160 Marshals. In 1966, Meredith decided to walk alone from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi in his March Against Fear during a primary election week to establish that, if he could walk this distance without being harmed, then blacks should not fear walking shorter distances to the polling booths. Soon after beginning the walk, Meredith was shot and wounded by a white sniper. Upon hearing the news, King joined with Stokely Carmichael in Greenwood, Mississippi, where Carmichael gave his famous Black Power speech. He used Merediths example of empowering himself to apply, attend and graduate from school under the harshest of circumstances to characterize the importance of independent political action (Viorst, 1979: 374). Yet the catchy slogan Black Power would live on through the efforts of Malcolm X is much different means than that envisioned by King.

In contrast to Martin Luther Kings methods and teachings of nonviolent protest, the Black Panther Party founded by Malcolm X claimed that they needed to equip themselves with weapons for use as self-defense against police brutality (Hollaway, 1998).

Arming the group did provide the intended protection but, predictably, led to confrontations with the police that often times concluded with a bloody altercation. The Panthers helped the black community in other ways though.

The group made the rounds throughout neighborhoods in Oakland carrying arms, recorders, and various books so as to teach black history, counsel welfare recipients, and effectively protest rent evictions through the legal court system. In 1967, Eldridge Cleaver joined the Black Panther Party. Cleaver served as the Panthers minister of information. In this position, he was in charge of the publication of the Black Panther newspaper & The party began to grow and other chapter locations were opened throughout the United States (McElrath, 2006). The growth of the Black Panther Party worked to spread the movement of civil rights, but also worked against the goals of Martin Luther King in that it re-introduced a high level of violence into the equation.

Other events that contributed to the rapid rise of the Black Panther Party can be directly attributed to Kings weaknesses in organization. One of the earliest of these was a planned march on Selma, Alabama, which was planned as a means of highlighting the need for federal voting-rights laws in the South. Although King organized the initial march, he did not accompany the marchers and they were turned back by nightsticks and tear gas. Following this disappointment, King began organizing a second march, but again stopped just short of the goal. Heading a procession of 1,500 marchers, black and white, he set out across Pettus Bridge outside Selma until the group came to a barricade of state troopers.

But, instead of going on and forcing a confrontation, he led his followers in kneeling in prayer and then unexpectedly turned back (Martin Luther King, Jr., 2002). This seeming failure to follow through, as well as a general perception, especially among the young people, that King had made some kind of bargain with the federal government, led many to seek more aggressive means of addressing the problems they were still facing. Although King was ultimately successful in gaining the bill the march was intended to bring about, little credit was given him for the accomplishment, and the Black Panther Party grew.

Martin Luther King undoubtedly contributed much to the civil rights movement. It becomes clear through this analysis that his primary contribution was to provide ideas and be a spokesperson for the movement. He had a great deal of knowledge regarding how to bring about change through peaceful means as well as a plan for beneficial social change, but his lack of follow-through on many projects led some of his followers to seek more obvious and faster means of forcing equal rights. Most of the events in which he took a major role were collaborative efforts with several other ministers, making him the figurehead for the great support of a community more than hungry for change and introduced into a culture already primed for change. The great orator indeed provided a great voice in which the people of an entire race could gain recognition.

References

Brunner, Borgna & Haney, Elissa. Civil Rights Timeline: Milestones in the Modern Civil Rights Movement. Fact Monster. Pearson Education, 2006. Web.

Carson, Clayborne. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the African-American Social Gospel. African-American Christianity. Paul E. Johnson (Ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994, pp. 159-177.

Colorado, James A. Martin Luther King, Jr.: Apostle of Militant Non­violence. New York: St. Martins Press, 1988.

Daniel, Pete. (1990). Going Among Strangers: Southern Reactions to World War II. Journal of Southern History. Vol. 77.

Garrow, David J. (1987). The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press.

Hollaway, Kevin. The Legacy of Malcolm. Documents for the Study of American History. (1998).

Martin Luther King Jr. African American World. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2002. McElrath, Jessica.

The Black Panthers. About African American History. (2006). Web.

Rockwell, Paul. Beyond Elections: Dr. Kings Teachings on Strategy and Tactics. Motion Magazine. (2005).

Sowell, Thomas. Rosa Parks and History. The Washington Times. (2005).

Viorst, Milton. Fire in the Streets: America in the 1960s. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979.

Woodward, C. Vann. Thinking Back: The Perils of Writing History. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986.

Zimmermann, Gerhard. Victory Using Nonviolence  Martin Luther King, 1929-1968. Sie widerstanden. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1995.

Introduction

Communication is the act of transferring information from one place, person, or group to another. The transmission of the message from sender to recipient can be affected by a vast range of things (emotions, the cultural situation, location). Communication is quite a complicated process with many particles, variables, and aspects that should be considered. Robert Craigs approach to communication traditions is one of the most basic. He starts with the notion that many definitions of communication exist. Craig divides seven communication traditions: cybernetic, socio-psychological, socio-cultural, critical, rhetorical, phenomenological, and semiotic. Communication theory is enormously rich in the range of ideas that fall within its scope (Craig, 1999, 119). Communication scholars approach this issue from different angles of perception. Likewise, Craigs theories differ in many critical respects; they aspire to no general idea. However, Craig was one of the first to describe these conflicting approaches and bring them together.

The Semiotic Tradition

Semiotics, or semiology, is an interdisciplinary field of research that studies signs and sign systems that store and transmit information. In the field of view of semiotics are various sign systems, in particular: natural (spoken) and artificial (formal) languages, sentence systems of scientific theories, signaling systems in society and nature, systems of states, input and output signals of various machines and automata, programs and algorithms for them and intermediary languages for communication with them of a person and many others. As sign systems, one can also consider artificial languages: the language of scientific theory, languages languages of fine arts, cinema, theater, music, various types of visual sign systems  from road signs to painting , as well as any complex control systems considered from the standpoint of cybernetics: machines, devices, and their circuits, living organisms, their subsystems, for example, the central nervous system; industrial and social associations and society as a whole. Within the framework of semiotics as a single complex direction, it is possible to interpret these complex systems as systems of signs that can, in principle, serve to express some content, and analogies in their structure justify the joint consideration of extremely diverse sign systems.

The semiotic tradition is one of the concepts that points out the importance of signs and symbols and how they represent ideas and concepts through our own experience and perception. Thanks to the peculiarities of perception, people interpret the meanings of objects present in reality and endow them with a symbolic meaning. The main concepts of this theory are signs and symbols. The sign is a stimulus denoting or pointing to some other state, and a symbol is denoting a complex sign with many meanings, including highly personal ones (Littlejoh et al., 2016, 91). Signs are more related to objects present in reality, and symbols are associated with their subjective perception. Thus, meaning is made up of the relationship between the object, the sign, and the person who perceives them. From a semiotic perspective, the problems or insecurities that communicators typically face are related to misinterpretation and subsequent misunderstanding of shared ideas, thoughts, and feelings through sign systems.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Semiotic Tradition

According to the semiotic tradition, communication is the mediator of socially shared sign meanings necessary for common understanding and effective social interaction. Signs and symbols are productive agents of thought in society and are used to convey meaning during the interaction. The meanings of signs and symbols must be communicated and interpreted socially during interaction to avoid misinterpretation and ensure effective social interaction.

The semiotic approach is one of the most important in modern communication theory. The undoubted advantages of the semiotic tradition include the fact that it considers differences in the possibilities of perceiving information of people belonging to different cultures. So, for example, from the point of view of the semiotic tradition, a possible misunderstanding in the communication of people who perceive signs subjectively in different ways becomes obvious. A person who knows that red can mean danger will not be able to adequately interact with a person from Central Africa, where red is the color of life, without knowing and taking into account this factor that distinguishes them from each other.

The semiotic tradition is suitable for an approach to communication that pays attention to whether the messages addressee can adequately perceive it. In addition to semiotics and linguistics, the semiotic tradition also contains the influence of the theoretical perspectives of rhetoric and philosophy in the ability to convey information correctly, the difference in the interpretation of messages due to differences in thinking The semiotic paradigm of communication has good explanatory potential since it relies on a practical metadiscourse related to the fact that communication is accessible when we speak a common language. It relies on the fact that words can mean different things to different people, so there is always a danger of communication failures; meanings are often conveyed indirectly or in subtle nuances of behavior that may go unnoticed; specific ideas are easier to express in certain means. Understanding communication as a sign-mediated interaction makes it possible to explain and improve the use of language and other sign systems as intermediaries to achieve mutual understanding between subjects.

The semiotic tradition perceives the language as a sign system; it believes that there are subtleties and various interpretations in sign systems. The disadvantage of the semiotic tradition is the perception of language from only one point of view. The semiotic approach does not adequately consider the relationship between language and speech, which are complex and contradictory. There is no definition of the general structural characteristics that utterances used as a unit of communication are subject to in the semiotic tradition. The semiotic approach does not consider language as a set of interrelated systems and their equivalents and oppositions. On the other hand, semiotics can seem attractive, insightful, or even absurd to the average person when it questions other conventional wisdom, such as that ideas exist in peoples heads, that words have precise meanings; that meanings can be articulated, that communication is a voluntary act, and that we use signs and means of communication as tools for presenting and exchanging thoughts.

The Semiotic Tradition in a Communication Field: Marketing

One of the most widespread examples of the semiotic approach to communication can be found in marketing. Whatever concept a brand seeks to convey, it must consider the cultural paradigm in which it is created and appeal with signs that are understandable to representatives of this culture. Any relevant visual components that can evoke association  statues, photographs, record covers, movie posters, etc.  should be analyzed. Learning the connections that occur in peoples minds when recognizing signs can be a successful concept for business development.

Apple is a typical example of a brand intertwined with an identity. People do not queue for hours to buy smartphones or laptops; they stand in line to purchase status and a particular lifestyle. Apples messaging had to pass through filters in the subconscious of its consumers, one of which is the perception of sings. The creators of the brads encode values and meaning into the brand message, both implicitly and explicitly. Apple cultivated a culture of knowledge, creativity, and innovation back in 1984 when they introduced their new Macintosh computer to the world. Associations about success and comfort are associated with the excellent work of people who instilled in peoples minds strong associations that appear when looking at the icon of a bitten apple. We are constantly surrounded by symbols that brands use to convey the message they need in everyday life.

The Cybernetic Tradition

Cybernetics is an interdisciplinary science about the general patterns of obtaining, storing, transforming, and transmitting information in complex control systems, whether they are machines, living organisms, or society. This is an attempt by scientists to create a general mathematical theory of control of complex systems, combine seemingly incompatible, and find commonality where it cannot be. Like any science, cybernetics has its own laws and principles. The main ones are the black box principle and the law of feedback. Social cybernetics is a branch of sociology based on general systems theory and cybernetics. Its task is to study the patterns of a self-organizing social system and create an optimal model for managing social processes.

The principle of the black box allows to study the behavior of the system, how it reacts to external influences, and at the same time abstract from its internal structure. The feedback law lies in a simple fact: if there is a control object and a control subject, then in order to develop adequate control actions, having information about the state of the object, the subject can make an adequate decision on its control.

Historically, the cybernetic or process-informational approach was the first from which the modern science of communication began. Communication in the cybernetic tradition is viewed as an act of information processing, which makes it possible to explain how all kinds of complex systems, living or non-living, macro or micro, can function and why functional impairments often occur. To summarize the essence of the transmission model, cybernetics represents communication problems as failures in the flow of information resulting from noise, information overloads, or inconsistencies in structure and function. As resources for solving communication problems, it offers various information processing technologies and appropriate system design and analysis methods, management, and therapeutic intervention in a softer version.

The cybernetic tradition explores the general workings of communication concerning systems. A system can be described as a system of parts or variables that influence each other and shape and control the character of the whole system (Littlejohn et al, 2021, 55). The cybernetic tradition can be seen in the example of a classroom with students. Relationships between students and teacher, students and each other, subject matter, classroom environment, student cultural diversity, and homework come together to form a cycle of networks and connections.

From the point of view of the cybernetic tradition, communication is a vital process that allows information to flow between parts of a system, allowing the system to function effectively with little or no interference. Systems are social structures made up of interdependent components that work together to create a function worth more than the sum of the different parts. Systems interact with their environment to regulate themselves and maintain order and balance with their environment through feedback. Communication influences, shapes, and controls the character of the entire system and helps the system achieve balance. The whole system can fail if there are communication problems. Systems occur in various contexts, including sign, language, cognitive, and social relationships.

Though rooted in technological functionalist scientific thought, cybernetics emphasizes the problems of technological control, the complexity and unpredictability of feedback processes, and the ever-present possibility that acts of communication, despite our good intentions, will have unexpected consequences. The tremendous practical lesson that cybernetics teaches is that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Hence, we as communicators need to transcend individual boundaries, look at the communication process from a broader, systemic point of view, and not hold individuals responsible for systemic outcomes that none of us can control. In general, cybernetics, in contrast to other traditions of communication theory, cultivates a practical approach that takes into account the complexity of communication problems and challenges many conventional assumptions about the differences between human and nonhuman information processing systems (Craig, 1999, 141). The cybernetic tradition, in a sense, simplifies communication theory, reducing it to a production scheme that applies more to the realm of programming than to human interaction.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Cybernetic Tradition

Cybernetics as a method of theoretical analysis of communication is credible partly because it refers rhetorically to the usual provisions of everyday materialism, functionalism, and rationalism. For cybernetics, the difference between thought and matter is only functional, like the difference between software and hardware. Thought is nothing more than an act of processing information; therefore, it is pretty logical to say that individual thought acts as intrapersonal communication, that groups and organizations also think, entire communities believe, and eventually robots and artificial organisms will understand.

The cybernetic tradition is interesting, but sometimes it can seem unsustainable from a common-sense point of view. It draws surprising analogies between living and non-living systems, questions established ideas about the meaning of consciousness and emotions, and challenges our usual distinctions between thought and matter, form and content, real and artificial. Cybernetics challenges the simplistic notions of a linear relationship of cause and effect by appealing to the more familiar idea that communication processes can be incredibly complex and subtle.

The Cybernetic Tradition in a Communication Field: Family

The system results from the contributions of many other parts, which together form something more than the sum total of the original parts. A good example of the functioning of the cybernetic tradition in everyday communication is a family. The family is not just a collection of people related by blood; the family has an organized system of relationships with each other. There are ways in which they interact with each other and influence each other in making certain decisions. From a family communication perspective, we view communication not just as one aspect of a family, but as the central process by which families are literally talked into being, that is, how families are co-constructed, negotiated, and legitimated in discourse (Braithwaite et al., 2017, 25). The family has a hierarchical system relationship; each member has a special role; every family has a built-in hierarchy. Each family has a way to communicate with family members to convey a particular message in a certain way. Some changes take place within and within the family after a while. The family system as a whole is more than just the sum of its individual members, the family is capable of self-regulation, and family members also communicate in specific established ways. In the same way, cybernetics operates as a tradition of complex systems in which complex elements influence each other.

The Critical Tradition

For critical communication tradition, the main communication problem in society is caused by material and ideological forces that hinder or distort discursive reflection. This approach to communication, according to Craig, makes it possible to explain how ideological attitudes support social injustice and how justice can potentially be restored by communicative practices that make critical reflection possible (Craig, 1999, 144). For a critical theorist, an activity that reproduces the existing social order and even creates a new social order is not yet true communication. For the social order to be based on genuine mutual understanding, communicators need to articulate, question, and openly discuss differences in their judgments of the objective world, moral standards, and personal experience from time to time. Thus, communication is a critical discourse that allows discursive reflection on recognized social distortions and injustices.

Discursive reflection refers to honest communication that reflects freely and critically examines habits, beliefs, and power structures in society that are not ordinarily objectionable. Critical theorists cannot take local practices and empirical communication results at face value. Conflict, distortion, injustice, and domination are an integral part of human society. Communication can also cause social inequality when social discourse promotes dominance, exclusion, segregation, or marginalization. Easily recognizable examples of critical approaches are Marxism, postmodernism, and feminism.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Critical Tradition

Strictly speaking, the critical tradition associated with the Frankfurt School and, above all, with the work of Jurgen Habermas does not pretend to give an exhaustive definition of communication and build universal explanatory models based on this category. Instead, it tries to formulate some of the requirements that proper communication must meet in human society for this society to become better. Habermas believes that communication, which involves only transmission  obtaining information or reaching a formal agreement on meanings, is imperfect, distorted, incomplete. Proper communication takes place only in the process of discursive reflection, which strives for ideal completeness that can never be fully achieved, but the reflective process itself is liberating. Discursive reflection here is a way of forming communicative practices, tuned to the search for true understanding, asking questions about seemingly obvious things, and rejecting dictatorship and dominance in interaction both between individuals and between institutions and individuals.

Other theoretical traditions criticize the critical theory itself for politicizing science and education and upholding a universal normative standard of communication, a priori based on ideology. Some critics of the critical theory believe that science should say nothing about normative standards; others argue that normative standards should be based on objective empirical criteria or can only apply to local cultures and certain communicative practices (Craig, 1999, 145). In response, critical theory criticizes other theoretical traditions for their blindness to their own ideological attitudes and false claims of political neutrality. Local practices and empirical communication results cannot be taken at face value for critical theorists. Still, they must be evaluated in the light of a reflective analysis of the distorting effects of power and ideology in society.

As these discussions continue, the most helpful contribution of critical theory (other than its obvious connection to the discourse of social injustice) is perhaps the cultivation of a higher appreciation of discursive reflection as a practical possibility inherent in communication in general. Communication is not only something we do; it is something we talk about repeatedly in a way that is practically related to our actions. This practical metadiscourse can always develop into a genuinely reflective discourse that combines communication theory with practice. A critical tradition of communication theory thus confirms that reflective discourse and, therefore, communication theory itself, have important roles to play in our everyday understanding and practice of communication (Craig, 1999, 149). Thus, the importance of critical theory, despite its inconsistency, cannot be denied: this is another approach that allows us to analyze the impact of different methods of communication on the life of society.

The Critical Tradition in a Communication Field: Mass Media

The critical tradition is mainly applicable to the description of political, economic, or cultural phenomena. To talk about the mass influence on society through communication, a good example of the implementation of the critical tradition is the media. Critical media theories not only reveal the features of managing mass consciousness and behavior through modern media technologies but also destroy the illusion of the independent role of the media as the fourth estate: in the conditions of the most important socio-political processes and transformations, the media are not independent actors, but serve as an instrument in the hands of the political, economic and other elites in the management of the state and society. The media can act as an ideological force that influences discursive reflection. As a source of mass influence, the media can also influence social injustice by raising the level of public consciousness. No wonder the media often covers sensitive social topics sometimes, they become the only way to affect the situation and solve the problem of ordinary citizens.

Conclusion

Communication is a complex phenomenon, the scientific knowledge of which is the task of many disciplines. This is what determined such a characteristic of communication theory as multi-paradigm and interdisciplinarity. Within the framework of each paradigm, its own consistent understanding of the category of communication functions and its definition is formulated. Robert Craig did a great job of summarizing the theoretical traditions that had developed by the beginning of the 21st century in the study of communication. Craigs metamodel of communication theory successfully organizes and unifies existing disparate theories, drawing on the historical roots of the field of communication theory to articulate seven traditions. Each of these traditions has a unique character and conceptualization of communication. Still, there are also common goals and contentious disagreements between traditions that create the possibility of a metatheoretical dialogue between communication researchers. The semiotic tradition considers communication as an intersubjective interaction that exists due to the signs and the participants in communication that these signs perceive. The cybernetic tradition considers communication as a mechanical act of information transfer and processing. The critical theory views communication as a process in which all assumptions can be challenged. These three concepts perceive communication differently and approach a complex issue from opposite angles. The existence of a complete description of conflicting approaches allows researchers to find new answers to questions of communication problems.

References

Braithwaite D.O., Suter E. A. & Floyd K. (2017). Engaging theories in family communication: multiple perspectives. Taylor & Francis.

Littlejohn S.W., Foss K.A., Oetzel J.G. (2021). Theories of human communication: twelfth edition. Waveland Press.

Robert T. C. (1999). Communication theory as a field. Communication Theory, 9 (2), 119-161. Web.

Wondering what the disadvantages and advantages of linear model of communication are? Then, check out our essay sample to find out more about this and other communication models!

Communication models are mainly pictures; this is because they can put to an end very essential interactive or transitive process into a static picture.

There are quite a number of communication models. Some of them include:

• Classical communication models.
• Early linear models.
• Non linear models.

In classical communication method, it deals with rhetoric which is a definition of communication that originated from a Greek philosopher (Mortensen, Sereno 1970)

Rhetoric basally deals with observation to provide a persuading answer

Aristotles model of communication follows a chain of communication method.

So it follows arrangement:

Investor ’ Arrangement ’ Style ’ Deliver ’ Memory.

Aristotles model of proof deals with Aristotles description of proof which inheres the message, audience, and, finally, the speaker.

So it follows a chain:

Source ’ speaker ’ auditor.

In Bitzers, the Rhetorical situation identifies some classical components of the communication situation.

Advantages of Aristotle model:

• It provides both general and particular vantage points.
• It gives space to ask questions and to interpret raw staff of observation.
• It can lead us to new discoveries by following its trend.
• It gives order and coherence to complex events.

Disadvantages:

• It leads to over simplicity of events.

Early linear models

One of these models is Shannon-weaver mathematical model. This model was invented to give a solution to engineers in finding ways of transmitting electrical signals to other locations. This model connects transmitted and received signals. It followed the following trend.

Advantages:

• It can be used in low-level communication texts.
• It has led to significant developments.
• Its an approximation of all the processes of human communication
• It has a great heuristic value.
• Its concepts are used in communication research.

Disadvantages:

• Its not analogous to various ways of human communication.
• Its basically formal and does not account for content.
• This model does not differentiate important ideas from those which are not.

The other method in the early linear model is Berlos S-M-C-R which is the most influential message-centered model. It follows the trend of:

Source ’ message ’ channel ’ receiver.

Advantages:

• Ideas can be presented flexibly.
• The message stressed the transmission of ideas.

Disadvantages:

• It stresses manipulation to a machine
• It converts humans into a machine
• It stresses the problems of human communication
• Even with the right symbol, it can lead to misunderstanding.

Another method in early linear communication is Schranmms model of communication.

This transmitted message is as follows.

Advantages:

• It provided a framework of references
• It availed feedback
• It included context, such as the message
• It included culture.

Disadvantages:

• Its less linear and accounts only for bilateral communication.

Non-linear model

This model depicts communication as a dynamic process. This model presents the helical model of communication.

Advantages of the helical model:

• It exemplifies earlier points.
• It makes communication continuous, unrepeatable, addictive, and accumulative.

Disadvantages of the helical model:

• It has too few variables.
• Provides unanswered questions.

Another sub-model of non linear model is Wesley and MacLeans conceptual model.

It starts with one specific item, and as it advances, it selects further items for coding, which are then transmitted to another person.

Advantages:

• It gives feedback.
• Account for sensory fields.
• It shows non-binary interactions.
• It shows different modes of communication.

Disadvantage:

• This method cannot account for multiple dimensions of communication. The other non linear model is Beakers mosaic model, which links messages for more than one social situation (Barnlund, 1968).

Advantages of Backers mosaic model:

• It has incredible communication complexity.
• It accounts for variations in exposure to messages.
• It helps to conceive interaction between two mosaics.

Disadvantages:

• It does not account for possible dimensions involved in communication.

Therefore, the best model of communication is the early linear model since it has a variety of sub-models that are quite advantageous and reliable.

Reference

Mortensen, C.D, Sereno, K. K, (1970), Foundation of Communication Theory, Harper and Row: New York.

Barnlund, D. C, (1968) Interpersonal Communication, Houghton Muffin, Boston.

Introduction

Cultural communication is a way through which the members of the society express their views and relay information. All aspects of human beings including communication are affected and altered by culture. Culture includes how individuals express themselves including the way they think, move, and solve problems. When we discuss cultural communication we should have in mind the spectrum of communication which includes language, verbal and non-verbal communication. In talking about cultural communication different cultures are brought to light.

It is important to recognize that there are numerous different ways of cultural communication which include verbal and non-verbal means and these communications may have different meanings. Cross-cultural communication is the way through which intercultural communication takes place amongst individuals with different cultural backgrounds (Hays 2001, pp. 5-15). This essay explores the nature of verbal and non-verbal cross-cultural communication. It mainly concerns itself with how verbal and non-verbal signs can be used to facilitate cross-cultural communication.

Verbal Cross-Cultural Communication

Verbal communication is one way through which individuals communicate face-to-face. Some of the fundamental components of this form of communication are words, sound, language, and speaking. Verbal communication may be expressed naturally while others may be a direct result of emotional expressions; these may be crying or laughing. It is important to note that verbal communication can be used in conjunction with non-verbal communication (Ting-Toomey 1999, p. 100).

In some cases, verbal communication is used to explain the inter-cultural meanings of non-verbal communication that may have different cultural meanings. For instance, there are some symbols and signs that may express some cultural message. This may be in the form of drawing or painting. Through verbal communication, the meanings of these signs and symbols can be debunked by interpreting such meanings into another cultural language. Verbal communication takes place in various cultural contexts. It is a fact that there are thousands and thousands of languages through which members of society use during communication.

These languages are not understood by all the societal members. This fact sometimes presents communication barriers amongst communicants, but even within one cultural language, there are still possibilities of misunderstanding amongst the communicants. Verbal communication may take place in two ways: interpersonal and public communication (Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2007, p. 1351).

With the growing technology, it is not mandatory that verbal communication must take place in a face-to-face context. Verbal communication can take place through radios, telephony, mobile phone, and televisions (Coombs and DeLeon 2000, p. 67). Noteworthy is the fact that verbal communication can also take place through the internet. Verbal communication can take place between two or amongst many individuals who are geographically far from one another. Verbal communication can be enhanced by visual aids. Just like non-verbal communication information can be stored and retrieved for reuse, verbal communication can also be stored in computers, magnetic tapes, and other technological means available.

Verbal communication has certain elements that qualify it. These elements include actions and things, specification, relationships, and functional words.

Actions and things: verbal communication should indicate actions and things. In other words, during verbal communications, the words spoken should indicate actions being undertaken and things being acted upon.

Specification: the verbal communication should be specific on whether the action that is being referred to are past, present, or will be undertaken in the future.

Functional word: in the process of verbal communication, the words and sentences used should be grouped in such a manner that gives meaning to an action being either true or false.

Relationships: verbal communication should be able to indicate how the things being acted upon are related to one another and the actions being taken.

Non-Verbal Cultural Communication

Non-verbal communication has been comprehended to mean the process by which individuals communicate through the transmission of wordless messages taking into account the aspects of culture. It is divided into aesthetics, signs, symbols, and physical. All these have different cultural interpretations (Mayinger 2001, p. 196). In this case, language is not considered as the only source of communication.

Non-verbal cultural communication can be done through gestures and haptic communication. It can also be expressed through body language, facial expressions, postures, and eye contact. Non-verbal communication can also take place through hairstyle, style of clothing, symbols, infographics, and architecture. Speech is usually a form of verbal communication since it involves the utterances of words; however, there are certain elements of speech that form part of non-verbal communication. These elements are known as paralanguages. Paralanguages can be communicated either consciously or unconsciously.

The paralanguages include but are not limited to the quality of voice, style of speaking, emotions, and features like rhythm, stress, and intonation. Dancing and written information are also considered as non-verbal cultural communication.

Non-verbal cultural communication, in many cases, complements verbal communication (Krueger 2008, p. 3). There are different meanings attached to non-verbal communication. Different signs have different cultural meanings and may also be used in different cultural contexts. For instance, a style of dressing may be used to give information about an occasion. This may include a wedding ceremony, a funeral ceremony, or an official ceremony.

Individuals from different cultural backgrounds may also express their communication in different ways through the use of symbols. For example, it will be easy to tell an African way of dressing from other dressing styles, a nod has a different meaning amongst different people; among Americans, it means a positive reinforcement and it has a negative connotation amongst the Chinese. The paralanguages in ones speech may also tell the cultural background of the speaker.

Non-verbal communication may take place through face-to-face communication. In this case, the space between the communicator and the recipient may also have meaning in terms of communication. For example, the closeness of the communicants may show that the information being shared is either secret or private and confidential and when the communicants are far from each other it may mean there is no privacy of the information being shared; the information may be general. There are other cultural connotations of nonverbal communication. Just to mention a few examples; looking directly into the eyes means some kind of disrespect in some parts of Africa and other nations, while it is a sign of being attentive in America. Other cultures consider the body odor as normal while others dislike it.

Conclusion

Verbal and nonverbal cultural communications are ways through which information is passed from an individual or group of individuals to others. These communications can take place across cultures. Nonverbal communication includes dancing, clothes amongst others. Nonverbal signs are interpreted differently subject to the cultural background of different societal individuals. Nonverbal communications can be used to support verbal communications to give deeper meanings to information being communicated. Verbal communication in most cases involves the use of sound. It can either take place face-to-face, over the internet, radios, televisions, or phones. Verbal communication comes in different dialects which are usually understood by respective members of a particular culture.

Sometimes the dialectical languages are hindrances to communication that take place in a multicultural setting. Otherwise, it is more popularly used than nonverbal communication. It can be used to relay information in real-time over a great distance. In most cases, verbal communication is preferred as an effective way of doing business and other official communications. Nonverbal communication may come in as reinforcement to verbal communication.

Reference List

Coombs, T & DeLeon, R 2000, Icq Fyi: Instant Communications Online: Your Qamp;a Guide to Icq. United States.

Hays, P 2001, Addressing cultural complexities in practice a framework for clinicians and counselors / Pamela A. Hays. Psychological Association, Washington, DC.

Krueger, J 2008, Nonverbal Communication. Akademische Schriftenreihe, GRIN Verlag, Norderstedt Germany.

Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2007, World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Marshall Cavendish, New York.

Mayinger, F 2001, Mobility and traffic in the 21st century, Engineering online library, Springer, Singapore.

Ting-Toomey, S 1999, Communicating across cultures, The Guilford communication series, Guilford Press, New York.

Communication is the giving, receiving, and the responding of messages between two or more people. It comes handy in the area of peoples interaction because without it, interaction may be totally impossible. It forms the basis of the prevailing relationships, particularly love relationships. In fact Segal says, Good communication is the foundation of successful relationships, both personally and professionally (Para. 1). Communication may be verbal, using words, or nonverbal, using symbols. These symbols range from gestures, humor, eye contact, and touching, among others. In their relationships, men and women employ different communication styles, like nodding of their heads, among others, some of which strengthen, while others damage the relationships as explained next.

On the issue of the communication styles, Lieberman comes in handy to highlight how these styles differ for both men and women. He makes it clear that there are some styles depicted by men, though associated with women, and vice versa. However, there are others, which are purely attributed to women or men. For instance, He says, At meetings women nod their heads to show they are listening& men only nod their heads when they agree. If a woman is speaking and she doesnt see his head nod as he listens, she assumes he either disagrees or is not listening (Para. 12). While women will prefer exposing their problems, or their need for a particular decision, to other women, men on the other hand will keep the nuisance for themselves because they rarely recognize the reason behind sharing each others burdens. In addition, while women tend to base their relationships on commonness, rather than dominance, mens relation is founded on the one-up one-down criterion. In the process of communication, if a woman differs with another, the disagreement ends up interfering with every other feature of the relationship and may take time before healing, while mens disagreement is temporary and affects no aspect of the relationship. As aforementioned, communication is either verbal or nonverbal.

There exist different types of verbal communication. For instance, written communication. This form is presented inform of notes mostly in relationships and businesses. Electronic is another form that employs letters or notes and following some set rules, they are transferred from a person or people to other(s). Text messaging, though current, is another form that involves the dispatching and receiving of brief messages through phones and other electronic gadgets. Spoken words also lie in this category of verbal communication. This involves purely speaking and can be face-to face or over the phones. Non-verbal communication methods include facial expressions, body movements and postures, gestures, eye-contact, touch, voice, among others. All these types serve specific nonverbal communication purposes. The latter form, voice, seems ambiguous with spoken form that lies in the category of verbal communication. It is worthy noting that a wordless voice can be used as a way of communicating. There are some styles that damage relationships while others strengthen it.

According to Miracle, Miracle, and Baumeister, Happily married couples&tend to use constructive tactics. &couples headed to divorce use&destructive tactics (489). This makes it clear that some applied styles are relationship friendly while others are relationship enemies. The aforementioned people come in handy in clarifying these styles. According to them, Validation, which consists of unity when solving relationship disputes, is a worthy imitating style (489). In addition, employing a dialogue based on passion as well as agreeing on how and when to disagree, are beneficial communication styles. However, Criticism, defense, contempt, among others, are styles that damage relationships.

In conclusion, communication turns out to be both essential and harmful. In the field of relationship, it the style of communication, that tells whether the relationship is being constructed or not. These styles may be applied either verbally or non-verbally, but whichever way, they will have to affect the relationship and thus, it is upon the couples to choose on which styles they wish to apply. Whether to damage or strengthen their relationship is their own decision because the styles, as aforementioned, are clear with there respective consequences attached therein.

Works Cited

Lieberman, Simma. Differences in Male and Female Communication Styles. 2006. Web.

Miracle, Tina, Miracle, Andrew, & Baumeister, Roy. Human sexuality: meeting your Basic Needs. U.S.A: Prentice Hall, 2002, 1st Ed.

Segal, Jeanne. The power of Non-Verbal Communication and Body Language. 2010. Web.

Communication is a fundamental factor in public health and has an instrumental role in promoting health and preventing diseases. Risk communication is one element that defines health communication theory that focuses on informing the public about health hazards, especially those that can lead to pandemics. According to Heydari et al. (2021), risk communications main objective is to provide meaningful, appropriate, accurate, and timely information related to health threats to influence the choices of the public. Therefore, effective structuring of risk communication in a way that the citizens get all relevant information about a disease outbreak can prevent a pandemic in the future.

Risk communication should be structured in a way that the information transmitted is clear to everyone; it should be simple, timely, and the messengers should be credible. It is essential to consider such factors as cultural sensitivity, literacy levels, medium of communication, and familiarity with scientific ethics when designing and delivering messages about possible pandemic threats. Individuals or agencies communicating information about pandemics should also address rumors, misinformation, and anxieties to ensure the public embraces all appropriate protective and control measures designed to prevent pandemics (Heydari et al., 2021). Therefore, risk communication should be factual, using the communitys history, experiences, and perceptions to address the unfolding events and underlying fears.

The involvement of trusted local leaders in risk communication can enhance its effectiveness in preventing a future pandemic. These leaders can easily disseminate information about potential sources of infections and approaches to minimize risks to their communities in languages they understand best (Berg et al., 2022). Undeniably, local trusted leaders are very aware of their communities social and cultural characteristics, past experiences, and health beliefs. Thus, they can consider all those factors to improve the quality of their risk communication by meeting the specific needs of vulnerable populations.

References

Berg, S. H., Shortt, M. T., Røislien, J., Lungu, D. A., Thune, H., & Wiig, S. (2022). Key topics in pandemic health risk communication: A qualitative study of expert opinions and knowledge. PLOS ONE, 17(9), 120. Web.

Heydari, S. T., Zarei, L., Sadati, A. K., Moradi, N., Akbari, M., Mehralian, G., & Lankarani, K. B. (2021). The effect of risk communication on preventive and protective behaviors during the COVID-19 outbreak: Mediating role of risk perception. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 111. Web.

Introduction

Often during various crises events like natural disasters, vehicle accidents, oil spills, and others there are groups of people who may need assistance. Since these groups may be quite populous or some means of communication might be unavailable, effective communication systems and strategies are to address every persons calls quickly and efficiently. There have been several types of research on different approaches to crisis management, preparations for various stages of crisis events, and profiles of vulnerable groups. A brief description and evaluation of the alternatives could help further explore the topic of crisis management and possibly elaborate on their application to victims of crises.

Brief Description of Alternative Crisis Communication Systems and Strategies

There are certain situations when some means of communication between those who need help and those who can organize it are unavailable. Thus, a good crisis plan needs to include alternative ways of establishing a connection. For example, in the case of natural disasters, a system that involves the formation of community-based organizations (CBOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as ground units to provide support for those in need has proven itself effective. Moreover, these organizations redirect national funds to the local level to help low-income families acquire financial support for recovery, which they have otherwise had no chance to receive due to the complicated process of applying for state financing programs (Bolin & Stanford, 1998). When time is of the essence, good coordination of efforts with the use of modern technology may be a key factor in minimizing the damage. In the case of the Metrolink accident, the company crisis management team used mobile and stationary telephones for communication within the team, which helped coordinate their actions and public statements (Massey & Larsen, 2006).

When it comes to addressing individual narrow-scope crises one of the useful communication strategies may be the establishment of online and telephone hotlines, as suggested by James and Gilliland (2012). Such alternative allows forming collective measures based on individual responses, which can be united in groups like housing issues, food and water supply, search for relatives, and so on. It can also be cost-effective, as it does not require house-to-house investigation of needs. Free calls to the emergency line can be invaluable when face-to-face communication is unavailable due to transportation issues. For instance, if the only bridge is destroyed by a storm. Social media can also be used here as alternative means of communication. Monitoring the responses on the Internet may become one of the ways to discover possible alerts and call for help (Spillan, Parnell, & John, 2010).

Evaluation of Communication Systems and Strategies

The mentioned communication systems and strategies can be more or less effective depending on the type of crisis. Each situation is unique and can require different methods of handling it. Nevertheless, a properly designed strategy may calculate possible outcomes and develop several solutions. NGO/CBO approach seems to be quite useful, however, according to Bolin and Stanford (1998), its limitation is the availability of federal programs. If the funding is insufficient, their work will have a minimum effect.

Communication strategies using digital means of communication are invaluable when either physical connections are obstructed because of natural events. Presently even low-income families generally have access to the Internet or telephone usually united in one device. Thus, the key positive sides of such strategies include the speed of information exchange, huge public outreach, and relative cost-effectiveness. Despite the digital approach to crisis communication being cheap, fast, and has vast population coverage, it still leaves a gap when it comes to the elderly population as they are generally not very technologically minded. The best way to address communication issues during a crisis may be in a combination of the two strategies. The reason for that is the unification of the said benefits and tackling the drawbacks of both.

Vulnerable Groups and Strategies to Address Their Needs

When natural disasters are concerned, vulnerable groups may include every person that lives in the area that is prone to the occurrences of such. Nevertheless, those who have difficulties saving their lives happen to be the most endangered, namely, the elderly and the disabled. Strategies to address their needs may include the previously discussed NGO/CBO agencies, who might inform them of the danger and help them leave the area. Langer (2004) suggests that neighbors and newspaper delivery people could help locate those, who prefer to live in seclusion and offer necessary assistance. He also proposes the use of peer services, which are proved to be effective because older adults are more inclined to accept help from people their age (Langer, 2004).

Conclusion

The situations when not every line of communication is available and the existence of especially vulnerable groups both urge the elaboration of strategies that address these challenges. Communication systems using local and non-governmental agencies and those utilizing means of electronic devices both have their advantages and disadvantages. However, combined they may possess the capacity to tackle various crises and quickly provide support to those in need.

References

Bolin, R., & Stanford, L. (1998). The Northridge earthquake: Community-based approaches to unmet recovery needs. Disasters, 22(1), 21-39.

James, R., & Gilliland, B. (2012). Crisis intervention strategies. Nelson Education.

Langer, N. (2004). Natural disasters that reveal cracks in our social foundation. Educational Gerontology, 30(4), 275-285. Web.

Massey, J. E., & Larsen, J. P. (2006). Crisis management in real time: How to successfully plan for and respond to a crisis. Journal of Promotion Management, 12(4), 63-97. Web.

Spillan, I., Parnell, J. A., & John, E. (2010). Crisis Management in the New Strategy Landscape. Web.

The phenomenon of interpersonal communication is a process of exchanging information, knowledge, experience, emotions, and beliefs between people. In other words, interpersonal communication happens when two people talk or use non-verbal means to exchange data. According to Lane (2016), interpersonal communication is influenced by the perception of the world, self-concept, and emotions. In such communication, ethical choices are very important since communicators choose words and communicative behavior or style according to the situation or the other side (DeVito, 2019). People continuously make choices of communicative devices, principles, words, types of non-verbal communication to achieve communicative goals.

An example of an interpersonal situation that occurred around an ethical issue might be the one observed on social media. A Muslim girl wearing a hijab was asked by a school principal to take it off because the accessories were not allowed in the school. This situation is ethical because the contradiction between the girls personal religious beliefs and school rules makes people react differently. It is important to address religious issues ethically in all kinds of communication, including interpersonal and group communication (Aryani, 2018). In this situation, the principal honestly stated that it was not his personal belief, but it was dictated by the schools rules. The girl, in response, honestly stated that she wore a hijab not as an accessory but as a cultural and religious element that has significant meaning for her. Both communicators used the ethical principles of honest communication so that they could maintain relationships. However, the communication was ineffective, which is why the girl was forced not to wear a hijab to school.

When analyzing this situation, one might state that the communicators did not effectively address the ethical issue. From the point of view of Maslows hierarchy of needs, the principal is motivated by the safety needs, and the girl is motivated by the self-actualization needs. In other words, the principal wants to pursue his instrumental needs, and the student wants to pursue her identity needs (Communication principles, n. d.; Frey & Loker, 2020). Therefore, since their needs differ, it is important for them to use communication as a tool to reach an agreement. One of the principles that might have been applied is the principle of a dual perspective. The principal might have looked at the issue from the point of view of the student whose religion as a manifestation of personal beliefs was important for her identity and did not violate the rules about accessories.

References

Aryani, N. L. (2018). Implementation of communication ethics in building social harmony. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2(1), 147-156.

Communication principles. (n. d.). 2020, Web.

DeVito, J. A. (2019). The interpersonal communication book (15th ed.). Pearson.

Frey, L. R., & Loker, E. (2020). Confronting students personal and interpersonal communication anxieties and needs through constitutive, experiential communication pedagogy. Journal of Communication Pedagogy, 3(1), 20-26.

Lane, S. D. (2016). Interpersonal communication: Competence and contexts. Routledge.