Category: Communication

Abstract

With the appearance of digital devices and the Internet, face-to-face communication gradually moved to the virtual space. The question is  has it remain the way it used to be or has it transformed changing the people who practice it and whole societies? Over the last few years, virtual communication has penetrated our lives and now is taken for granted. With the help of research, it is possible to investigate which social tendencies resulted from the emergence of digital communication and what effect they produced on social life and communication.

Introduction

The modern society can be characterized by the heavy use of digital technologies that have now penetrated all of the spheres of our life. Namely, they have successfully changed such fields as education, healthcare, finance, security, and trades. The reliance on technologies is growing and producing a massive effect on the sphere of communication. Therefore, this paper proposes exploring the following research question: in what ways do digital technologies impact the nature of interpersonal communication, relationships between people, self-image, social manners, and family dynamics?

Review of Literature

The internet offers a large selection of versatile materials concerning the subject of the effect the technologies and virtual communication produce on modern society. For example, Emily Snow (2007) offers research on the impact of online communication on intimacy, and the article by Martha Perry (2010) provides a detailed comparison of face-to-face interactions and computer-mediated one in romantic couples.

These studies are trustworthy scholarly sources that could be made the core of the research. Besides, to add to the list of credible sources, there is a number of books exploring various aspects of the subject matter. For instance, Social media: Usage and impact by Al-Deen and Hendricks (2012) is a collection of versatile researches and observations including the analysis of Facebook posts, trending content, search for the attention of masses, and persuasion. Another interesting source is Twitter: Social communication in Twitter age by Dhiraj Murthy (2013) focuses on the phenomenon of Twitter and the dynamics it works.

Finally, the book by Sulaiman and Naqshbandi (2014) titled Social Media: Dynamism, Issues, and Challenges explores versatile aspects of social communication; its chapter about impression management and followers is especially interesting. With this base of sources, it is possible to uncover some new facts about social media and virtual communication that modern society is unaware of. In addition to all the studies and books, it would make sense to review websites that could provide exciting and fresh information and enrich the paper.

Research Methods

The research will be conducted in the form of a review of the literature sampled online by means of using search engines such as Google Search, Google Books, and Google Scholar. The sources will be selected based on their suitability and the use of keywords such as face-to-face versus virtual communication and impact of social media on personal interactions. Reliable and credible sources will be used for the paper. The information located in the sources will be grouped into subjects for easier presentation.

Potential Obstacles

One of the obstacles to the research may be the unavailability of the relevant sources. However, their large quantity will make up for some sources that may be difficult to access. Insufficiency of information may occur not only due to a small body of literature but also due to biases in it. That is why the plan is to search for various perspectives and works by the authors exercising different points of view and sets of values. This approach is likely to contribute to the diversity of the research paper.

Conclusion

To sum up, social media, digital technologies, and virtual communication are relevant subjects in modern society. In fact, they attract a lot of attention, and that is why the effect of the heavy use of technologies for communication on society needs to be studied.

References

Al-Deen, H. & Hendricks, J. (2012). Social media: Usage and impact. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Murthy, D. (2013). Twitter: Social Communication in the Twitter Age. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Perry, M. (2010). Face to face versus computer-mediated communication: Couples satisfaction and experience across conditions. University of Kentucky Masters Theses. Paper 66.

Snow, E. (2007). Intimacy and Face-to-Face versus Computer Interaction. Undergraduate Review, 3, 37-50.

Sulaiman, A., & Naqshbandi, M. (2014). Social media: Dynamism, Issues, and Challenges. Singapore Island, Singapore: Partridge Publishing Singapore.

Introduction

To begin with, it should be said that innovative technologies have become an essential part of modern life. Innovations have entered all the spheres of human life (education is not an exception) and have made it easier. No one dares to say that innovative technologies have created conditions which make human life more complicated. Still, there are cases when innovations harm people. Nevertheless, this is not a problem for discussion in this paper. The essay is directed at dwelling upon the problem of communication between professors and students and the role of innovative technologies in making this communication easier.

Blackboard

Studying at universities, many students face the problem of information search. The whole system of education in many countries is based on innovative technologies. Blackboard is special software which helps students and professors communicate. Being an application it gives professors an opportunity to provide pre-formatted templates for students to have an authorized access to the information. Studying at colleges, students are offered personal logins and passwords which help them enter the website and have an access to the information they need for studying at a particular course and learning at specific classes (About Bb, 2013).

This software makes communication between a teacher and students easier as students are already aware of teachers requirements and at the lessons teacher should not spend time on explaining extra information. It has been proven that even though face to face communication is better for many students, online communicating is considered as the most convenient one due to the possibility to contact a teacher without leaving home (Parsloe, Benton, Davis, and Strang-Wolf, 2010).

Registration

Registration at the university online databases is easy as in most cases students are offered a login and a password in their educational establishment. Otherwise, they are to register personally having presented the information which is familiar only for them. It is very important to register to the university database on time as at the very first stages of studying the information presented there may be very useful.

Registration may take place at any region. Students are not to be at the campus as the Internet makes it easier. Each step is usually perfectly structured and students just need to read attentively what is asked to do and to follow the procedure in accordance with the instruction. Online procedure of registration usually consists of two steps. The first step is personal introduction and the choice of login and password. The second stage is the process of personalization when the system defines whether this person can have an account in a particular system. Finally, after these two steps are completed, a student receives a message with the confirmation of an access and he/she can enter a website.

Conclusion

As it has already been mentioned innovative technologies make the access to the information easier and faster. Students do not necessarily go to college or to university to have a look at the template they need to use. Moreover, having faced a problem, students have always turn either to students of the same course or to a teacher through the direct system. Innovations help students get information they need faster and it improves the quality of their knowledge. It should be stated that information systems in different university may vary depending on the peculiarities of the inner policies, however, in most cases the purpose of the information systems and their functioning is the same.

Reference List

About Bb, Blackboard. Web.

Parsloe, Sarah, Benton, Amanda, Davis, Daniel and Nicholas Strang-Wolf. Preferred Communication Channels between Students and Faculty Within Extra Class Interactions. Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, Suntec Singapore International Convention & Exhibition Centre, Suntec City, Singapore, 2010.

Introduction

The uniqueness of individual differences goes beyond personal appearances to personality. Personality entails how different people act and react in given situations. The personality style of an individual is more natural but also influenced by many other factors such as cultural orientation, interaction with other people and challenges faced. The unique aspect of personality has encouraged many scholars to research on it since it creates an opportunity to identify the strengths and weaknesses of people. Daily interactions with people require effective communication which is vital at the workplace. This is crucial in ensuring a healthy work environment, resolving conflicts, offering motivation, learning to be professional and creating teamwork. This should be the thesis statement and you cannot write the words this paper because it then announces what your stating in the thesis, please delete those words and put a more clear thesis statement, everything else is good but the beginning of this sentence need to be reconstructed (be sure that you check the guidelines of a thesis statement). Personality styles differ to a great extent and affect the interactions and relationships between people particularly in the workplace. This will be illustrated through the evaluation of Susans personality and communication styles compared to three of her colleagues who have different personalities. Several ways of improving Susans relationship with her colleagues will also be discussed.

Personality and Communication Styles of Susan

Susan is generally extroverted, confident, flexible, and able to comfortably adapt to different situations. She loves working with others, has a good teamwork spirit; and loves correcting mistakes. As a result, do you need a comma before or after hence? she is actively involved in problem-solving and conflict resolution at her workplace. She is also persistent and able to remain calm even in situations of high pressure. Furthermore, she is very independent and sure of the actions she takes. In addition, she is very assertive and able to make decisions, has coping mechanisms for unexpected situations, is very optimistic and has exceptional leadership skills. This influences her working since she likes working with people and this exposes her flexibility to situations and maintenance of positive motivation (Siberg, Bakker-Pieper, Vries, Gameren & Vlug, 2009, p. 200).

Jourdain (2010), states that people with a personality such as Susans have very good leadership abilities due to their willingness to take control and charge of situations and like making things right. Moreover, they tend to be actively involved in solving problems or resolving conflicts. They are also very dependable at work and take responsibilities assigned to them seriously due to their persistence, independence, willingness to take chances even in doubtful situations as well as their accountability. However, Susans personality can be weaknesses to some extent. This is because of her stubbornness that arises from sticking to her opinions, willingness to make decisions at all times and the thought of not wanting to give up especially if she seems to be losing to the opinions of others.

Interactions with Three People in the Workplace

At work, Susan has to communicate and interact with her colleagues. Her interactions include with her boss, the accountant of the company, and her assistant in the secretarial department. Her boss has a melancholy temperament. He is more of a dictator because he does not like excuses given for failure to meet his expectations, orders things to be done fast and in his way. He is a very poor listener, very demanding, critical, and can be intimidating. The accountant of the organization, on the other hand, is a detailed person. He has a phlegmatic temperament with an introverted personality. He loves detail, is indecisive, is usually unwilling to take actions, impatient, is easily unmotivated and is slow in communication. He is also critical and negative about almost everything. The assistant secretary is a young lady with a sanguine personality. She has the know-it-all personality. She is not attentive to detail, loves heated debates and conflict situations, is disorganized, talks a lot, is very judgmental of the opinions of the others and likes public attention.

Dealing with People of Different Personalities

Susan finds herself in a situation in which she has to deal with people of very different personalities. DuBrin (2004) suggests that Susan needs to identify effective ways of communicating with each of her three co-workers who have different personalities and styles of communication and handle this situation professionally (p. 234). In this case, she can request for a short meeting with her boss and bring to his attention how intimidating attitude affects her work negatively. Additionally, she may incorporate humor to discuss his demands that are almost always unrealistic. In dealing with the accountant, Susan needs to portray the need for peace and put emphasize on the need for teamwork without portraying a bossy attitude. Rather, she should be patient and give him the opportunity to air his views and be sure to create a warm atmosphere for him to be motivated. Susan needs not to pressure the accountant, but learn to be patient with him while creating an environment of equality and give him all the details he wants in addition to being a good listener (DuBrin, 2004, p. 283). She however needs to confront him about his criticism in a calm way and not show control or intimidation but in an encouraging manner by reasoning with him about the matter. On interacting with her assistant, Susan needs to schedule a meeting and make it interesting, jovial and fun then point out the issue of too much talking and joking. She needs to explain to her that her habits make her unable to concentrate on her work. She should also encourage her on building teamwork with the others. She needs to confront her on her know-it-all attitude and suggest that she needs to give others an opportunity to air their views. Further, Susan needs to confront her about the effects her criticisms have on her work and emphasize on the need for her to work efficiently. However, Susan needs to recognize and appreciate the efforts made by her colleagues in understanding each others personality differences (Jourdain, 2010, p. 2).

Conclusion

This report has focused on evaluating and reviewing the personality of Susan together with the interactions she has with people of different personalities in her workplace. Further, the report has given recommendations on how Susan can enhance her interaction with her colleagues and ultimately increase her productivity.

Reference List

1. DuBrin, A. (2004). Applying Psychology: Individual and organizational effectiveness (6^th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
2. Jourdain, K. (2010). Communication styles and conflict. Journal of Quality and Participation, 9, 1-3.
3. Siberg, R., Bakker-Pieper, A., Vries, R., Gameren, K., & Vlug, M. (2009). The content and dimensionality of communication styles. Communication Research, 36(2), 178-206.

Introduction

Risk communication is generally regarded as one of the key parts of the effective public healthcare management. Therefore, it is of an essential importance for warning the population, preventing pandemics or other healthcare risks, as well as communicating protection measures. In general, risk communication is used frequently, and the general means that are used for this will be discussed in this paper.

Risk Communication

Risk communication instances are mainly associated with pandemics and other related risks. The key aims of the risk communication strategy generally depend on the nature of a risk, or a disaster, and Nielson et.al. (2005, p. 279) emphasized the following statement:

Sound and thoughtful risk communication can assist public officials in preventing ineffective, fear-driven, and potentially damaging public responses to serious crises such as unusual disease outbreaks and bio-terrorism. Moreover, appropriate risk communication procedures foster the trust and confidence that are vital in a crisis situation. There are steps public officials can take in advance of any incident to better prepare communities, risk managers, government spokespersons, public health officials, the news media, physicians, and hospital personnel to respond to the challenges of managing such crises.

The latest instance of risk communication was linked with the disaster in Japan. The earthquakes are comparatively regular in Japan, however, the risk of nuclear contamination could not be concealed. Therefore, media was the key tool of risk communication, as there was a necessity to communicate the disaster quickly, with the highest efficiency possible. However, the urgency of the messages, as well as the nature of communication caused immense panic in the world, as the countries became seriously worried on the matters of thee quality of imported products.

Public response for the message was the most suitable for the overall situation, as people became ready for the evacuation. As for the world community, the risk communication caused the wave of reaction associated with volunteering. On the other hand, people became afraid of the possible nuclear contamination, and some may avoid Japanese goods. As it is emphasized by Ratzan (2004, p. 5):

Applied to risk, communication might be defined broadly as a social process of information exchange between any entities in society on any form of risk (individual, social, political, environmental) that is purposeful or non-purposeful. In early risk management literature a narrower definition had become more widespread according to which risk communication usually focuses on an intentional transfer of information designed to respond to public concerns or public needs related to real or perceived hazards.

In the light of this statement, risk communication associated with the disaster in Japan could not be communicated otherwise. As for the possible alternatives of risk communication, these are selected in accordance with the event. (Berry, 2004) Considering the nature of the communication in Japan, this should be alarming for warning the Japanese population and the global community, and preventing mistakes. This may be also regarded as the necessary coordination tool that is important for the overall regulation of risk mitigation and decrease of the harm caused by earthquake and damages on the Nuclear Station.

Conclusion

Risk communication principles and tools that are generally used for regulating risk mitigation efforts are selected in accordance with the nature of a risk or a disaster. The risk communication process arranged in Japan may be regarded as the most effective tool for the regarded circumstances.

Reference List

Berry, D. C. (2004). Risk, Communication and Health Psychology. Maidenhead, England: Open University Press.

Nielson, N. L., Kleffner, A. E., & Lee, R. B. (2005). The Evolution of the Role of Risk Communication in Effective Risk Management. Risk Management and Insurance Review, 8(2), 279

Ratzan, S. C. (2004). Strategic Health Communication and Social Marketing on Risk Issues. Journal of health communication, 4(1), 1-6.

Throughout his books and other writings, William Edward Burghardt (W.E.B.) DuBois focuses on presenting well-written, fair-handed arguments for the fair treatment of African-Americans in this country. Acknowledging the accomplishments of white leaders with sincere language and forthright structure, he also denounces them for their failure to see the logistical error of their thinking. Alternating between personal and scientific writing, DuBois successfully appeals to the white majority on the basis of facts, evidence, and sound logic even while he presents emotional outbursts at the failure of this same community to recognize the many benefits his heritage has to offer. As time progressed with little or no change in the status quo, DuBois drifted more and more toward the political left in his political life and his writings, finally crossing over to communist ideology in his later years. As he became more and more disillusioned with the American system and more impressed with the actions of countries such as Russia is trying to overcome social injustice, DuBois became more emotional in his texts and articles. This drift, as well as the differences in writing styles, can be seen by comparing two works such as The Negro published in 1915, with Gift of Black Folk, published in 1924.

In The Negro (1915), DuBois presents what is commonly recognized as the first comprehensive history of African people, including those who trace their ancestry to Africa. Beginning with the lines Africa is at once the most romantic and the most tragic of continents (DuBois, 1915), the author examines the history of Africa from the earliest cultures into his own time.

In discussing early Africa before the influence of Western cultures, DuBois clearly demonstrates how the communities there included all the classic signs of development, including extensive agriculture, intellectual writing, ironworking, and other modern advances. However, he argues the devastation of the slave trade interrupted this progress, leading outside nations to assume the people who lived there were incapable of such knowledge. Through his examination, readers are given insights into the slave trade that have only recently been echoed in other works. Africans participation in the Civil War and the emancipation of the slaves is also examined, with the advantage of first-hand observation of how new legislation in the American south was functioning to ensure former slaves remained suppressed. Leading into the close of the book, DuBois further discusses the idea that segregation is a matter of social class instead of having anything to do with a particular race: In fact, it is generally recognized today that no scientific definition of race is possible. Differences, and striking differences, there are between men and groups of men, but they fade into each other so insensibly that we can only indicate the main divisions of men in broad outlines (DuBois, 1915). Prior to having any knowledge of genetics, DuBois made the argument that segregation has absolutely no foundation in biology by enumerating the many accomplishments made by black people when they are provided the opportunity and the education necessary to achieve the goals often pursued by others.

Finally, through his discussion regarding the link between all people, DuBois seems to foresee the present-day globalization effect simply through his deductions regarding sociology, human nature, and the historical context.

In addressing such a sensitive topic as slavery at the beginning of the twentieth century, DuBois characteristically removes emotion from the issue by looking at it from a scientific viewpoint.

The slave codes at first were really labor codes based on an attempt to reestablish in America the waning feudalism of Europe. The laborers were mainly black and were held for life (1915, 188) shows no sign of the anger and resentment, DuBois, no doubt felt regarding the subject. A trace of pride can be seen in the launching of the Niagara Movement by twenty-nine daring colored men in 1905, followed by the formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1910, marked an epoch in advance of the Negro (1915, 219) with the use of such language as daring and epoch but otherwise merely states the fact.

In Gift of Black Folk (1924), DuBois continues several of the thoughts and themes of his earlier work Souls of Black Folk (1903) as well as several strongly felt essays written during the course of his years as an editor for The Crisis, the African-American newspaper affiliated with the NAACP following its formation in 1910. Because these writings are more personal in nature, rather than addressed to a specific newspaper- or journal-reading public, the author allowed more of his own rage, sadness, and frustration toward the white-dominated world around him to show through as well as demonstrated more pride of race, joy in culture and richness in character. In this novel, he argues that the black mans biggest gift to the nation was the act of freeing himself from the bonds of slavery. The chapter entitled The Reconstruction of Freedom even picks up where an earlier article left off, further arguing against the prevailing attitude of the white community that African-Americans only fought in the war for economic reasons even though slavery had been the cause of the war.

More than just speaking on a physical level, in this novel, DuBois said it is the psychology of the black man that will help make Americans happy. It was this race of men that continued to keep their heads held high in their own minds even while suffering the disadvantages heaped on them by the dominating system. The songs and stories of the field, sung as spiritual reminders to have faith in a brighter future, were discussed by DuBois as evidence that the spirit of the black man cannot be broken in even the most trying times. Moreover, he claimed the black man has a unique perspective on life thanks primarily to the environment in which his ancestors thrived.

& [O]nly the race which has held at bay the life-destroying forces of the tropics, has gained therefrom in some slight compensation a sense of beauty, particularly for sound and color, which characterizes the race (DuBois, 1924). One of the few writers to acknowledge the importance of women as viable members of the society rather than the bane of a community, DuBois advocated forgiveness of the black slave concubines and enumerated ways in which the black woman should be proud of her heritage as well.

With a loosening of the strings that bound his words to such formal writing as works like The Negro, DuBois demonstrates much more emotion and expression in his writing style in Gift of Black Folk. Discussing the spirit of black people, DuBois claims their inherent nature has breathed the soul of humility and forgiveness into the formalism and cant of American religion (1924), allowing his pride of the spiritual wherewithal of the African-American community to shine through the language and meter of his lines.

With typical brevity, he also includes a slight slap to the white religion by using such terms as formalism and cant to suggest the essential emotional connection between the white individual and his or her religion did not exist, somehow making the white religion seem to offer less than the religion within the black churches could provide.

By using key terms such as draft horse to describe white laborers from other parts of the world, he subtly hints that the black slaves were somehow more human than their white counterparts simply because they could not be made into a mechanical creature but remained attuned to their own spiritual natures.

While The Negro presents DuBois historical arguments in cogent, well-outlined detail, Gift of Black Folk brings in a more conversational, loose grammatical style that served to bring the topics at hand to a more personal, feeling level. Perhaps, in relaxing the rigid rules of the text, DuBois was less able to restrain his emotional reaction to the subject, but the effect of this difference presents another face of DuBois  that of the frustrated black man proud of his heritage and tired of hiding it behind fancy words and well-turned phrases. By contrast, The Negro, perhaps because of its structure and rigidity, presents a highly praised and widely read (in its day) Africanized history book for the masses of people who did not always agree that the black mans heritage should be celebrated, but who would presumably be forced to re-evaluate their position upon finishing the final page thanks to the evidence presented. In each novel, DuBois arguments are logical, well-presented, and educated, but the subject matter of each is different. While The Negro focuses mainly on scientific, provable details, Gift of Black Folk is more subjective, intuitive, and emotional. While The Negro shows the restraint in the literary form hed learned in college, it lacked some of the emotional content he buried in syntax and polite objectivity.

By the time Gift of Black Folk was published, hed found a way of letting some of that emotion out of the box while still retaining the literary restraint hed struggled with early on.

By his own admission, DuBois felt his writing style in his earlier education was lacking in some fundamental way that would prevent him from being taken seriously by the educated white male public he wished to sway. I realized that while style is subordinate to content, and that no real literature can be composed simply of meticulous and fastidious phrases, nevertheless that solid content with literary style carries a message further than poor grammar and muddled syntax (DuBois, 1968). It was precise because of the very strict training he received at Harvard that DuBois was able to reach the literati of his age at close to equal status as an intellectual worth listening to. With correction in style from his instructors, DuBois was finally able to include the restraint and poise necessary for his later works to be recognized as the feats of science they were but lost some of his emotional connection to the work. As can be seen in his later works, this style gradually loosened, allowing more of this early emotion to shine through while still maintaining the strict discipline learned at Harvard.

In his writing, DuBois expresses himself in very educated, scientific terms to address common societal issues within the black community as it connected with (and was suppressed by) the white communities and stereotypes of the nation at large. Each novel he wrote and every article published addressed an issue that had been used as an arguing point to facilitate keeping the black man in his prescribed place in society rather than providing him with the means to escape the situations in which he found himself. At every step of the way, DuBois worked to make sure public figures and representatives answered to any sleight upon his people, including the ideas that a black man cannot be educated or that a black man cannot be intellectual. He did this by presenting logical arguments, tactile proof, and sound theories that still managed to appeal to the senses and explain why more black men werent found in more intellectual positions. He created a literary context that allowed him to educate and explain more than entertain but retained the interest of his readers with occasional slips of sensuality and other appeals to the senses in his writing style. In doing so, he invented an entirely new science we now call sociology that linked the study of history with the study of philosophy as it applied to mankind. In commenting on him, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote, history cannot ignore W.E.B. DuBois because history has to reflect the truth, and Dr. DuBois was a tireless explorer and a gifted discoverer of social truths. His singular greatness lay in his quest for the truth about his own people. There were very few scholars who concerned themselves with honest study of the black man, and he sought to fill this immense void. The degree to which he succeeded disclosed the great dimensions of the man.

Works Cited

DuBois, W.E.B. The Autobiography of W.E.B. DuBois: A Soliloquy on Viewing My Life from the Last Decade of Its First Century. New York: International Publishers Co. Inc., 1968. pp. 132-153.

DuBois, W.E.B. The Gift of Black Folk: Negroes in the Making of America. New York: Washington Square Press, 1970.

DuBois, W.E.B. The Negro. New York: Wildside Press, 2005.

Communication is the instrument by which injustices are remedied. It involves much more than just talking about an issue, anyone and everyone does that. The gravity of message must be clearly understood and the receiver(s) of the message must feel compelled to action or the issue in question cannot be remedied. The communicator must strike the delicate balance necessary so that people of all educational levels and backgrounds understand the importance of the message. They also must have the means to relay this message to a broad audience. Great oratory skills are imperative but if the message is not understood or fails to reach the masses, nothing significant happens, the if a tree falls in the woods and no one is there to hear it scenario. There are relatively few people in history that were in the right place at the right time, had developed the necessary skills and had the courage to effect change on a broad scale. One of those is Ida B. Wells. Both black persons and woman in the nineteenth century were thought of as lesser members of society yet Wells, a black woman, through her communicative skills and courage emerged to be one of the great communicators of her or any time.

Ida B. Wells, born into slavery in 1862, was a respected journalist and an outspoken activist who championed racial equality leading efforts to illuminate and eradicate the lynching of black men in the South. Wells, a preeminent spokesperson for civil rights long before the Civil Rights Movement, contested segregation laws more than half a century prior to Rosa Parks famous bus incident in the 1950s. Because she was a black female, much of her words were either left undocumented or were suppressed by the white media establishment. However, her efforts to communicate were so intense and broad-ranging that enough evidence remains of her militant, unabashed actions. Wells was a fearless heroine who championed civil liberties at a time when the majority of the country was fighting against her.

Wells parents, Jim and Elizabeth Wells, instilled in her a positive, goal-oriented attitude and an interest in politics. After his emancipation, her father became a member of a political organization dedicated to black causes, the Loyal League, where he openly campaigned for black politicians (Sterling, 1988, p. 65). Mr. Wells passionate interests regarding racial injustices were a strong influence on his daughter as was her mothers devotion to religion and a staunch work ethic. Both parents also stressed the value of education. More than 90 percent of emancipated black people were illiterate following the Civil War years. The freeing of the slaves allowed for the education of blacks. According to her autobiography, Wells said of attending Shaw, our job was to go to school and learn all we could (Duster, 1970, p. 9). Throughout her years at Shaw, Wells was dismayed by the fact that the college contained no books either written by or pertaining to blacks. This, along with her parents influences, would be a driving force in her life as she sought to produce meaningful material to the people of her community. After her parents died, an aunt, who lived in Memphis, encouraged her to move there in 1883. She did and began teaching in the city schools the following year (Sterling, 1988, p. 67).

Soon after arriving in Memphis, a racial incident caused Wells to become a writer and an activist. On May 4, 1884, while riding on a train to work, the conductor asked Wells to relocate from the front of the train to the back. She refused to comply and it took the conductor and three other men to physically remove her. Instead of moving, she got off the train and immediately hired an attorney when she returned home (Duster, 1970, p. 18). Wells won $500 in the suit against the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad Company but in 1887, the Tennessee Supreme Court reversed the lower courts decision. The victory for Wells was found in the publicity surrounding the event as it was the first lawsuit that challenged the prevailing separate but equal way of thinking in the South at that time and encouraged black people to stand up for their rights. Spurred on by the excitement among the black community following the lawsuit, Wells began a weekly column. I had an instinctive feeling that the people who have little or no school training should have something coming into their homes weekly which dealt with their problems in a simple, helpful way so I wrote in a plain, common-sense way on the things that concerned our people (Duster, 1970, pp. 23-24). Soon, Wells writing began appearing across the country in major black newspapers.

As Wells traveled throughout Tennessee, she witnessed the dreadful way blacks were subsisting. This impassioned her writing voice and she began addressing the bigger issue of inequalities and discrimination including the lack of opportunities for equal education and the imbalance of economic resources (Sterling, 1988, p. 75). In 1891, Wells was fired from her teaching job because of her scathing editorials condemning the Memphis School Board of Education and the white establishment for their persistent subjugation tactics regarding black students (Diggs, 1995, pp. 136-137). Wells went on to become the editor and part owner of the Free Speech and Headlight, a Memphis newspaper, in 1889, which enabled her to speak out to an even greater degree against the injustices she saw occurring all around her.

In 1892, the practice of lynching touched Wells in a very personal way. In March 1892, the Lynching at the Curve took the lives of three friends of Wells; Calvin McDowell, Henry Stewart and Thomas Moss. These three black men opened a grocery store across the street from a white-owned grocery store which, before the black store opened, had been the only store in town. The citizens of the town, a majority of which were black, switched to the new store which angered the white owners who then organized a violent mob so as to force black owners to leave. Having been warned that a white mob was assembling to drive them out, the black men took up arms and stayed inside their store. When three trespassing white men broke in, they were shot and wounded. The local, white-owned, newspapers account of the story misrepresented the facts stating that Negro desperadoes had shot white men (Sterling, 1988, p. 78). Fueled by hardened bigotry and sensationalistic rhetoric, a second mob broke into the jail, kidnapped the black men, beat and then lynched them. Wells response to the brutal murder of her friends was via her column in which she directed the black population in Memphis to vacate the city. There is therefore only one thing left to do; save our money and leave a town which will neither protect our lives and property, nor give us a fair trial in the courts, but takes us out and murders us in cold blood when accused by white persons (Sterling, 1988, p. 80). Within two months, more than six thousand black people had moved and those that didnt boycotted white businesses.

Following this incident, Wells writing became even more scathing in its tone and concentrated on the practice of lynching. She began to give speeches and to organize the black community in an attempt to bring an end to the practice. At one of her speeches given to a group of black womens organizations in 1892, Wells was handed $500 to complete and publish a comprehensive study regarding lynching. Wells started her study by investigating the reasons given by the whites for lynching blacks and found that black men were charged then summarily hung, burned to death or shot for trivial matters such as stealing hogs, late in paying a debt, public drunkenness, testifying in court and disrespecting whites. The most common charge was for rape. Many black men were lynched simply because they were accused of raping a white woman. Decrying the sexual double standard at the root of Americas race war, Wells recognized the issue as one embedded in cultural and sexual stereotypes of black men, as well as conventional and often false notions of white womanhood (Braxton, 1999, p. 101).

During Wells investigation, she discovered evidence in most of the rape cases indicating the relationships between black men and white women were consensual. If the white woman was found out or simply felt ashamed and wanted retribution against the black man, all she had to do was accuse him and that was enough for arrest and conviction. Wells findings infuriated the white community and a mob threatened her life and destroyed her newsroom office while she was out of town. She simply moved to Chicago and continued her efforts unabated. Wells viewed lynching as an act of repression, both economically and politically noting how gender and race are manipulated by patriarchal structures (Carby, 1997, p. 334). Lynching, Wells argued, is an institutionalized practice supported and encouraged by established leaders of the community and the press they influenced (Carby, 1997, p. 334). Wells further stated that, lynching is not a crime of passion, instead, the lyncher uses the Black body and the Black life as a medium, upon and through which he transmits an economically motivated, political message (Davis, 1995, p. 83).

Wells sailed to Britain in 1893 giving anti-lynching speeches and meeting with government officials for two months. She found that British women were more progressive and better organized so she encouraged her readers to join or start civic associations. Wells started the London Anti-Lynching Committee then came back to the U.S. to form womens clubs in Boston and Chicago. On her second trip abroad, Wells took with her the Tabulated Statistics and Alleged Causes of Lynchings in the United States, 1892-1894, an expansion of her earlier studies documenting the sad practice of American lynching. Wells was careful to obtain all of her statistics from white sources so as not to taint the reports credibility. In 1894, the Chicago Tribunal alone reported 197 occurrences of lynching. Consistent with earlier findings, two-thirds were for petty crimes such as theft or fighting and about one-third was for rape. The charges were rarely, if ever substantiated and the victims of this vigilantism were not allowed to present a defense (Duster, 1970, p. 222).

Wells legacy is presenting the truth from an ugly period in American history to a wide audience. Her life work is of great historical significance as she was one of the first persons to engage in the fight of equality and helped lay the foundation for the Civil Rights Movement to come. In her 1928 autobiography, Wells stated that the history of this entire period which reflected glory on the race should be known. Yet most of it is buried in oblivion and so, because our youth are entitled to the facts of race history which only the participants can give, I am thus led to set forth the facts (Duster, 1970, p. 5).

Wells died on March 25, 1931 leaving behind a heritage of dedication, activism and hope for a better future for blacks. Her accomplishments are magnified given her outspokenness in the social context of that time period. This courage of conviction gave strength to those that would follow in her footsteps. Wells carried her message regarding the horrors and facts surrounding the practice of lynching and other injustices blacks faced throughout the U.S. and Britain and engaged in a constant effort to inform and organize. Wells immense and important contributions to civil liberties as an activist, writer, organizer and social researcher place her as one of American historys most remarkable and vibrant figures.

Works Cited

Braxton, Joanne M. Crusader for Justice: Ida B. Wells. African American Autobiography: A Collection of Critical Essays. William Andrews (Ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1993.

Carby, Hazel V. On the Threshold of Womans Era: Lynching, Empire and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory. Dangerous Liaisons: Gender, Nation and Postcolonial Perspectives. Anne McClintock, Aamir Mufti & Ella Shohat (Eds.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1997.

Davis, Simone W. The Weak Race and the Winchester Political Voices in the Pamphlets of Ida B. Wells-Barnett. Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers. Vol. 12, N. 2, (1995).

Diggs-Brown, Barbara. Ida B. Wells-Barnett: About the Business of Agitation. A Living of Words: American Women in Print Culture. Susan Albertine (Ed.). Knoxville: University of Tennessee, 1995.

Duster, A. (Ed.). Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.

Sterling, D. Black Foremothers. New York: The Feminist Press, 1988.

Outline

The technological revolution has been advancing at an alarming speed, consequently changing the way people do business and communicate. Other than inventions such as telephones, fax, and printing press, the latest fad in computer technology has seen even more dramatic attention in information technology. Some experts have attributed this wave in information communication to information processing, an extension of the wave of the industrial revolution, which would facilitate the development of an information society built on the creation and transfer of information (Brynjolfsson & Hitt 2003, p.793). This ability to process a large volume of information from any point of operation has transformed the global market, leading to a global network of companies. This paper discusses the potential impact of information communication technology; drawing ideas from the present and past trends and experiences.

Introduction

Revolutions in technology have had a dramatic and ostensible impact on the drastically changing world and society in general. The extensive use of the printing press, for instance, has literally altered the way people do business, learn and think. Another equally effective gadget is the telephone that has not only changed the convenience of communication but has also increased the speed of information flow and enhanced new kinds of human interactions, especially in business. Probably the most astonishing technological revolution of all times emerged with the advent of computers. Over the last two decades, computer technology has changed our daily lives in terms of work-life, business life, and general social life. It is however interesting to note that much of the computer technology changes and impacts occurred in the last ten years, a break from the first half of the two decades when computer applications were basic in nature. Tsai (2003, p. ix) says that the change brought about by computers has been especially dramatic in how business is defined and conducted, and that information technology has contributed to some of the most spectacular business successes of the 1980s and 1990s; but it has also been responsible for the most crushing business failures of the past decade.

The technological revolution like a very tiny computer microprocessor has basically transformed the economy, with scholars coiling terms such as the information age, the information society, or the information economy, in an effort to find the best way to describe the latest technological revolution such as internet resulting into e-business (Bartel, Ichniowski & Shaw 2007, p.1721). We are at the dawn of this digital revolution, which is transforming the dawn of the 21^st century the way the industrial revolution transformed the end of the 19^th century (Tsai 2003, p.17). The convincing arguments on what has caused this technological craze is fronted by John Naisbitt, who hypothesized that the new technologies of information processing are an extension of the wave of the industrial revolution, that would facilitate the development of information society built on the creation and transfer of information (Brynjolfsson & Hitt 2003, p.793). In an actual sense, information has turned out to be one of the key resources in the new social and economic relations, just the way energy drove the industrial revolution.

Information technology Vs future business prospects

What then does information technology hold for the future human communication in business; say ten to fifteen years from now? The rapidly growing communication networks and the new media are nonetheless creating a global village and a new culture. It has seen a dramatic decline in the real cost of processing information, communication, and transportation by literally globalizing the markets and expanding the global resource base (Bartel, Ichniowski & Shaw 2007, p.1729). These global communication networks are based on either ground or satellite systems, are virtually all over, making it feasible for a firm to manage not only highly integrated operations but also globally dispersed operations in real-time (Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson & Hitt 2002, p.340; Bresnahan & Trajtenberg 1995, pp.83-84).

It is apparent that even the leading technology industries have adopted one common principle: open communication for real-time business (Autor, Katz & Kearney 2006, p.191). They understand that business, even the hyper-technical one, is not a repetitive mechanical process but is a people-driven process in terms of ideas as well as communication (Faria, Fenn & Bruce 2002, p.573). Recently, Google was ranked the best employer by Fortune magazine, due to their effort to make business personal by emphasizing the importance of human communication, relationship as well as interaction (Bartel, Ichniowski & Shaw 2007, p.1745). What actually prompted this? In a real sense, the technological advancement that Google has employed has increased the communication means between employees and the management in its global network, enhancing not only the speed of communication but also the reliability of the communication channel. It is therefore prudent to predict that in the next decade, there is likely to be more advancement in terms of improving employee interrelation within the work environment, going by the rate of innovations that are yet to come.

The Virtual corporations

The potential impact of information technology on communication can be seen among the growing trends of virtual corporations. Actually, a virtual corporations key objective is to increase the adaptability as well as flexibility between its pools of global staff, through what is normally termed as empowerment and self-control (Astebro 2004, p.381; Bresnahan & Trajtenberg1995, p.102). This capability has allowed global companies to process large volumes of information from any point of operations, hence transforming them into a global network of companies. Technological advancement has also helped firms increase their collaboration and communication across their line of business, a trend that is likely to persist and even intensify in the next decade or so.

In the future, the traditional limitation of time and space is likely to disappear even further due to the dramatic increase in information and communication technologies. The IT sector is quickly becoming a major driving force in the emerging economies just like it has played significant role in the established economies. For example India currently exports of software and its related services amount to a whooping $6 billion a year (Bartel, Ichniowski & Shaw 2007, p.1753). Success in communication technology allowed the Four Asian Tigers emerge as only second to North America (p.1754). In the developed countries, almost every business is exposed to multiple forms of information communication technology that may involve online marketing, online buying, and selling of goods and services. This has seen the increased interest in IT education that has prompted many institutions all over the world adopting e-learning to increase the accessibility of their course to a visibly busy generation (Hollenstein 2004, p.38). For example in 2002, China had 67 state universities in its 31 provinces offering accredited online course 800,000 students that was scheduled to take three years and that expenditure on e-learning academic was growing at 74% per annum, growth attributed to the flexibility of place of learning (70%) and accreditation of the degree of study (62%) (pp.41-42).

The above highlighted case of India can lead to my prediction that the ubiquity of the best information communication contents and processes will help the emerging economies build the resources supporting information communication not only with increased fashion but also in a cheaper and a better way. For example, the recent entry of optic cables to replace the satellite communication in Africa is likely to propel the communication efficiency in the content, bringing with it more business competition. This is because it would be harder for businesses based in Western countries to claim any added value to their business communication process rather than state the age of their accredited brand as Tsai (2003, p.121) describes it. Furthermore, many emerging economies are now putting a lot of emphasis on building their domestic strategies on information communication to spur growth. For instance, Chinese government has invested heavily in their information communication infrastructure: CERNET, an optical backbone that links over 4 million users (expected to rise), one area that is likely to spur growth and develop a fierce competition between the local and foreign companies (Hollenstein 2004, p.56; Banks, Carson, Nelson & Nicol 2000, p.69). Past studies revealed that about 600,000 of the Chinese students who went to study abroad since 1979, only 160,000 returned home after graduating while the majority 430,000 stayed to either continue studying or working abroad (NTO 2001, p.29). The approach by the Chinese government to provide incentives to these highly educated individuals is likely to change the labor market, thus change the information communication landscape (p.33). It is therefore predictable that in the next ten years or so Chinas market will be no doubt a major contributor to the global communication technology.

Conclusion

The new wave of information communication can also be seen in the way many companies are putting large investments in the infrastructure. But as has been revealed by many studies, the most important aspect is to develop a culture of shared value that can facilitate information technology adoption (Hollenstein 2004, p.59) says that the investment in advanced communication technologies may not automatically result into improved communication by, and between employees. Already there is emerging concern that the developers of these technologies (information technology experts) and the top managers assume too much of the technology application by the employees. However, with a lot of researches that continues to reveal that it of utmost importance for employees combine technology with face-to-face interactions and that hand-holding in the beginning is important for the realization of the success in the information technology (Banks, Carson, Nelson & Nicol 2000, p.41). In line with this, it is likely that these studies will reinforce the idea that regardless of the technology use, the underlying issue of connectedness is the necessary recipe to be emphasized in an effort to find balance between employees and the new technology. This is likely to enhance areas such as improved performance, evaluation and re-training employees.

List of References

Åstebro T 2004, Sunk costs and the depth and probability of technology adoption, The Journal of Industrial Economics, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 381-399.

Autor D, Katz L & Kearney M 2006, The polarization of the U.S. labor market, American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, Vol. XCVI, pp. 189-194.

Banks J, Carson S, Nelson L & Nicol M 2000, Discrete-Event System Simulation 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bartel A, Ichniowski C & Shaw K 2007, How does information technology affect productivity?Plant-level comparisons of product innovation, process improvement, and worker skills, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 122, No. 4, pp. 1721-1758.

Bresnahan T & Trajtenberg M 1995 General purpose technologies: engines of growth?, Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 65, pp. 83-108.

Bresnahan T, Brynjolfsson E & Hitt L 2002, Information technology, workplace organization and the demand for skilled labor: firm-level evidence, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 117, No. 1, pp. 339-376.

Brynjolfsson E & Hitt L 2003, Computing productivity: firm-level evidence, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 85, No. 4, pp. 793-808.

Faria A, Fenn P & Bruce A 2002, Determinants of adoption of flexible production technologies: evidence from Portuguese manufacturing industry, Economic of Innovation and New Technology, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 569-580.

Hollenstein H 2004, The decision to adopt information and communication Technologies (ICT): firm-level evidence for Switzerland, The Economic Impact of ICT Measurement, Evidence and Implications, Paris: OECD, pp. 37-60.

NTO 2001, IT and communications professionals in the UK, Labour Market Intelligence Report, London.

Tsai H 2003, Information Technology and Business Process Reengineering: New Perspective and Strategies, New York, Praeger Publishers.

Communication plays a great role in the modern world as it ensures that people properly understand each other in different settings. The exchange of information is related to the flow, coordination, as well as learning and listening skills. In addition, communication is the basis for establishing both personal and professional relationships. I want to improve my text messaging and email communication and face-to-face interaction knowledge and skills.

The importance of face-to-face communication refers to the fact that people use it every day to translate their messages, cooperate with others, and understand what they want. Without effective communication, it is impossible to make strong connections and be effective as a team. Therefore, I believe that I should work on my verbal and non-verbal communication abilities to learn how to become an active participant in conversations. According to Hynes and Veltsos (2018), it is critical to choose proper words, maintain eye contact, and watch your posture, and it is also noted as useful to practice active listening. In other words, communication should not be perceived as for granted. Instead, effective face-to-face communication needs to be developed through both theory and practice.

As for text messaging and email communication, media and messengers allow for interacting remotely, which is important for business and personal communication. In this case, not only grammar rules, but also the structure, writing style, and purpose should be taken into account (Hynes & Veltsos, 2018). I would like to learn email communication etiquette to master my writing skills. It seems that I should focus on such strategies as defining value proposition, personalizing emails and messages, and understanding what the other person exactly wants from communication.

Reference

Hynes, G. E., & Veltsos, J. R. (2018). Managerial communication: Strategies and applications. Sage Publications.

Why is it relevant?

The meaning of any communication is determined not only by the words that are pronounced. In most cases, it depends on what non-verbal signs and messages are sent at the same time. The topic is relevant because non-verbal communication is the most ancient form of human communication. Non-verbal communication is such movements and features of a person when transmitting a verbal message to them, which are interpreted as meaningful, i.e., as if they have an intention, although they are unconscious, and are equally interpreted in a given culture or a given speech community (Adler et al., 2016). It is important to note that the world uses the same non-verbal signals, but their perception varies from culture to culture (Burgoon et al., 2016). For example, we are comfortable that a simple nod of our head means yes or agreement. However, in India, Turkey, Greece, and Bulgaria, the nod has the opposite meaning. Agreeing, a Turk, Greek, Bulgarian or Indian will swing from side to side, which in our non-verbal language means a negative answer. In Japan, a quick nod indicates that a person is listening carefully, but that does not mean that they agree. Non-verbal communication, in addition to movement, voice, facial expressions, includes preferences in clothing, furniture, temperature, color, interior decoration, and many other features.

Now we will consider the types of non-verbal communication in more detail.

Kinesics and paralanguage

Kinesics

First of all, kinesics involve eye contact, which is characterized by how and for how long we look at another person or people in the process of communication. It reflects how carefully one listens and, most importantly, reveals certain emotions. Dominance intensity expresses the ability to dominate with the eyes. Paying attention to these moments, one can understand whether the dialogue is engaging and interlocutors listen to each other attentively, what feelings and emotions the listener experiences. People tend to maintain eye contact when discussing topics exciting or pleasant to them. On the contrary, individuals avoid direct glances when the topic is unenjoyable or difficult.

For instance, they are ashamed or trying to hide something. Interestingly, in the United States, women are more likely to make eye contact in conversation than men (Buroon, 2016). The facial expression, in its turn, conveys the emotional state of a person. In any culture, they are recognizable: sadness, joy, fear, surprise, anger, and disgust (Adler et al., 2016). Another non-verbal communication means is gestures: the movement of hands and fingers while talking. All people differ in the intensity of gesticulation that accompanies speech. It is also important to mention the posture, i.e., the body position in the space. Learning to read poses is essential. For example, when a person suddenly straightens up and leans forward, it indicates they increase their attention; and if they get up, it means that the conversation is over.

Movements in general and gestures, in particular, can: 1) replace a word, phrase; 2) illustrate what the person says; 3) serve for non-verbal expression of feelings; 4) manage the course of the conversation; 5) relieve stress.

Paralanguage is a way of expressing words in a speech with non-verbal signals. They include vocal characteristics and vocal impediments. The former comprise the pitch of the voice, which changes with volume. When people are nervous, they raise their voices; at the same time, when trying to convince, they tend to speak quietly (Burgoon et al., 2016). Vocal features also include the volume of speech, its pace, and a persons timbre. People speak faster when they are happy or afraid (Burgoon et al., 2020). At the same time, vocal impediments are a crucial component of speech and can create a certain impression of the interlocutor. For example, uh-uh, mmm, well, kinda. Their excessive use can create an unfavorable impression of a person.

Self-presentation and environment organization

Self-presentation is crucial and comprises many features, one of which is clothing and appearance. They are also capable of conveying messages like any type of non-verbal communication. Self-control (manner and ability to hold on). Nervousness is common in most people, but as they gain confidence in their abilities, it decreases. Nervousness can be dealt with in a variety of ways, but the most important thing is to understand why a person is nervous. Touch also reads differently in different situations. For example, a touch that seems pleasant to one person (hugs, slaps on the back) may seem intimate or threatening to another. Therefore, it can be both positive and negative.

Time. Activity duration is the amount of time we consider appropriate for a given situation (for example, a lesson is 45 minutes long). The content of the activity is what needs to be done in a given period. For example, in the USA, time is perceived monochromatically, i.e., it is irrevocable and unidirectional, and it must be protected and taken into account. In Asia, Latin America, on the contrary, time is presented polychronically, i.e., being late doesnt make sense. Punctuality is strict adherence to the framework. In the United States, it is the dominant imperative that if a person arrives too early or is late, this will be considered disrespectful to the meeting.

Communication through environment organization

Space. First of all, the organization of permanent and non-permanent structures is critical: buildings in which we live and work and parts of buildings, the layout of which we cannot change, and the organization of objects in space. The latter implies the ability to rearrange things in order to achieve a certain result. The organization of informal space and its subsequent perception is intrinsically linked to distance characteristics. Intimate distance  up to 45cm (between close friends); personal distance  from 45cm to 1.2m (normal conversation); social distance  from 1.2m to 3.5m (business meetings); public distance  from 3.5m (public speaking) (Burgoon et al., 2016). Thus, a communication frame determines the distance between interlocutors, and not following these imperatives will result in communication breakdown.

Other important features to control are temperature, light, and colors. Temperature can facilitate or hinder effective communication; for example, it is impossible to listen carefully in a hot room, or, conversely, people become nervous in a cold room. The lighting level is vital for the transmission of information. Color stimulates specific emotional and physical responses (red  energizing; blue  calming) (Burgoon et al., 2016).

Why know all this?

Thus, although verbal and non-verbal forms are most effective when they complement each other, non-verbal signals can replace verbal and even contradict them. When verbal and non-verbal cues contradict each other, people unconsciously tend to trust non-verbal signals more (Adler et al., 2016). Such signals convey a colossal stream of information, although they are not expressed in words. A person poorly understands many of ones own non-verbal actions since it happens unconsciously and, thus, is difficult to control. At the same time, other peoples actions are easily grasped and understood. Non-verbal communication is, thus, a powerful, tricky means of communication, and one who masters it has an advantage in a communication situation

References

Adler, R. B., Rodman, G. R., & Du Pré, A. (2016). Understanding human communication (Vol. 10). Oxford University Press.

Burgoon, J. K., Guerrero, L. K., & Manusov, V. (2016). Nonverbal communication. Routledge.

Introduction

In 1978, the World Health Organization (WHO) stated that health care is a fundamental right of every human being in the globe (Mays et al, 2007). This came about as a result of the increased rates of health disparities. To ensure that every health institution and professional sticks to this new rule, this declaration was published on the WHO constitution and became a professional ethic that professionals in the healthcare industry had to adhere to. However, the level of health disparity has tremendously increased after this amendment was made. This trend has been the same in almost every nation in the world. According to Pieterse and Carter (2010), the United States has the gap of health disparities as compared to other countries of the world (2). This disparity arises on various grounds. This may include race, religion or social class. However, racial discrimination is the construct that represents the highest rate of health disparity in the country with the extremes being exhibited between the White Americans and African Americans (Pieterse and Carter, 2010).

From the studies that have been conducted in the United States, it has been identified that the White Americans have always been favoured as compared to African Americans. From these findings, it will be true to state that African American women receive the lowest quality of health care. This is due to the fact that they come from a society that is highly oppressed with racism and live in a culture that views women as a weaker sex of the community. To support this argument, I focused on a study that was conducted by Pieterse and Carter in the year 2010. In this study, Pieterse and Carter focused on the relationship between racism and racial identity and health locus of control. Their main target group were African American women. The aim of this study was to determine whether racism and racial related attitudes played an important role in the health disparity of African American Women.

Findings and Discussion

The world is changing at a fast rate. This change is affecting every aspect of our lifestyles. The innovations and developments in the field of medicine and nursing have made nursing and medical care to be more effective and efficient. However, for this efficiency to be transferred to the masses of the public, there has to be social, political and economic equality among all the members of the society (Pieterse and Carter, 2010). Therefore, the main setback that nurses are currently facing in the process of provision of health care is racial and cultural differences. From the study that Pieterse and Carter conducted, the individuals who were favoured when it came to the provision of medical care were the members of the White American communities while those who were least favoured were those individuals who were from the African American communities. The study further went on and stated that the most affected individual by this disparity were the women from the African American communities. As a result, African American women are more likely to die from cardiovascular diseases and HIV/AIDS as compared to any other cultural group in the American society. On the other hand, they stand a higher chance of suffering from terminal illnesses such as cancer, diabetes and hypertension. They are also likely to receive poor pre-natal care, delivery services and post-natal care.

From the findings of this study, it was evident that racism and racial related attitudes played a critical role in the physical and psychological health of the members of the sample group that was used. The attitudes and perceptions of these individuals are also important factors that lead to the widening of health disparity among the members of a given community. These attitudes and levels of self-esteem have come about as a result of the racism that women from the African American culture have been facing all through their history in the United States. In this study, it was hypothesised that the participants of the study had experienced at least one of the following forms of racism:

1. Institutionalized racism
2. Personally mediated racism
3. Internalized racism

African Americans have for a long time being the victims of institutionalized racism. They have been treated less than fairly on numerous occasions while seeking services that are deemed to be their rights in almost every institution; hospitals being one of them. Several cases that have been documented whereby medical professionals have abused their power and treated the members of this cultural group less than fairly. A good example is the experimental research in Alabama where African American men were used as test subjects to determine the outcome of untreated syphilis condition (Williams and Collins, 2004). Personally mediated racism on the other hand comes from other members of the society who treat minority groups less than fairly. The above two forms of racism then trigger the third form of racism, internalized racism, where an individual develops a low self-esteem as a result of his status in the community. This in turn affects the attitudes and perceptions of an individual (which in this case was African American women). As a result, such an individual may develop a negative attitude towards the health system and medical profession. This in turn reduces his/her level of health control. As a result, they become prone to more diseases (Keppel, 2007).

It is therefore the role of a nurse to end the health disparities among the members of various cultures in the United States and the world at large. Through the knowledge and skills that they posses, nurses stand at a position where by they are able to influence the acts that lead to institutionalized and personally mediated racism in the medical profession. To achieve this, it will be essential for nurses to create awareness on cross-cultural issues. This will ensure that all professionals in the medical arena understand the needs and requirements of individuals who come from different cultures and backgrounds. However, this will require the modification of the nursing education, practice, policies and ethics with regards cultural care of clients (Giddings, 2005). This will in turn lead to the elimination of discrimination and marginalization of health medical services. In addition, it is the role of nurses to ensure that every individual in the society is aware and understands their rights and privileges with regards to the provision of medical services. To achieve this, nurses should organize rallies, clinics and forums for awareness creation and sensitization of the public. This is an effective tool in changing their attitudes and perceptions towards healthcare.

Conclusion

Health disparity has been a major setback in the practicing of the medical profession and provision of medical services to the public. This has affected the attitudes and perception of those individuals who have been oppressed by this phenomenon in a negative manner. In the United States, women from the African American community have been greatly affected by this predicament. Therefore, as a nurse, it is essential to sensitize such individuals in order to empower them on their rights. It is also necessary for the nursing education, practice, policies and ethics to be modified in order to respect the cultural differences of medical clients. This will eradicate the health disparity that has negatively affected the provision of medical care worldwide.

References

Giddings, L.S. (2005). Health Disparities, Social Injustice and the Culture of Nursing. Nursing Research, 54 (5), 304-312

Keppel, K.G. (2007). Ten largest racial and ethnic health disparities in the United States based on healthy people 2010 objectives. Journal of Epidemiol ,166 (9), 11056.

Mays, V.M., Cochran, S.D. and Barnes, N.W. (2007). Race, Race-based Discrimination, and Health Outcomes among African Americans. Annu Rev Psychol, 58 (2), 20125.

Pieterse, A. and Carter, R. (2010). An Exploratory Investigation of the Relationship between Racism, Racial Identity, Perceptions of Health, and Health Locus of Control among Black American Women. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved,21 (2), 334-348

Williams, D.R. and Collins, C. (2004). Reparations: A Viable Strategy to Address the Enigma of African American Health. American Behavioral Scientist, 47 (7), 9771000.