The internet has enabled people to communicate in a more timely and efficient way. It has changed the way people conduct their personal and business activities, thus changing nearly every aspect of life. Internet communication tools include websites, e-mails, forums, chats, and streams (Fenell, 2010). The following are some of the terms used in online communication tools:
User ID: a distinctive combination of characters, like letters or numbers which users accessing their accounts are required to provide for identification. Many users prefer to use their first and last names for identification. A user named Mike Cooper might select M Cooper as his user ID.
Host name: this is an identifier for devices communicating over the internet. Host names are essentials in emails or usenet for identifying devices (computers). Host names can be straightforward names having one word or phrase, or have complicated names with Domain Name System (DNS) identifier.
Snail mail: known as paper mail, snail mail refers to the traditional physical mails that take longer time to reach the recipients as compared to e-mails.
E-mail client: this is a computer application that helps users to organize their e-mail since it can access the mailbox. Apple mail and Mozilla are examples.
POP (Post Office Protocol): is a standard used by users to efficiently access or receive e-mails from a distant server within a TCP/IP network.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): is a standard used by mail servers, user-level clients, and mail transfer agents in sending and receiving e-mails over IP networks.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): is a flexible standard that enables an email client to retrieve e-mail from a distant mail server. It has rich functionality as compared to POP, since users can track the status of mails and access many mails simultaneously (Shelly, Napier, & Rivers, 2009).
To line: it consists of the email addresses of those people who are required to receive the message and act upon it.
Cc line: Cc is carbon copy. This line denotes the people who should receive the copy of the message without necessarily responding to it.
Courtesy copy: is a business e-mail term used to notify stakeholders about the message being conveyed within the business. They are not supposed to respond but they should be aware of the message. It is also known as Cc.
Bcc line: Bcc is blind carbon copy. This line specifies the email addresses that receive the copy of the message but such addresses are hidden from the recipients.
Blind courtesy copy: It is a term used in business environments to refer to Bcc. The receivers of the message are unable to know the people who are blind carbon copied.
Subject line: shows the topic of the message that enable the receiver to know the exact content of the message.
Attach line: is where users can click and select the files to send with the e-mail.
Attachment: files that are transmitted together with the e-mail.
Message body: it is the full explanation of the subject matter, normally includes a request for action and time frame for the action.
Signature file: a short text file placed at the end of e-mail messages for identification. The file might contain name and address of the sender.
Message header: it shows the path that a message used as it passed mail servers. It is normally used for tracking and monitoring purposes.
HTML-formatted message: a message that is constructed using hypertext markup language tags. Web mails such as Gmail support HTML formatted messages.
Flaming: this is an unfriendly and abusive interaction between e-mail or chat users. People who introduce such conversations are known as flamers.
Emoticon: this is a facial appearance that is depicted through punctuation and letters, normally to enable users express their feelings in writing messages (Stair & Reynolds, 2006).
The above terms are the basics of an online communication tool. E-mail is one of the most popular online communication tools due to various reasons. First, e-mail allows people to send messages without any postage expenses, making it easy to communicate. Second, business information or messages can be conveyed in real-time because e-mail is faster than traditional physical mails. Third, e-mail enables businesses to generate immediate response to customer registration and online purchasing activities.
This can be done through links that give clients an opportunity to access business offerings. Fourth, e-mail is used as a target market tool. Companies can separate lists into categories so their e-mails go to the anticipated customers. Fifth, e-mail expands the awareness of business products and services through the forwarding capability that enable users to send messages to others. Lastly, e-mails acts as storage tools for vital information about individuals (Shelly et al., 2009). Attachments can be retrieved easily at any time even if the original file was corrupted by computer virus or accidentally lost. Therefore, organizations see e-mail as an indispensable business communication tool.
References
Fenell, Z. (2010). Internet based Communication Tools. Web.
Shelly, G.B., Napier, H.A, & Rivers, O. (2009). Discovering the Internet: Complete Concepts and Techniques. 3rd Ed. Boston: Cengage Learning, Inc.
Stair, R.M., & Reynolds, G. W. (2006). Fundamentals of information systems. (3rd Ed.). Boston: Thompson Course Technology.
Human-computer interaction is about the connection between systems and the people that use them concerning their place of use. This paper seeks to look into a system that has been introduced into society but failed due to a bad implementation of the human-computer interaction process. As a case for this paper, it will dwell much on iPhone 4, its introduction, and the matters that have led to the much criticism it has fetched about the human-computer interaction systems.
Problem background
Any system is always led by huge expectations before its introduction into the market. This is an issue that results from various advertisements and other marketing strategies (Card, 1983). The iphone4 was long anticipated to be a hit in the market though it came up with much negative feedback from its users who categorized it as a flop. The main reason for this negative outlook was the design factors that made the phone users encounter some problems in usage and handling, calling call dropping, branded features among other factors as they will be discussed in the paper.
HCI vs. iphone4
Human-computer interaction falls into various categories which can be classified as technological and cognitive features, in the technology part, the design of the software and the hardware are some of the crucial factors to be considered. At the same time, it has the cognitive function which is more on how knowledge is passed by the machine to the user. In this field, the focus is on how people and machines interact and in the end, the person gets what he required from the machine. As the person is interacting with the gadgets or the computers, he should be favored by the design in that the system should be in such a way that it supports human usability.
It should also be clear that the system should be in such a way that the person using it should have easy access to information. This means that the computer system or the gadget under discussion should be designed in such a way that it should aid the person in the access of information (Moggridge, 2007). This can be through normal information retrieval procedures like browsing the internet.
Iphone4, upon its release, got a lot of criticism in various fields. In such a short while after acquiring the phone, many people started complaining of the poor reception that the phone had and that it dropped calls. In many common phone designs today, the reception of the network depends upon the placement of the antenna. In this particular phone, the antenna had been dedicated to one part thus was always blocked once a person tried to make or receive a call which resulted in interrupted reception. This has also been seen to have the extra risk of increasing the closeness of radiation to the body as the phone tries to communicate with the network masts.
This is a very serious flaw in the design of the phone which does not take care of the security of the user. The user context is one of the core HCI components and thus the design failure was a poor consideration of the HCI design.
The name of the phone, the iphone4, implies that it is a 4th generation phone while in an actual sense, it is a 3rd generation gadget (3G). This means that it cannot use wireless standards which use 4G. In the HCI components core structure, the particular computer system comes in. while buying this phone, people would have been duped into believing that it was a 4th generation gadget that they were buying whilst they were buying a gadget that would only operate on 3rd generation networks. This is a serious design and software flaw that again goes against the HCI considerations.
The phone was meant to be designed in such a way that the stainless steel band around it would improve wifi. This proved not to be the case since during the testing of the product; the wifi connection was not working very well. For a person to get a good connection, it is almost a requirement that there is a wireless router nearby otherwise the connection will be bad. Looking again at the core components of good HCI design is a consideration of the environment in which the computer system is to be used. The environment has to be favorable to the user particularly for the intentions that the system was made for (Saffer, 2006).
A mobile phone has features that enable any particular user to use the gadget irrespective of his or her location including while in transit. The iPhone was integrated with the wifi feature as part of the whole system but not on conditions that some other devices were to be nearby. It hence follows that the understated performance of the wifi is a gross inconsistency with the considerations of a good HCI system. The main deterrent of a proper HCI conducive environment was the questionable environment question (Dawes, 2007).
The design of the phone was aimed at making it a slim product that was easy to handle. The thin nature of the phone has a shape that makes it so easy to slip out a users hand. Looking at the essence of slimness, there is a stylish behavior that comes with it. The nature of the phone to easily slip out of the hands and fall and the other factor in design where the phone is made of glass makes people worry much.
The glass cover on the phone was designed to be three times stronger than plastic but on testing, it cracked almost entirely on being dropped four times. This then makes the phone users buy an extra protective case to make sure that it gets protection upon slipping. Looking at both cases, the design of the phone beats the slimness logic as the users cannot use it in that condition comfortably. The HCI component of the computer system at hand is then surpassed and also the component of usability.
Lastly on the design issues, the phone designers did not consider the information age of the users. Most of the users of the phone buy it considering the internet connectivity and searching of the required material over the net. Considering this matter, the phone was integrated with the Bing search engine whilst most of the users are conversant with Google. This was an outright in consideration of the users of the phone beating the components of good HCI design
Principals of good HCI design left out
In Human-Computer Interaction, there is a basic goal of improving the interactions between human beings and computer systems. In the long run, the field aims at reducing the barriers that do exist between human beings and machines. Professionals in this field have had a gross consideration of the effects in both the user interfaces in graphics and also the web. When a system has been designed such that this is not put into consideration or even after being put into consideration is somehow not fulfilled, then this system will have failed in the implementation of the HCI techniques (Jones & Marsden, 2006).
The analysis of Apples iphone4 has shown that most of the key components of HCI were closely related to the huge public outcry of the phone buyers in a negative way. This is clear evidence that the failure of the gadget to hit the market as was calculated was due to the failure in the implementation of the HCI design components.
Conclusion
The case of the launch of the iphone4 into the market is a good indicator of a system that has failed to a bad design of the human-computer interaction. The four core functionalities which were the major causes are the user, the task, context, and the particular system (Myers, 1998). The user was the iPhone buyer who did not get the product that he was eyeing. The task is using the phone through calling, web browsing, and other tasks which had failures in most cases. The environmental context was affected through the probability of breakage through falling and environmental cases. The particular system was the phone itself which has been seen to have quite a lot of problems.
References
Card, S. (1983) The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
Dawes, B. (2007) Analog in, digital out: Brendan Dawes on interaction design Behaviour & Information Technology 3: 25-76.
Jones, M. & Marsden, G. (2006). Mobile Interaction Design International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 7(1): 123-135.
Moggridge, B (2007) Designing Interactions ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction3 (2): 78-98.
Myers, B (1998) A brief history of human-computer interaction technology. Interactions 5(2):4454.
Saffer, D. (2006) Designing for Interaction Human-Computer Interaction 23-65.
Introduction: Investigation of Cryptography. Primary aims.
Narrative
The modern world of technology-mediated communication presents a wide range of threats for a safety of personal data within the Internet. Millions of people associate through the help of web services. Therefore, the information that is regularly thrown into the Internet space needs to be protected from an unauthorized usage.
Cryptography represents an efficient method of data securing. It establishes the rules of writing in secret codes, which serves as a solution for web interferences. Thus, in this paper I investigate the basics of cryptographic writing as well as evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of three working tools that are used by the experts in order to secure the information.
As an active Internet user, I am interested in my personal data being hidden from the outside intruders. It especially treats the financial operations that are regularly conducted by me through the web space. According to my personal experience, the financial transactions that are sustained through the Internet may be exposed to certain dangers.
For instance, some web services require its users to provide the confidential data like credit card passwords so that to accomplish transactions. Quite often, such techniques can be the subjects for Internet frauds. That is why, it is crucial to use cryptographic tools so that not to get into a trap of deceitful web systems.
Secondly, the matter is of special interest for millenials who spend much time spreading the information through social media. As a representative of Generation Y, I am involved into virtual interactions. Consequently, it is important for me to be aware of the safety of my personal messages. Therefore, a study of cryptographic tools contributes to the enhancement of Internet security standards.
Bridge
In this paper, I investigate three up-to-date cryptographic tools that assist the Internet users to secure their web communication. These are a blind coupon mechanism, a pseudo-random permutation and fuzzy commitment schemes. Such combination of security tools provides the users with an opportunity not only to guard the content of their messages, but to ensure that the information gets to a receiving side in its full and undamaged form.
Thus, a blind coupon mechanism allows the communicants to keep even the fact of a certain message transmission in secret. The second cryptographic tool that is reviewed in this work serves as a core method of encryption and decryption of messages by the communicators who own a common key. Finally, a study of commitment schemes helps me to show the way in which personal data becomes a binding element that ensures secure communication between two sides.
Therefore, a foundation of the Internet-mediated communication is predetermined by three elements: secure encoding, transmission and decoding of the message. The cryptographic tools that are reviewed in this qualitative research paper contribute to the establishment of such association.
The research is conducted through the creation of working communication models that are based upon the usage of three tools. As a result, I intend to reveal the advantages of the tools appliance as well as open up the perspectives of cryptography usage.
Major Findings: Evaluation of Cryptographic Models
Process Description
Since the aim of the research is to verify the cryptographic tools according to their initial prescriptions, I use the general grounded theory on the principles of the tools work so that to check their functioning.
Thus, a blind coupon mechanism is meant to hide the fact of message creation as well as transmit undetectable alerts about the possible intrusions to the communicants. Accordingly, the cryptographic tool has some peculiar features that determine its efficiency. Due to Aspnes, Diamadi, Gjosteen, Peralta, and Yampolskiy (2005), the tool provides security only if it ensures indistinguishability, unforgeability and blinding. Consequently, my primary aim in this paper is to prove that the tool complies with the characteristics and, thus, performs its main purpose.
According to Blundo, Masucci, Stinson, and Wei (2007), the major requirements that have to be satisfied by a fuzzy commitment scheme are binding and privacy. Therefore, I target the aforementioned qualities of the tool in this paper so that to test it and point out whether this model provides a full privacy for the communicators as well as stabilizes the content of a message.
Finally, the cryptographic tool of pseudo-random permutation possesses such parameters as sharing, multiplication and inferring. In this work, I present a model of communication that embraces definite steps and is based upon the mentioned peculiarities.
In the aftermath, I outline the reasons of successful functioning of three cryptographic tools as well as major principles of their work and emphasize the roles of these tools in the modern data security domain.
Major Findings
Every message that is generated within a virtual space is exposed to certain threats since the moment of its creation. Thus, a blind coupon mechanism is used to secure the data on the initial stages of its spreading.
To prove the compliance of blind coupon mechanisms with their defining attributes, I employed the working algorithm that was provided by a professor of Yale University, A. Yampolskiy, in his work (2006). Due to it, I built up a model of communication in which one can view the communicators who handle two types of coupons: dummy and signal coupons. In a sum, these coupons constitute a meaningful message that becomes a subject of a communication procedure.
Besides, in such a model, there should be an attacker who aims to intercept certain data. Thus, I found out that, according to the algorithm of the cryptographic tool, it will generate a number of abstract alerts that will be spread through the Internet in order to distract the potential attackers. The alerts are meant to resemble the actual messages so that to perplex the raiders. The advantage of the tool consists in a fact that the sources of the alerts are impossible to identify.
Therefore, on the basis of this model, I deduced that it corresponds to the initial parameters, since it provides indistinguishability (dummy and signal coupons can not be recognized), unforgeability (a message exists only in one variant, for the other variants serve as distractions) and blinding (an attacker can not distinguish a genuine message from the one imitated by a coupon).
The second tool that was investigated by me in this work is a threshold pseudo-random permutation tool. My aim in constructing the model on the basis of this tool was to prove that this cryptographic method ensures such security standards as multiplication, sharing and inferring.
Thus, I incorporated the pseudo-random system into the process of association between a sender and a receiver. The role of this tool in a procedure was to create a common key for the communicators as well as prescribe the rules of encoding and decoding to the participants. As a result, I found out that such model of communication creates a certain cryptographic scheme that keeps the private messages within certain limits.
Thus, it is impossible for the outside intruders to intercept the messages, since no one except for the creators of such messages can decipher them. Moreover, I concluded that the tool has an undeniable advantage, for it creates communication rounds that constitute a single protocol. Due to the principle of functioning of this protocol, the communicators have an opportunity to generate a wide range of messages with the help of a single encryption rule.
Consequently, in this work, I deduced that a pseudo-random permutation tool promotes sharing, since it generates a common key for the communicators, which precludes any external interference with the private data. Besides, the tool multiplies the messages that are created according to a common cryptographic system of encoding and decoding. Finally, a pseudo-random permutation tool ensures effective inferring, since it provides the guidelines, due to which the participants of a communication process can derive a content of a message.
A final step in this research was the construction of a communication model that was based upon a fuzzy commitment scheme. To satisfy the initial assumption about the parameters of this cryptographic tool, I needed to prove that it could guarantee correctness, binding and privacy.
While constructing a communication model, it was crucial to take into consideration the peculiarities of the cryptographic tool, especially the ones that contrast with the characteristics of traditional commitment schemes.
In their article, Juels and Wattenberg (2013) describe a fuzzy commitment scheme by comparing it to its counterpart: in a conventional scheme, a commitment must be opened using a unique witness, which acts, essentially, as a decryption key. By contrast, our scheme is fuzzy in the sense that it accepts a witness that is close to the original encrypting witness in a suitable metric, but not necessarily identical (p. 28).
Therefore, the communication model that was constructed by me included three participants: two communicators and a witness who served as a key. The act of communication that was sustained under such circumstances resembled a process of flipping a coin into a locked box.
The communicants could not change a message after they had committed to it. That is why the tool may be described as binding. Since, a fuzzy commitment scheme allows the usage of suppositional witnesses, the participants are not supposed to transmit the key, because they both own it. Thus, the message is private, for a key, which can decipher it, is not allocated into the outside space.
The tool may be primarily applied in the biometric authentication, in which the messages are usually exposed to external noises.
Conclusion: Cryptography as a Guarantee of Data Protection
In this work I investigated the modern cryptographic tools that were designed with an aim of data protection. According to my primary assumption, a message can be considered secure when it is not attacked at the stages of encryption, transmission and decryption.
Therefore, the cryptographic tools were verified against this requirement. With a purpose of clear illustration of the tools efficiency, I outlined a number of characteristics that are often prescribed to these tools by scientists and experts. Thus, it was my initial task to deduce whether all the tools preserve their parameters and comply with the principles of secure Internet communication.
In this work, I chose a construction of communication models as a primary method of research, since it illustrates a message transmission on the real-life basis.
In the aftermath of this study, I received the data that reiterated the initial theories that were used to describe the cryptographic tools. Thus, a blind coupon mechanism was proved to ensure unforgeability, blinding and indistinguishability, due to its unique system of multiple coupons that send false signals into the space so that to distract outside users. A pseudo-random permutation tool was confirmed to be the one promoting sharing, multiplication and inferring, since it possesses a faculty of creating the numerous rounds of message circulations without damaging the content.
Finally, the analysis of a fuzzy commitment scheme that was assumed to provide privacy and binding, revealed some absolute advantages of this tool. Due to the results of the research, this tool can create multiple witnesses that do not interfere with a content of private messages, but secure the processes of encryption and decryption from any possible outside intrusions.
Due to the consistent outcomes of the study, it has a wide range of perspectives and may be further elaborated. The conducted research, for instance, does not disclose the principles of the tools construction, which could serve as a material for future improvements of the communication systems. Besides, while investigating a fuzzy commitment scheme, I deduced that some experts consider this tool to be damaging for a correctness of transmitted data. That is why, in this work, I suggest the future research that can target a content of messages and analyze their completeness.
Blundo, C., Masucci, B., Stinson, D., & Wei, R. (2007). Constructions and bounds for unconditionally secure non-interactive commitment schemes. Designs, Codes and Cryptography, 26(1), 97-110.
Juels, A., & Wattenberg, M. (2013). A fuzzy commitment scheme. ACM, 13(1), 28-36.
Yampolskiy, A. (2006). Efficient cryptographic tools for secure distributed computing (Doctoral thesis, Yale University, New Heaven, Connecticut).
Londons history of telecommunications remarkably starts with the development of telephony and telegraphy. Famous inventor Alexander Bell introduced his devices enabling people to communicate at distance (Huurdeman 159). Telegraph technologies started the invasion in 1868 and were marked with the creation of the Indo-European Telegraph Company. (Huuderman 127). At the beginning of the twentieth century, the telephone lines were limited and allowed to connect to a limited number of towns. In the post-war period, the Socio-Technical system design was created and was the first step to the Internet introduction (Tatnall 190).
The start of the computer advancement was in the 1940-1950 period, but the full realization of its competitive advantage and economic benefits appeared in the 70s when a rigorous competition burst out between the United States and Japan (Cortada 145). In 1961, the computers were recognized as fully operational and won their place on the market.
Symbolic programming and digital electronics appeared in the mid-60s when the first computers were installed. Such an introduction triggered a vigorous competition of France with such countries as Great Britain and the United States (Mounier-Kuhn n. p.). In this regard, Cuffighal developed the first computer that was not analogous to the American model (Ceruzzi 201).
Japan developed into a technology empire only in the 80s of the past century. However, its firms made considerable advances in producing integrated circuits, establishing a solid platform for the computer industry (Ceruzzi, 200, p. 11). Before this advancement, Tokyo made successful attempts to conquer the American and European markets and introduce its IBM models in the late 70s. The particular accent was also made on mechanical engineering and electronics (Uchida n. p.).
The inception of the Internet
The importance of introducing information technologies and telecommunications both to London and to Great Britain was recognized by the UK government. In this regard, the Internet captured the UK market in the late 90s of the past century (Simme 191). Regional authorities acknowledged a strategic role of technological development for encouraging the advancement and telecommunication technologies in London (Simme 192). The concept of information city creation was perceived as an attempt to increase the influence on the global economy and international market.
Since the first trials of the Internet take their roots in the United States, it is logical to suggest this introduction was first accepted by New York. Particularly, the invention of the ARPANET system has given rise to the development of cyber networks all over the United States (Banks and Card 3). The U. S. government has developed a number of research groups on electronic engineering to fulfill the technological gap and enhance its competitiveness (Banks and Card 2).
Like other leading economies, France also started cyberspace network development on time. However, its start was not that successful compared to one introduced by the United States and Japan because it had certain weaknesses in terms of technological changes and system optimization. Nevertheless, French ICT infrastructure has considerably developed due to the enhancement of the scientific base in Paris and the provinces (Simme 220). On a whole, the era of innovation and the introduction of the Internet in Paris is closely associated with a rigorous competition that emerged in the 70s and 80s of the past century.
The Internet development in Tokyo starts in 1976 with the foundation of Japans broadcasting corporation (Banks and Card 184). Despite its current privileged technological status, its ascent to the summit of telecommunications and cyber networking was slow and gradual. In this respect, the inception of the Internet era started much later compared to London and New York, but it did not prevent Japan from achieving the highest results in that matter(Simme 153).
Political, Economical, and Social Implications of the Internet
The development of telecommunications in London was aimed at spreading their strategies and policies at the corporate market and establishing a competitive advantage at the international level to compete with the leading countries that already chose the course on the Internet market (Simme 193). The UK government realizes the necessity for enhancing the ICT infrastructure enabling it to enter a competing platform. In addition, a developed network of telecommunication will also allow London to introduce a favorable ground for the social sector through training and improving specific skills and abilities.
It is recognized that the introduction and development of cyber technologies and online networks have considerably changed the political, economic, and social environment in New York, like in other developed regions in the United States (Cortada 59). In this regard, the leading firms and corporations have to adjust to the ongoing changes and transform their strategies along with the transformations that occurred to online networks and e-commerce.
Paris, being the main political and economic center of France, realizes the importance of the innovation introduction where the Internet is not of the least significance (ICT to France n. p.). In particular, the country plans to expand research in the sphere of information technologies to increase opportunities for developing international company business and for arranging a strong mobile infrastructure, internet services, satellite equipment, and mobile telephones (ICT to France n. p.).
According to Simme, Japan plans that the weakness of basic research compared to Western countries should be balanced through the technopolis plan and it keeps the technological standard in the top position for the future (152). In this regard, the government considers industrial and scientific development a priority because it can create more favorable conditions for technological advancement.
Carrying out Business Operations
In London, information labor counts about 45 % of the total workforce percentage (Li 36). The information aspects of the economy significantly influence business operations in London. In particular, it affects the production spheres where people have to improve knowledge management skills.
Nearly 50 % of the New York population is engaged in all labor activities and most business transactions and operations are carried out via the Internet. Both, at an individual level and an organizational one, people are involved in e-commerce interactions (Li 72). The city realizes that the Internet and telecommunications significantly increase New York companies capacity to interact with other companies within the country and outside it (Li 72).
The major fields that are planned to be advanced and improved in France include ICT services, system security, E-learning, ITPV, and VolP (ICT to France n. p.). In addition, French businesses are realizing the necessity to plan technology improvement and enable customers to buy their products via the Internet (ICT to France n. p.). While considering past failures to adjust to technological changes, the current situation provides a much distinctive feature of drastic improvements in the sphere of innovations.
The development of ICT technologies in Japan has provided great opportunities for supply chain management (Li 213). In particular virtual networks and online communication greatly fosters the conclusion of important agreements and favor international relations with other leading companies.
Works Cited
Banks, Michael, and Orson Scott Card. On the way to the web: The Secret History of the Internet of its Founders. US: Appress, 2008. Print.
Ceruzzi, Paul E. A History of Modern Computing. US: MIT Press, 2003. Print.
Cortada, James W. How Societies Embrace Information Technology: Lessons for Management and the Rest of Us. US: Wiley-IEEE, 2009. Print.
Hurderman, Anton, A. The Worldwide History of Telecommunications. US: Wiley-IEE, 2003. Print.
ICT to France. Australian Government. 2011. Web.
Li, Feng. What is E-Busines?: How the Internet Transforms Organizations. US: Wiley-Blackwell. 2007. Print.
The hierarchical and centralised structures of the internet are limiting human interactions despite the massive forms of change being experienced in the world. The social attributes of the current media are bound by complex regulations from the legal, technological, political, and commercial sectors. In fact, the government has been involved in the shutdown of various websites including Wikileaks. The current centralised structure affects the users interaction because it allows corporations, government agencies, and domain owners to act as gatekeepers against all media contents. The paper focuses on an internet revolution that is moving away from the centralised to an open and decentralised peer-to-peer platform.
According to De Filippi (2014), the Internet has never been free because of numerous regulations from the central authorities that comprise governments and corporations. Despite the growing social needs, the internet has not been providing adequate solutions. The world is experiencing massive transformations in the social, cultural, corporate, and political sectors. Additionally, there is an increasing demand for communication freedom. Researchers are pushing towards a culture of openness, sharing and cooperation, and designing better communication infrastructures. According to Rheingold (2003), society should move towards cooperation and communication. In fact, the researcher claimed that the social attributes change according to human perceptions. Bauwens (2012) also observed that one of the best ways to improving the communication infrastructures was applying the theory of micro-politics, which focuses on the adaptability of change at micro levels.
According to Bauwens (2012), one of the requirements of building a better communications infrastructure is openness. Some of the areas that have experienced growth and transformation using the openness platform are education, research, and publishing. The open platforms should include all the communication designs, hardware, and manufacturing techniques to allow users to design and create personalised and decentralised features. Some of the characteristics that promote openness include FabLabs that enable users to contribute innovative technologies and designs. According to Gershenfeld (2006), fabrication labs are some of the best places for unleashing creativity and innovative ideas.
Sharing is the other attribute required in enhancing internet communication. Although the current culture emphasises in making profits, the shared responsibility will promote ownership. In fact, one of the best examples of sharing is the Occupy Wallstreet movement. Sharing replaces completion with ownership. Sharing extends to one of the most significant concepts of collaborative commons. According to Rushkoff (2011), collaborative commons would apply to information and communication because the resource is not scarce. In fact, the concept of sharing and contributing towards a free communication infrastructure would enhance the sustainability of information.
Additionally, a common platform would improve the concept of communities. De Filippi (2014) considers the mesh network suited for creating information communities. The centralised nature of the current infrastructure limits the participation of users to defining their interests and diversity. In fact, it empowers external agencies with regulating mandates. The new communication model should consider the social, economic, and political differences. Additionally, it should allow users to contribute through fabrication labs and other innovation centres. Decentralisation of the internet would increase the users freedom. Additionally, it would enable users to participate in collaborative activities.
In conclusion, the current communication infrastructures are centralised and chaotic. They limit the users participation in creating innovative and collaborative interaction. There is a need for a new model that will promote openness, sharing, collaboration, and participation in the design and manufacturing of communication infrastructure.
Electronic mail, popularly referred to as email, is a means of swapping over digital communications from a creator to one or additional addressees. Contemporary electronic mail functions across the World Wide Web or other computer set-ups. A number of the initial electronic mail set-ups needed that the author and the addressee both be available over the internet at the same time. Present day electronic mail set ups are founded on a store-and-forward form. Electronic mail servers allow, forward, convey and store communication (Email, Internet, 2009). The users and their computers have no need of being over the internet at the same time. They just could do with linking only for a short time, normally to an electronic mail server, for the period of time it requires to mail or receive communication.
An electronic mail message contains three elements, the communication wrapper, the message title, and the message body. The emails title consists of control data, consisting, austerely, a senders electronic mail address and one or more addressee addresses. Normally expressive data is as well included, such as a theme title and a message passing on date/time.
Electronic mail in business communication
Electronic mail was far and wide acknowledged by the business fraternity as the initial wide-ranging electronic communication means and was the original electronic revolution in business communication. Electronic mail is exceptionally straightforward to comprehend and in the vein of postal mail, electronic mail gets to the bottom of two fundamental predicaments of communication. These are logistics and synchronization.
Businesses and other enterprises are really benefitting from LAN supported electronic mail. It has advantages like letting the business user(s) to transfer mail when unavailable on the internet and offering small enterprise user(s) to have several users electronic mail identifications with just a single electronic mail link.
Pros of electronic mail
The foremost is the hitch of logistics. A great deal of the business world depends upon communications between persons who are not actually in the same building, region or even nation; tacking together and gracing with ones presence an in-person gathering, telephone conversation, or discussion call can be difficult, time-wasting, and costly. Electronic maul offers a means to swap over information between two or additional persons with no set-up expenses and that is by and large far not as much of costly as physical gatherings or telephone calls.
The other is the predicament of synchronization. With real time communication through assemblies or telephone calls, partakers have to work on a similar program, and every partaker has to take a similar amount of time in the assembly or call (About The World Wide Web, 2010). Electronic mail takes into account asynchrony, meaning that every partaker may be in command of their program autonomously.
The cons of electronic mail
A good number of business employees in the present day use up from one to two hours of their working day on electronic mail. Activities they engage in include; reading, classifying, arranging, re-arranging splintered information and crafting electronic mail. The use of electronic mail is greater than ever as a result of rising levels of globalization, with work sharing out and contracting out in the midst of other things. Electronic mail has been the cause of a number of problems.
One of these problems is the loss of context or the discourse that surrounds a language unit. As a result, the context is gone everlastingly since there in no means to reverse the wording. Information contained in mediums such as tabloids is way simpler and quicker to comprehend as compared to unedited and at times unconnected portions of information. Communication in context can merely be attained when both persons have a complete comprehension of the context and matter at hand.
There is the issue of information overload. Electronic mail is a press on technology whereby the dispatcher is in control of who receives the information. Expedient accessibility of mailing catalogs and use of copy all can end up in individuals obtaining superfluous or neither here nor there information of no use to them (Electronic Mail, 2010).
Then there is the problem of discrepancy due to the fact that electronic mail can second copy information. This can prove to be a problem in cases where a big team is working on files and information at the same time as being not in steady touch with the other associates of their team.
Legal responsibility is another major issue when it comes to this form of communication in business. Proclamations made in an electronic mail can be considered officially binding and be used in opposition to an individual or an entity in a Court of law.
Electronic mail messages may have one or additional add-ons which serve as a means of conveying dual or text files. Many electronic mail givers enact a number of restrictions on the allowable extent of files or the volume of a full message.
In the face of these drawbacks, electronic mail has turned out to be the most extensively used mode of communication within the business world. As a matter of fact, a 2010 survey on place of work communication, established that 83 percent of United States knowledge members of staff thought that electronic mail was vital to their achievement and output at work.
Modern educators focus on finding the most appropriate and effective means to teach students and guarantee the active teaching and learning processes. In this case, the developed information and communication technologies (ICT) provide a lot of possibilities to plan and implement the effective teaching and learning methods and techniques.
The sphere of ICT develops quickly, and today there is a range of technologies which can be successfully used in the everyday learning process at school and university. From this perspective, educators choose to integrate ICT into the teaching process because of a variety of advantages associated with the usage of contemporary technologies (Simon & Nemeth, 2012).
Thus, different ICT which are available for educators can be successfully used to enhance the learning process, to stimulate students skills and abilities, to develop motivation, and to improve students performance. It is necessary to pay attention to the effectiveness of using such game-oriented ICT as multi-touch systems and such ICT as vodcasts in different age groups.
Although the representatives of various age groups perceive the information presented with the help of ICT in a different way, the levels of the students performance and motivation can be discussed as high, and this fact allows speaking about the effectiveness of using different ICT in education.
To conclude about the effectiveness of using ICT in the learning and teaching processes, it is necessary to focus on such aspects as the impact of using ICT on students learning and motivation, perception, and performance.
The Impact of Different ICT on Students Learning and Motivation
There is no single idea in relation to the effect of ICT on students learning and motivation because of impossibility to state strictly about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of traditional teaching methods. ICT are actively used by educators in order to make the material presented more understandable and interesting for students and to stimulate their certain activities.
From this point, ICT are used in their combination with the traditional teaching methods and techniques (Ardito et al., 2013). Moreover, appropriate ICT can be selected according to the needs of the age group, topic of the planned activities, and the objective set by an educator.
Thus, to achieve the education goals in primary and secondary schools, it is effective to orient to the game activities. Modern ICT provide the opportunity to discuss a game as a part of the learning process. Different types of material can be presented to students in various ways. The form of the game based on using ICT provokes the additional interest of students to the activities.
As a result, the usage of ICT can be considered as the additional motivator for students who become involved in the learning process (Ardito et al., 2013). To guarantee the understanding of the material and the development of definite skills, educators combine the methods of traditional teaching with ICT. This technique allows making the teaching process complete.
The focus only on a game, ICT, or traditional methods cannot provide the effective results of the students learning process (Sluis & Nijholt, 2012). Moreover, this situation can lead to decreasing students motivation and interest in the process.
That is why, the complex approach is more advantageous. Thus, the historic material presented in the form of a game based on the multi-touch system is learnt by students more actively (Ardito et al., 2013).
Students studying at high school, college, university, or student teachers can develop their motivation and improve learning with the help of more progressive or complex ICT. Different kinds of computers, computer programs, podcasts, and vodcasts are used to improve the teaching and learning processes.
The development of new technologies provides new opportunities and previous effective technologies can be discussed as out-of-date. Thus, today vodcasts are discussed as more effective than podcasts which were actively used in education years ago. Vodcasts can provide students with more materials, information, and stimuli than podcasts (McNeill & Fry, 2012).
Students need illustration and demonstration in order to follow certain instructions and perform definite activities. In this case, such ICT as vodcasts function as illustration for students in order to provide them with the certain knowledge. Multi-media systems can be used effectively when an educator uses the appropriate instruction (Sluis & Nijholt, 2012).
For instance, vodcasts can be ineffective to stimulate students learning process if they are not provided with the appropriate instruction to control students activities (McNeill & Fry, 2012).
The Effects of ICT on Students Perception
Students are inclined to react more actively to vivid and interesting objects or materials which attract their attention immediately. The students interest in relation to the material can guarantee their further high performance regarding this or that subject. That is why, educators should focus on methods to stimulate students perception and reaction to the information and new knowledge.
ICT can be discussed as the rather effective means to influence students perception (Ardito et al., 2013). Students perception is based on analyzing the new information and on its comparison with the knowledge with exists in students minds and memory. Thus, the new information is perceived during several stages, and these stages do not depend on the form of information perceived.
However, the abilities of students to perceive this or that kind of information presented in the form of written text, audio, or an image are often different because students have various dominating types of perception (McNeill, Mukherjee, & Singh, 2012).
Nevertheless, different ICT can contribute to the development of students perception abilities in spite of the kind of the information presented. Thus, game activities involve the usage of the written text, images, and audio, and the students concentration increases as well as the participation in the learning process can become more active (Ardito et al., 2013).
Such technologies as multi-media systems and vodcasts can contribute to students active participation in the learning process because they depend on the diverse presentation of information. From this point, the students reaction should be also active. The technology-based learning is discussed as more informal and active.
Thus, students become the centre of the learning process, and they can use all the advantages provided by modern information technologies (Ardito et al., 2013). The informal learning with using the Internet, multi-media systems, podcasts, and vodcasts is more attractive for students because of their possibility to participate in the process more actively and consciously.
For instance, attending lectures and seminars, students can prepare the vodcasts independently (McNeill & Fry, 2012). Modern technologies can be considered as providing more opportunities for teachers to improve their strategy and for students to improve their skills and abilities.
Students interest and understanding of the material can be influenced by using different resources and methods. Educational games, puzzles, quizzes, and tests can be presented not only with the help of traditional teaching techniques but also with the help of modern technologies which expand the range of variants for using this or that resource, method, or technique.
Multi-touch displays, online educational games, online tests, podcasts, and vodcasts can be effective to change the approach to teaching and learning processes (Ardito et al., 2013).
Furthermore, the usage of ICT stimulates communication between students, and this fact is advantageous for completing group and team tasks effectively. Thus, ICT can stimulate students perception with references to using resources and technologies which help apply the academic material to the real world situation.
The Connection between Using ICT and Students Academic Performance
Those technologies which are used in the classroom environments are oriented to develop students abilities and to improve students performance. Thus, the usage of ICT in education can be discussed as ineffective approach if students performance is not affected positively with references to technologies.
That is why, researchers focus on examining changes in students performance depending on the frequency of using different technologies in the classroom.
According to Ardito and the group of researchers, positive trends connected with increasing students results and improvement of their performance are observed after several weekends of the regular usage of ICT in the classroom environments in order to provide certain material, present instruction, and stimulate activities (Ardito et al., 2013).
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that such ICT as multi-touch displays and systems are effective to promote and control a lot of everyday classroom activities which are usually associated with using many resources. From this point, these technologies not only influence students performance positively but also minimize the resources used by an educator along with maximizing positive effects.
The changes in the students performance can be discussed with references to such aspects as changes in students learning activities, perception, and behaviour. Thus, the integration of ICT affects the teaching and learning processes as complexes, and high performance is the result of changes in the students understanding or comprehending the material.
The assessment of students performance allows drawing conclusions about the general effectiveness of using ICT in education. Simon and Nemeth focus on the fact that the alternations in performance can be directly associated with the changes in the students attitude toward the learning process (Simon & Nemeth, 2012).
The concentration on informal learning provokes students positive attitude and interest because of decreasing the stress and making the process more diverse.
The improved performance is also connected with the concept of self-improvement. Thus, using vodcasts and online materials, students receive the opportunity to assess their successes independently and pay attention to the moments which should be changed or improved (McNeill & Fry, 2012).
From this perspective, new technologies help educators make the teaching process more focused on students. Individualization is one of the main characteristic features of the modern approaches in education (Ardito et al., 2013). ICT with a range of opportunities provided respond to the needs of the modern education oriented to students and stimulation of their successes in study.
Educators use ICT in order to differentiate instruction and reduce those forms of explanation which can decrease students attention and concentration on the object of discussion. ICT are appropriate to be used at different stages of the teaching process and to control the students involvement into activities (Ardito et al., 2013).
This feature of ICT also works for the benefits of students because they can participate actively in the process during all the stages without reducing concentration and attention.
For instance, focusing on vodcasts, students can improve their performance while analyzing their mistakes and paying attention to achievements (McNeill & Fry, 2012). The communication based on ICT with the other students can also stimulate their motivation and activities with improving performance results.
Conclusion
The evaluation of ICT usage in the field of education can be possible only with references to assessing changes in the students performance and to appropriateness of the techniques for helping teachers realize set objectives.
ICT are important to be used in the field of education because researchers predict that further changes in the sphere will be closely associated with the development of new technologies with improved and extended functions. The focus on using ICT in combination with the methods of traditional teaching and learning can be rather effective for the development of students perception and performance.
It is important to note that modern technologies can be effectively used by educators not only for improving the teaching strategies but also for stimulating students motivation. From this point, it is necessary to choose technologies which can be used successfully in different classroom environments depending on the students age category. ICT in education can affect the changes in approaches to developing education strategies.
If ICT are used appropriately, they contribute to maximizing the advantages of the teaching and learning processes. That is why, further research is significant in order to focus on the most effective ways to integrate ICT in education to receive the highest results.
References
Ardito, C., Lanzilotti, R., Costabile, M. F., & Desolda, G. (2013). Integrating traditional learning and games on large displays: An experimental study. Educational Technology & Society, 16(1), 4456.
McNeill, M., & Fry, J. (2012). The value of ICT from a learning game-playing perspective. Journal of Research, 7(1), 45-52.
McNeill, M., Mukherjee, S., & Singh, G. (2010). Podcasting in physical education teacher education. ICHPER-SD Journal of Research, 5(1), 16-19.
Simon, F., & Nemeth, K. (2012). Digital decisions: Choosing the right technology tools for early childhood education. USA: Gryphon House.
Sluis, F., & Nijholt, A. (2012). Designing a museum multi-touch table for children. INTETAIN, 4(7), 139-148.
The UAS that will be selected for this work must meet the standards for searching in forests and limited visibility, be sufficiently maneuverable, and have a multiplicity of proximity. A model like the STRIX-400 can do it. Firstly, a high wing will reduce the fuse lag from the already mounted payload side. This wing is necessary since it reduces the payload blockage while mounted. In the case of low wings, the payloads are mounted sideways based on their reconnaissance types in front of the wings to protect them from destruction and explosions (Choi et al., 2019). Secondly, its dimensions allow it to overcome obstacles in the woods without the risk of breakage during the rescue operation. When the sensing windows of the payloads are integrated into pods, the sensing is improved, enabling technical operators to locate and identify the wider region quickly. The main mission pursued by this technology is work safety and improved working conditions.
Necessary Payload
In addition, the use of satellites allows you to count on additional functionality and an improved navigation system. Since the control of such devices is difficult even in normal visibility conditions, the operator must not only be professionally trained to control the drone but also know its characteristics and have constant eye contact, which only satellite communication can do. These satellites improve access to high visibility and aid pilots and the crew in quickly viewing a variety of regions. They are mounted internally within the UAS and integrated downwards or sideways to reduce fuselage blockages (Gundlach, 2011). The payloads enable the pilots in aircraft with canopies which assist in the replacement of the minimal field of view. Communication satellites are an alternative to bubble canopies since they have redonned which most aircraft contain in their provisions.
Integration of Payloads to Support Application
In addition to installing the necessary equipment, it is required to understand what it should consist of. The main branch can be a night vision device if the rescue operation is carried out in the dark. Thus, it will be easier to navigate in space, as well as to notice important details. It is also essential to install a thermal imaging camera to illuminate the victim and indicate his exact location. However, it is necessary to take into account the nuances because other forms of life may inhabit the forest, so it is essential to pay attention to the silhouettes that this device will show on the screen. When integrating the communication satellites, the lower fuselage provides the antennae which support both air and field communications. This low position has limited blockages for high-flown aircraft, improving their safe landing and takeoff. To minimize risks, fixed landing gears are not used to install the payloads into the UAS (He et al., 2017). The upper fuselage is mounted behind the wings, which improves sights to enable the command and proper control of the satellites.
Most satellites use large antennas structured to resemble the payloads and have both antennas at the top and bottom of their wings. The vertical tails of the payloads offer string fields of visualization and are mounted with shadow 200, which are positioned on the surfaces (Minwalla et al., 2017). Finally, the antennae are integrated into various winglets incorporated in the UA systems to allow for the proper communication and transmission of information in both systems. The communication payloads are suitable when they are slightly above the grounds hence improving the operations of the UAS and the aircraft.
Payload Integration Considerations
When integrating the payloads, the risks and positioning of the satellites should be considered. The communication gadgets have high energy that can interfere with UAS communications. In addition, the RF energy produced can cause the degradation of the machines and the environment. There is an emission of EMI, which cause failures in the subsystem since the robust systems of the UA radiate in a manner that threatens their establishments location (Nilsson & American Bar Association. Forum On Air and Space Law, 2017). Therefore, when installing the payloads, one should consider their effect on the environment and the risky factors associated with their implementation.
Specific Flight Path Characteristic Requirement
The payloads should be slightly above the center of gravity since they are prone to blockages. Due to their orbiting nature, the payloads are structured in flight paths that can easily be movable to allow for easy engine operations. The flight paths should easily allow tilting of the surveillance payloads to reduce the blockages from winds and other factors (NTSB, 2021). The flight paths should have high accessibility pods, reducing the obscuration on the payloads sides. Finally, when integrating the payloads in the flights, they should have bodies with sufficient window dimensions to enhance visibility.
Example of Experimental UAS Payload
As for the previously mentioned equipment, none of it is considered experimental but has served to save victims for many years. However, the improvement of the night vision radar can be called that, since it does not only react to living beings but specifically to people, which also has an effect when searching for victims. Despite that, an example of a UAS payload is the applicability of a weapons interface launcher which weighs 96 lb. in its missile configuration and at its interfaces. These weapon interfaces have globe bombs mounted on their wing racks and have reduced radar signatures, assisting them in releasing the weapons from their surfaces (NTSB, 2022). These weapons interfaces are, therefore, among the experimental payloads wince they have automated systems that facilitate communication and information sharing from both ends.
Nilsson, S., & American Bar Association. Forum On Air And Space Law. (2017). Drones across America : unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) regulation and state laws. Aba, Air & Space Law Forum.
A website within which the users are allowed to undertake content modification by either deleting or adding some details is termed as a wiki. The modification of the website is usually carried out through web browsers by utilizing simplified rich-text editor or the markup language. The wiki software is used to power the wikis. In most of the cases, wikis are developed by numerous users collaboratively. Examples of wikis are such as corporate intranets, community websites, knowledge management scheme, as well as note-taking. Wikis can serve numerous diverse purposes. Some wikis allow the control of various functions (access levels); for instance, rights editing may permit removal, addition, or changing of material. Others allow access without imposing any access control1. Other regulations may be enforced to undertake content organization. The premier wiki software was developed by Ward Cunningham. This wiki software was referred by the name WikiWikiWeb. Cunningham originally defined it as the most simplified online database, which could practically work. Basically, wiki is a term derived from the Hawaiian language, which is literally translated as quick or simply fast in the English language.
Ward Cunningham began formulating the WikiWikiWeb in 1994 within Portland, Oregon. After the WikiWikiWeb was developed, it was installed on the c2.com internet domain on the 25th of March 1995. The name of this premier wiki was borrowed from that of the buses, which ply within the Honolulu International Airports terminals, which are known by the name Wiki- Wiki Shuttle. In accordance with Cunningham, wiki-wiki was the ideal choice of name, which made him not to name the website as the quick-web. Cunningham got the inspiration to develop the website partly from Apples HyperCard. Apple developed a unique system, which enables its users to make virtual card stacks which had supportive links within different cards. Moreover, Cunningham made use of the ideas of Vannevar Bush thereby permitting users to either post comments on other users text or change the text details.
Within the initial years of the 2000s, wikis were adopted in big margins as enterprising collaborative software. The most basic applications of wikis were such as intranets, documentation, as well as, intranets, principally for the technical users only. As at present, wikis is the only single collaborative software, which is available in a good number of companies. Most of these companies make use of wikis as a substitute for the static intranets. Moreover, in various learning institutions such as schools along with universities group learning is enhanced through the use of wikis. There is a high likelihood that wikis are used greatly behind firewalls rather than within the Net.
Wikis are developed to easy amend errors instead of proving it difficult to undertake corrections. Therefore, while wikis remain wide open, they offer procedures of verifying the recent added materials validity. The most common, within almost all wikis, is the page entitled Recent Changes. This page particularly contains the edits, which have been recently made, or the edits, which have been undertaken within a specific timeline. Certain wikis can filter the list such that minor edits are removed. Edits made by automatically importing scripts are also removed in the filtering process. In the majority of the wikis, various functions are accessed through the changelog. By viewing the revision records, the user can identify the former page versions.
Moreover, a diff feature is used to make highlights on the differences between two sets of revisions. By making use of the revision records, a user can view, as well as, restore an article to its previous version. Different features are also utilized while deciding if such actions are necessary. Regular wiki users access the edit diff feature within the page of Recent Changes. If the edit is considered as unacceptable, the history is consulted, and the previous revision is thus restored. This process is somehow streamlined in relation to the wiki software, which is in use.
In the event that unacceptable edits pass unnoticed within the page of recent changes, other wiki engines offer extra content control. It is possible to monitor a wiki webpage to make it certain that its quality is maintained. Individual volunteering to maintain wiki pages receives warnings on-page modifications, thereby enabling the person to conduct validity verifications of the novel editions in a quick manner. The basic implementation of this system is termed as the watch list. Other wikis make use of patrolled revisions whereby editors who possess the required credentials can label part of the edits as genuine. The flagged revisions method can be used to obstruct edits from being accessible until a review of them is carried out.
Certain wikis allow at a minimum, title searches and in other occasions full-text searches. The search scalability relies on the nature of the database used by the specific wiki engine. Some wikis, for instance, PmWiki, utilize flat files. MediaWiki was the first wiki site to make use of flat files. However, Lee Daniel Crocker rewrote the MediaWiki during the early years of the 2000s to become a distinct database application. Indexed database accessibility is essential for speedy searches, especially on the enormous wikis. On the other hand, outside search engines, for instance, Google Search, are applied on wikis, which have restricted searching functions to achieve results, which are more precise. Nevertheless, the indexes of the search engines of numerous websites can be quite outdated.
Due to the fact that Wikis are web-based, it becomes easier for a large number of people to search for information from them. In addition, the wikis cover a lot of topics and information, which many researchers want. There are also excellent pieces of writing provided by the wikis, which cannot be found on another site. Due to this advantage, many people endeavour to use them over other sites on the internet. There are minimal errors in the wikis. This contributes too many people having to benefit people from them. Also, the wikis are controlled by software, which enhances control of information in the World Wide Web.
The open wiki philosophy, which allows every individual to carry out content editing, lacks the verification of the editors intentions. Some of the editors may harbour bad intentions. It is for that reason that vandalism comes about as a principal problem. Within the enormous wiki sites; for instance, those operated by firms like Wikimedia Foundation, vandalism remains unnoticed for a specific period. Naturally, wikis are susceptible to deliberate disruption termed as trolling. Wikis mostly approach the vandalism problem with a soft spot. Wikis are concerned more in simplifying the process of undoing damages instead of attempting to prevent the occurrence of damages. The increase of wiki sites provides people with a variety of sites where they can seek any information they want.
Sophisticated methods are utilized within large wikis, for example, bots that identify, as well as, revert vandalism automatically along with JavaScript enhancements, which illustrate characters, which have been introduced within every edit. Through such measures, vandalism is reduced to mere minor vandalism which can also be termed as sneaky vandalism. Within the minor vandalism, the eliminated or introduced characters are so minimal such that bots are unable to identify them and wiki users usually overlook them. This has contributed to the elimination of defects, which occur during research. Programmers can easily detect the sneaky vandalism, thus making users comfortable with the provided information.
The degree of vandalism experienced within every wiki depends on the openness of the specific wiki. For example, certain wikis permit unregistered users, known by the IP addresses, which they are using, undertaking content editing. Other wikis limit the function of content editing strictly to the registered users. Majority of the wikis permit anonymous editing, but the additional editing responsibilities are reserved for the registered users only. However, to become a registered user in the majority of the wikis is usually a short process, which is considerably simple. However, within certain wikis, new users have to wait for a specific period before they can gain access to all available tools. For instance, within English Wikipedia, only the users who have been operating an account with the site for more than four days are allowed to rename pages.
Other wikis, for example, the Portuguese Wikipedia apply an editing obligation rather than a time constraint. Within this wiki, a user is granted extra tools upon making a set amount of edits to demonstrate their usefulness along with trustworthiness as editors. Generally, wikis, which are closed up, are considered as more secure, as well as, reliable but expand slowly. On the other side, wikis, which are more open, expand at a considerable rate although they end up being easily vandalized. The best examples of open wikis are Wikipedia along with Citizendium. Wikipedia is exceedingly open such that any person with access to a computer, which is connected to the internet, can edit it, leading to its vast growth. However, Citizendium requires individuals to register with their real names, as well as post their biographies. This has influenced negatively on the wikis growth but has resulted in the creation of an ambience, which is almost very free from vandalism.
Wikis are also faced with the malware problem. Malicious users introduce links, which connect the wikis to sites that harbour malicious code. For instance, an article featured within the German Wikipedia containing information on the Blaster Worm was revised to introduce a website hyperlink, which could infect the computers of other users. Nevertheless, countermeasures have been introduced which bar the links connected to dangerous malware sites from being introduced into the wikis through the use of certain software. Also, Wiki software should block JavaScript along with other scripting genres, which malicious users may attempt to introduce directly within the page in the course of editing secessions. Besides, edits wars emerge as users always turn certain pages to their favourable versions.
Nonetheless, the wiki administrators can make use of certain wiki software to bring to an end those edit wars; by locking the affected page from additional editing until when a consensus is reached about the most appropriate version. All in all, certain wikis are capable of controlling the users behaviour through the use of an external governing structure. For instance, an institutional instructor may warn students against making unnecessary edits within a private class wiki.
Communication models (Buhler, Jakobsen, and Schultz von Thun)
There are various communication models used within the Wikis. These communication models are such as Buhlers, Schultz von Thun along with Jakobsen communication models. The communication model, which was developed by Buhler Karl, is termed as the Organon model. This model defines communication functions through which a description of linguistic communication can be carried out. Buhler came up with this communication model after getting inspiration from Roman Jakobson. Buhler proposed three distinct communicative functions. These are the expressive function, conative function along with referential function. Most of the wikis make use of all of these functions as introduced by Buhler. Wikis clearly fulfil the expressive function because they allow users to express their ideas about various topics within their sites2. In the event that there were no wikis, numerous academicians would lack the chance to publicize their ideas on various topics. Moreover, it is through class wikis, which are established in various learning institutions that students are able to propose their ideas on certain topics covered within their syllabus. The referential function is not left out in the development of wikis. All wiki users are obliged to making reference to their source of information. It would be unethical if all the information presented within the wiki pages were left unreferenced. In relation to this function, the wiki users describe various topics of main concern and then at the end of their work outline the sources from where they obtained their information.
On the other hand, the conative function is basically an appealing function. Wikis comply with this function by requesting users to provide useful information and avoid any malicious behaviour such as introducing malware within the wiki pages. Also, all wiki pages advice their users do not rely hundred per cent on the information presented within them because it is subject to further research.
The Schulz von Thun communication model is commonly referred to as the four-side model. In accordance with the model, news or any information is considered to consist of four messages. The news four sides are the fact, appeal, self-revealing along with the relationship. On the fact side, which is also termed as matter layer, an individual makes a presentation of information about various statements as well as facts. The individual must make the presentation a clear and easily comprehendible manner. Basically, wikis fulfil this function because most of the information available within them contains several statements along with facts3. Moreover, the information within the wikis is regularly edited to make it clear and comprehendible. Appeal function makes individuals undertake a duty, which they were not ready to do. It also entails convincing individuals to avoid certain wikis. Concerning the appeal function, wiki users are advised to carry out further editing of the information presented within the sites. In respect to the same function, users are also requested to discern the previous mentioned bad behaviours. Certain wikis require the users to post their biographies within the wiki pages. This regulation aims at fulfilling the function of self-revealing within the four-side model. The relationship function is achieved within then wikis by allowing the users to post comments on their ideas about the information presented within them. The comments posted about certain wiki pages assist the wiki developers to establish whether they are achieving any sort of success, or their work is bound to fail.
The other communication model applied within the wikis is the Jakobsen communication model. In accordance with Jakobson, for any communication to take place, there must be six diverse functions, which are involved. The two basic functions are the sender and receiver. The other four, which exist between the two, are the message, code, context along with the channel. In each wiki, the registered members are the senders. The wiki page acts as the channel and code within which the message and context are presented. Those who finally use the information can be regarded as the receivers.
Comparison of two wikis in terms of language style, layout, and users
There is a big difference between Wikipedia and Citizendium. To begin with, Wikipedia uses Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). This is a writing language, which describes the semantics and written in HTML. The design of CSS enhances the separation of the content in the document from a presentation of another document and enhances the presentation of elements such as fonts, colours, and layout. However, Citizendium has been programmed using the Computer Programming Language (CPL). In particular, it uses the C++ language to format its documents and its graphics. Wikipedia and Citizendium have been written in the HTML although Wikipedia is more developed than the latter.
Wikipedias Cascading Style Sheets has been developed to enhance document separation and improve the layout of the main document. This has benefits such as improvement of accessibility of the document by the users. Also, it is very easy to provide more flexibility and control of the formatted documents. Through the tableless web design, it is very easy to format a document and reduce its complexity by the users. Many users also find the structural content of Wikipedia very useful because it is very easy to understand. CSS allows users to be presented markup in different styles, thus enhancing its enhancement for the users.
Wikipedia content has been designed in such a manner that it can be accessed by any device regardless of its size. This is why users who have different sizes of screens can assess Wikipedia content at any time they wish. A CSS style sheet is designed in such a manner that it can override any kind of sheet, which has been designed by its users. This is because it contains a scheme, which contains the set rules, which match with the elements provided at different levels. Furthermore, the specifications of CSS have been developed and maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). This enhances the implementation of the existing rules, which prevent people from copying information provided by Wikipedia.
On the other hand, Citizendium uses the Programming Language (BCPL), which is designed to enhance users to access information faster than any other form of language. This form of language helps to combine arrays and structs to enhance the usability of the information4. BCPL has adopted many forms of programming languages such as C++, and this helps to enhance the usability of the information. Moreover, BCPL has standardized many programming languages to form a unique language, which contains various forms of fonts, layouts, and structures, which can be understood easily by the users.
Some of the advantages of using BCPL language is that the users and the programmers have less control over the hardware because it contains softwares which have features such as the sensitivity of cases, semicolons which help in ending statements, parameters which are combined in pairs. This allows temporary variables to be contained inside the blocks. The procedure for using Citizendium is thus easy as compared to Wikipedia. This is because Wikipedia is designed with the layouts structured in an alphabetical manner, while Citizendium is structured in such a manner, which can be understood by the users.
It is very easy to enhance profiling of information and documents while using Wikipedia. This is because the users have the ability to use information as provided by the programmer. The programmer is the individual who decides on the important information to use to enhance visibility. The language used in the coding of information is very simple and uses a low-level approach to guide users to understand the layout of information. On the other hand, in Citizendium, the language has been programmed in such a manner that the information has not been coded into C++. Users who lack the knowledge of JavaScript and C++ find it difficult to understand the used language. Wikipedias CSS helps to define non-visual styles like speed, and the emphasis is on the aural text. It is thus an improvement from the original mark up used by HTML5. This enables information to be provided in a number of sources, which have been defined by the language.
Many users of Wikipedia include researchers, programmers, students, and teachers. All these people use Wikipedia in search of information. There is a wide variety of articles, which have been posted in Wikipedia, which contain a lot of useful information. These articles have been written by people who have Wikipedia accounts. These articles are posted freely, and they enhance people to use free information. The information, which is contained by Wikipedia, has references and it is thus easy to refer it from its source. Unlike Citizendium, it is easy to derive the source and the basis of the information as provided by Wikipedia.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Wikis have contributed a lot in the society by providing people with free information. The Wikis are powered by the wiki software, which controls the information through the World Wide Web. As a matter of fact, the Wikis have been developed by many people within the globe who contribute articles for research. The Wikis have been designed to serve numerous functions, which include providing researchers with free information, providing users with new researched content and providing information for research. There are also applications of wikis were such as intranets, documentation, as well as, intranets, principally for the technical users only. Wikis clearly fulfil the expressive function because they allow users to express their ideas about various topics within their sites. To sum up, the existence of Wikis has contributed to innovations in research in the world today.
Bibliography
Chatfield, T B. The Complete Guide to Wikis: How to Set Up, Use, and Benefit from Wikis for Teachers, Business Professionals, Families, and Friends. Ocala, Fla: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2009.
Mader, S. Wikipatterns, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Myers, G. The Discourse of Blogs and Wikis. London: Continuum, 2009.
Teehan, K. Wikis: The Educators Power Tool. Santa Barbara, Calif: Linworth, 2010.
Footnotes
Mader, S. Wikipatterns, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Teehan, K. Wikis: The Educators Power Tool. Santa Barbara, Calif: Linworth, 2010.
Myers, G. The Discourse of Blogs and Wikis. London: Continuum, 2009.
Chatfield, T B. The Complete Guide to Wikis: How to Set Up, Use, and Benefit from Wikis for Teachers, Business Professionals, Families, and Friends. Ocala, Fla: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2009.
Chatfield, T B. The Complete Guide to Wikis: How to Set Up, Use, and Benefit from Wikis for Teachers, Business Professionals, Families, and Friends. Ocala, Fla: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2009.
Selwyn (2007) conducted a study of gender-related perceptions of information and communication technologies (such as video game systems, DVD players, and cell phones). The researcher asked 406 college students in Wales to rate 8 technologies in terms of their level of masculinity or femininity. The students rated each technology using a 7-point response scale, from 3 for very feminine to +3 for very masculine, with a midpoint of 0 for neither masculine or feminine. Table A (reproduced from Selwyns article) shows the mean, standard deviation, and variance of the students ratings of each technology (Adapted from: Aron, Arthur, Elaine Aron, and Elliot J. Coups. Statistics for Psychology. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Education, 2013).
Several mathematical characteristics can be used to evaluate data sets. The first is the N parameter, a baseline value that reflects the number of respondents surveyed. It was mentioned in the article that the total number of participants in the survey was 406, and the parameter N reflects how many of them took part in the measurement of each of the technologies. The second characteristic is the mean, which measures the average trend. Given the boundaries of the measurements (from -3 to +3), the mean value conventionally shows how feminine or masculine they are. We can see that the most masculine is gaming stations, and the most feminine technology is the landline phone. These technologies are sorted according to this characteristic in the list above, which means that the lower the technology in the list, the more feminine it is.
However, it is essential to know that the average is not a sufficiently representative characteristic because it does not account for the wide variation in the data. In order to study averages more reliably, standard deviations (SD) must be further explained. Roughly speaking, the lower the value of the standard deviation, the closer all the data are distributed around the mean, which means that the dispersion of the data is the smallest a measure of outliers. The smallest SD was for radio (0.81), and personal computers (0.82), and the largest was for landlines (1.03) and game stations (1.00). In other words, one cannot judge with high confidence the reliability of the mean value for those technologies in which the SD value was large and more significant than the mean: too large deviations were observed in these cases. Perhaps these results may show that game stations are not genuinely masculine and landlines are not truly feminine because the values of their standard deviations are large. Finally, to simplify the understanding of the standard deviation, it is recommended that the variance be used to indicate the variability of the data. If the variance is zero, it means that all numbers in the set are identical, but in this case, there is no such variance. Consequently, respondents did give different estimates of gender by technology, with the maximum variability (range of values from each other and from the average) being characteristic of the landline phone (1.07) and the minimum characteristic of television. Based on all the data, it is appropriate to say that the game stations and landlines show the least reliability in terms of using the average, which means that it is not necessary to judge the gender affiliation of these technologies unequivocally. Otherwise, other technologies showed a slight bias toward masculinity but, in general, did not show a consistent tendency to take either side.