The purpose of this paper is to analyze Donald Trumps insult politics and the role of racism and religion in it. The essay looks at the ways Trump supporters respond to his frivolous speeches. It also explains whether Justin Trudeaus blackface scandal was a case of insult politics. Finally, it presents the similarities and differences between Trudeaus and Trumps use of social media as a political tool.
First of all, it is essential to mention that Donald Trump did not invent insult politics. In fact, the concept of focusing ones campaign on showing the negative side of the opponent has been relevant throughout the history of the United States. Even such a remarkable person as Alexander Hamilton was called the bastard brat of a Scotch peddler by John Adams, and Abraham Lincoln was accused of being a mulatto (Winberg, 2017, p. 3). There is, however, an important distinction between the criticisms encompassed by attack politics, and the derogatory insults utilized by Donald Trump.
The insult politics that have become a natural part of modern right-wing populism are not always aimed at addressing issues that possess any real importance. Often they seem to exist only to create controversy and engage in more arguments that serve no purpose. Typically, presidential candidates avoid following that route, delegating it to surrogates such as the vice-presidential candidate, noteworthy supporters, and allies in the media (Winberg, 2017, p. 3). However, in some strategies, insult politics are the core component.
The right-wing politicians appear to have taken a keen interest in taking this approach to beat their opponents. They use the fact that mainstream candidates have avoided it to their advantage. By employing obscene language that their opponents are not comfortable with, they create a clear differentiation between them. In addition, the public sees this breaking of the norm as fighting the alleged elite or establishment, which makes them more likely to support the right-wing populists (Winberg, 2017, p. 3). Overall, one can understand why insult politics has its place in history, but its role is not as clear in the modern world.
Society nowadays is more sensitive to issues like race and religion as hardly any prejudice in these spheres can be tolerated, especially when it is expressed publicly. Consequently, it would seem utterly illogical that Donald Trump could gain any support at all for his racist, bigoted, and discriminatory views. The truth of the matter is that while on the surface, the public should be outraged from hearing his speeches, some voters find them appealing, even if they cannot admit it (Winberg, 2017). Even so, racism is not the main factor of attraction for trump supporters in the US, as the number of people who share this ideology is steadily declining.
What most voters find appealing about Trump is the way he speaks. While the majority of politicians go to great lengths to avoid offending anyone, Donald Trump speaks his mind, even if what he wants to say is neither accepted by society nor supported by facts. In many cases, having no political filter can lead to scandals, but they do not seem to harm Trumps ratings. On the contrary, every time he said or did something sexist, degrading, xenophobic, or generally offensive, his support climbed (Winberg, 2017). The liberal agenda pushed by the media would make this seem absurd, and yet it happens. In a world obsessed with political correctness, an increasing number of people will be pleased to see someone openly express their own views, no matter how shocking they might be.
Canadian Prime minister Justin Trudeau has gone a step further in the way of controversy. During one of his campaigns, someone released a series of pictures, where Trudeau could be seen dressed up and wearing racist makeup. The practice of darkening ones skin to imitate the appearance of African people is called blackface and is considered racist. Although Trudeau has apologized for the pictures, stating that he is ashamed of himself for what he did, some people feel that it does not excuse him. Howard (2019) states that blackface is an anti-black activity, whether the participants realize it or not. This incident cannot be attributed to insult politics, as Justin Trudeau never intended to use it as such. Like most politicians, he tried to restore his politically correct image; he was not interested in creating a scandal. It seems that Trudeau has received heavy backlash for his past mistake, despite his best efforts.
Both Donald Trump and Justin Trudeau use social media as a relatively independent way to spread their influence. Examining the use of social networks by the two politicians, one can notice a stark contrast. While Trumps online representation is rude and ruthless, like his many speeches and debates would suggest, Trudeaus is quite different. The Canadian politician has used Instagram to cultivate a clean personal brand that would lead people to trust him. It is because of these core differences that Trudeau could not use the blackface controversy to his advantage, while Trump finds more support with every scandal.
References
Winberg, O. (2017). Insult politics: Donald Trump, right-wing populism, and incendiary language. European Journal of American studies, 12(2), 1-11. Web.
Howard, P. (2019). Trudeau in blackface: A symptom of Canadas widespread anti-black racism. The Canadian Press, 1-4.
Establishing effective communication with members of the public is one of the most popular objectives of any organization. Following recent altercations between the police and the citizens of Dallas, this issue has become even more topical. The policy proposed here would ensure that all police officers go through mandatory ongoing training implemented by in-house specialists. The result of this policy is establishing better communications with members of the public and colleagues.
The agency to implement this policy is the Dallas Police Department. According to the official report, in January 2020 the Dallas Police Department received 82 complaints from the public, among which six were due to the discourtesy or unprofessionalism expressed by law enforcement officers, two cases were connected to racial profiling, and two to the use of force (Shinneman, 2020, para. 7). Following the onset of the demonstrations related to George Floyds incident, the Dallas Police Department released a report that its officers struggled to communicate with the public and act as a unified force (The Associated Press, 2020). This account highlights the need for reorganization and restructuring within the department and the need for more effective policies.
The proposed strategys importance can be explained by the urgent need for qualitative improvement of how police officers act and are perceived by the public. However, providing policy staff with short-term professional courses in effective communication seems less effective than introducing a mandatory ongoing training program implemented by in-house experts. They are supposed to develop department-personalized teaching plans. This will allow them to make this training more effective and customized, as it also provides an opportunity to follow the trainees progress and make changes to the curriculum on the go. The constant character of trainers employment has a significant potential to improve police officers communication skills more successfully.
In practice, this strategy would involve several stages, starting with hiring a team of communications and behavior specialists. Then the newly appointed team would carry out a needs assessment, both by analyzing the existing volume of complaints and reports and doing research on particular self-assessed problem areas for police officers representing different departments. This attitude would allow not only to determine how officers view their communications skills but also to demonstrate respect for their opinions and needs (Woods, 2000, p. 43). Finally, the training program would be developed and implemented ongoingly, addressing particular objectives, and tackling challenges as they arrive.
Building a relationship between the community and law enforcement will likely prevent numerous crimes. It would allow the departments image to improve and enable police officers to communicate with the public more effectively. Moreover, it is especially vital for the success of various community outreach programs that the Dallas Police Department participates in.
Although I have always known that public speaking skills are crucial for delivering a message to the audience, this class taught me what particular impact some skills could make on the speech. By looking closely at each aspect of public speaking, I could see how it can be improved to influence the general impression. I find that the knowledge about our body language is one of the most valuable takeaways of this class. The most important aspect of the course is that it teaches what the perfect speech should be and also allows practicing and identifying our flaws. By doing this, we get the chance of self-analysis and know what skills should be trained. As I am a shy person, this class has given me immense motivation by showing that there is no inborn talent for public speaking, but every skill can be trained if one knows how to work on it.
Apart from body language, voice is a powerful instrument in public speaking. By management of its volume and pace, making pauses, and emphasizing key points with the help of pitch, one can gain full control of the listeners attention. I find this aspect of public speaking one of the most fascinating but also challenging. Our voice reveals each detail of our emotional state, and I find it challenging to avoid stuttering when I feel nervous. From the feedback about my project, I learned that I should work on the breath and try to control my voice to sound more convincing.
Keeping eye contact and proximity is essential for a speaker to engage with the listeners. Unprepared people often tend to fix their stare at the back of the hall for the whole presentation. By doing this, they fail to deliver an engaging message, and their audience cannot stay focused. In this class, I have learned that one should keep eye contact with people most of the time while presenting and switch it from one listener to another so often as needed to look in the eyes of each person. Proximity to the audience is often defined by the size of the place and the number of people present, but some actions help to make a connection and increase proximity. I have learned that by exercising open posture and approaching movement, one can demonstrate the willingness to be closer.
Although the public speaking technique is essential, one should always focus on the content and find the best ways to deliver it. Having a strong position and a clearly defined statement is vital to sound impressive. The project I was doing for this class taught me how to organize the information and what instruments to use (photos, numbers) to present my ideas convincingly. Moreover, having these tools helps to hold the presentation better and sound more fluent as I have more material to work with. In this class, I have also learned how to address the specific audience keeping in mind their interests and making the presentation relevant.
The article titled what we learn from writing on the job by Lester Faigley and Thomas Miller mainly addresses the importance of having the designers of college curricula take into consideration the importance of inculcating writing skills for the future benefit of their students.
The two authors assert that college graduates should be able to write at a certain level of proficiency, which should also be in tandem with their respective professions. The authors argue that as much as most of the professional writing is learned on the job, it is the prerogative of the trainers to ensure that the graduates they produce are worth the professional accreditation they are given.
The authors argue that the literacy crisis can easily be linked to tertiary institutions of learning abolishing their writing classes. The study conducted by the two authors to establish the importance or academic training in writing reveals that individuals who are proficient in writing also tend to be effective in delivering oral presentations.
The authors conclude that writing is gradually being regarded as just one of the established methods of communicating instead of the fundamental basis on which professionalism is grounded. I completely agree with the authors opinions that the abolition of writing classes should be attributed to the literacy crisis.
This is primarily because I have personally discovered that the less I am required to write, the less I feel motivated to involve myself in learning through literary texts. This is particularly because the rapid technological changes in the communication have made it easier to pass a message across without necessarily involving the written text.
For instance, I can easily get the same information about Nelson Mandela from watching a documentary as I could have obtained from reading one of his anthologies.
The article titled writing in the professions by Anne Beaufort is primarily an analysis of the evolution of the research process as a factor of workplace writing. The author points out the relevance of the topic on professional writing by outlining a number of articles that have been written by various on the scholars on the same topic.
Beaufort explains that before the advent of computers workplace writing was held in high regard with most employers demanding that potential employees have proper writing skills. She then goes ahead to point out that with revolutions happening in every aspect of society, workplace writing evolved to factor in some amount of conscious deliberation and composition.
This, according to her was necessitated by the realization that individuals in management who did not possess proper writing skills ended up becoming liabilities to the enterprises owing to their inefficiency. The impact of technology on the writing approaches of various professionals has also been underscored.
Beaufort has included an analysis of writing in professions ranging from accounting at the International Monetary fund (IMF) to air traffic control. Her sole aim in this extensive exemplification is to show a correlation between writing and technological changes. The author comes to the conclusion that students need to know how to appropriately apply research skills depending on the situation that they find themselves in.
I support Beauforts conclusion because it is easy to note the importance of research in each and every profession. As such, tutors and instructors should strive to ensure that there students develop proper research and analytical skills for the sake of effectiveness in their future careers.
The two articles both touch on the importance of students developing proper writing skills for the purpose of future effectiveness at the workplace. However, the articles are not specific on which elements of learning need to be worked on and this leaves room for more research.
Below are two questions whose analysis would provide guidelines as to the particular changes that need to be made to the education and professional system in order to create effective workers.
The acronym EFL stands for English as a foreign language where various tests are used to measure the communication and language competency of individuals who use English as a second or foreign language.
The teaching and testing of EFL has been on the rise in the recent past as more and more people seek to have their language speaking skills evaluated in terms of their ability to promote communication competency (Davies 2000).
There are various tests that are used to measure English as a foreign language but some of the most commonly used include TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), IELTS (International English Language Testing System), TSE (Test of Spoken English) and TWE (Test of Written English).
The earliest works in language assessment in the US date back to the 1950s after pioneering studies were conducted by individuals such as Robert Lado and David Harris (Taylor and Falvey 2007).
TOEFL, which was the first large scale assessment of measuring English, was developed by the Educational Testing Service in Princeton, New Jersey in the year 1961. The test was designed with the sole purpose of assessing the English language competency and ability of students who were applying to be admitted to either Canadian or US colleges and universities.
TOEFL is still the most commonly used English language proficiency in the world and it is now also available in the Internet based format which is known as the TOEFL IBT. The other tests such as IELTS were developed in recent years to deal with the growing need for English language proficiency and competence testing for people applying for college admissions, work opportunities and training activities.
The purpose of this study will be to assess the effectiveness of direct and indirect tests in measuring the communication competency of EFL learners as well as their abilities in speaking the English language (Silly 2006).
Direct, Indirect and Semi Direct EFL Tests
As mentioned in the introductory part of this discussion, the main focus of these tests is usually on the assessment of English as a second or foreign language in either the school, college or university context. The English language is also assessed on the basis of its use in the workplace and also in the cases of applicants using the tests for immigration, citizenship and asylum purposes.
The main areas of assessment that are usually considered in EFL tests include reading, writing, speaking and listening where the language user is tested on their ability and competency in using the English language. The weights are usually allocated based on the understanding that the user has of the English language and also their ability to use the language in a practical way (Alderson and Banerjee 2002).
EFL Language assessment tests are usually administered through a variety of ways which include the direct, semi direct and indirect testing. The direct method of assessing English involves the learner actually doing the skills that need to be assessed in the test through the use of actual samples of the examinees writing, speaking, listening and reading skills to judge their proficiency in the language.
Direct tests incorporate the use of procedures where the examinee engages in a face-to-face communicative exchange with an interviewer or a group of interlocutors. The concept behind this method of assessing English proficiency is mostly associated with productive rather than receptive skills of the individual.
The direct method of assessing the users speaking abilities involves using oral proficiency interviews (OPI) that are based on flexible and unstructured oral interviews to gauge the speaking abilities of the individual (Fulcher 2003).
The oral proficiency interviews are usually conducted by trained interviewers who assess the speaking proficiency and capability of the interviewee through the use of a global band scale. The OPI has become the most commonly used language in measuring the speaking proficiency of English as a second or foreign language since its introduction in the 1970s.
Different models of oral proficiency interviews have emerged during the last decade to respond to the various criticisms that have emerged about the validity and reliability of OPI tests.
These newer models have incorporated more standardization in their procedures where a range of specified tasks vary in terms of characteristics such as interviewee and interviewer roles, functional demands and stimulus characteristics. The IELTS test has been able to incorporate all these aspects in its testing procedures to ensure that the speaking weights have been standardized (Fulcher 2010).
The direct ESL language assessments treat speaking as an active and generative socio-cognitive process where the examinee or interviewee demonstrates a variety of skills that are orchestrated to make sense of certain conversations and also communicate with the interviewer during the speaking test.
As mentioned earlier in the discussion, speaking tests are usually facilitated by trained interviewers and the general method of dispensing these tests is through single or multiple samples of speaking that have been generated under either controlled or uncontrolled conditions which have been supported by instruction and feedback (Bazerman 2008).
The various speaking sub-tests take the form of structured interviews that are made up of five distinct sections which are used to measure the varying speaking and communication demands given to the examinees.
These subtests include an introduction where the interviewer and interviewee introduce themselves, an extended discourse task where the interviewee speaks at length on a familiar topic, an elicitation task where the interviewer is required to elicit certain information from the interviewee, a speculation and attitudes task where the candidate is encouraged to talk about their future plans and a conclusion test where the interview is brought to a close (OLoughlin 2001).
The indirect speaking tests on the other hand refer to those procedures where the examinee is not required to speak at all during the test. Indirect assessment tests usually measure the probable speaking abilities of the examinee by observing the various types of knowledge and skills that are associated with the examinees speaking ability.
Indirect assessment tests in speaking require the use of passive recognition of errors and the selection of suitable examples rather than the active generation of speaking tasks.
The major features of these types of tests are that they objectively measure the speaking abilities and competency of the examinee, they have a high statistical reliability, speaking tests allow for the standardization of the test and they also measure the inferential judgement of the examinee during the speaking exercise (Douglas 2010).
During these EFL assessment tests, the examinee performs various nonspeaking tasks that are related to the scores allocated to actual speaking tasks. A conversational cloze test is a common type of indirect test made up of a written passage that is based on the transcript of a conversation.
The words in this transcript are usually deleted and replaced with a blank space that requires the examinee to fill in the correct words. The scores of conversational cloze tests are usually similar to direct speaking assessment tests despite the fact examinees do not speak at all during these tests.
All they are required to do is provide the suitable responses to the cloze tests after which the examiner allocates the suitable test scores at a later time (Comings et al, 2006).
Semi direct tests on the other hand measure the speaking abilities of the examinee by tape recording the speaking test and also printing test booklets that will assess the speaking abilities and competency of the examinee. Semi direct speaking tests rarely incorporate the use of face-to-face conversation with interviewers as is the case with the direct and indirect methods of testing.
In the case of a tape recording, the examinees performance is usually made after which it is rated at a later time by one or more trained assessors. Some of the most commonly used semi direct tests include the test of spoken English (TSE), the recorded oral proficiency examination (ROPE) and the simulated oral proficiency interview (SOPI) (Fulcher and Davidson 2007).
Semi-direct tests were also introduced in the 1970s, the same time as the TOEFL tests and they have also experienced considerable growth over the last few years. Semi-direct tests were the first English language tests that incorporated the standardization of speaking assessments while at the same time retaining the communicative aspect of the oral proficiency interviews.
The growth in use of these tests was mostly attributed to the fact they were more cost efficient than the direct tests especially when they administered in a group setting. These tests were also able to provide a practical solution in situations where it was not possible to administer a direct test to the examinee. For example in the event it was difficult to use one trained interviewer for the speaking test (McNamara 1996).
Effectiveness and Validity of the Direct Speaking Tests
Clark conducted a study in 1979 to determine the validity of the three tests in measuring the speaking capabilities of an individual. He argued that the most valid and preferable of the three EFL tests is direct assessment where the individuals speaking capabilities are measured in a reliable and accurate way.
This method determined whether the examinee had a close relationship with both the context of the speaking test and the real life. This statement means that direct tests presented a more authentic reflection of the communication aspects that took place in the real world.
Clark in his assessment of the validity of the OPI tests noted that the procedures used in this test failed to establish a relationship between the context of the test and the real world (Shaw and Weir 2007).
Clark noted that OPI tests had several deficiencies that made these methods of testing English speaking invalid. One of these problems was that the examinee was aware that they were talking to the interviewee or language assessor making it difficult to establish a connection with the real world.
Another problem with the OPI method was that the language elicited during the interview did not reflect the type of conversations that took place in the real world. The fact that the interviewer controlled the interview made it difficult for the interviewee to ask any questions or make any comments or opinions with regards to the test (Lazaraton 2002).
Hughes and Van Lier (1989 cited by OLoughlin 2001) conducted their own individual studies on the effectiveness of the direct assessment method in speaking languages where they noted that the validity of oral tests or assessments relied on the information asymmetry that existed between the test facilitator and the examinee.
Hughes noted that in the oral assessments, the interviewee spoke to the facilitator as if they were addressing a superior and they were also unwilling to take any initiatives in starting the next conversation or discussion points given that the interviewer had control of the session. This meant that only one style of speaking or communication was elicited from these oral tests meaning that the test was one sided (Cohen 1998).
Hughes offered a recommendation that these oral tests should have included activities such as role playing and discussion so that the type of interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee was varied.
Van Lier on the other hand pursued a stronger version of this argument where he questioned whether an interview could validly assess the oral proficiency of the examinee by contrasting the essential features of conversations used within the interviews (Ferrer et al. 2010).
Van Lier noted that an interview during the speaking test had asymmetrical contingency meaning that the trained facilitator had a plan of how the interview was meant to go and also how he would control the direction of the interview based on that plan.
Van Lier differentiated these tests from a normal conversation which he described was characterised by face-to-face interactions, unplanned discussion points, unpredictable sequences and outcomes and also the equal distribution of talking points amongst the various participants of the conversation.
According to such a characterization, the emphasis of an interview mostly depended on the elicitation of information rather than on the support of successful conversations (OLoughlin 2001).
With regards to the student-to-student interaction during the test, the validity of this method of assessing the speaking competency of the examinee has proved to be an effective and valid method as it establishes a connection between the real world conversations and the context of the test.
Student-to-student interactions eliminate the need of eliciting for information from the interviewee as the communication is not planned or scheduled during these tests. The examinee is able to explore various aspects of their speaking skills without having to wait for an oral command from the facilitator of the test.
These interactions during speaking tests ensure that all aspects of the examinees speaking competency have been measured and evaluated by the facilitator overseeing the test (Schumm 2006).
Effectiveness of Indirect and Semi-Indirect Methods
A lot of research and discussions have been conducted with regards to the pros and cons of measuring the speaking proficiency of examinees or test takers through the use of these methods. There has been considerable debate and criticism of the various methods of assessing the speaking abilities of examinees during speaking tests. This has mostly emerged as a result reliability and validity problems with some of these tests.
The most criticised test is the indirect method of assessment which incorporates the use of standardized tests that have been fragmented and decontextualized.
Of all the three speaking procedures, the indirect assessment test is viewed to be the least valid measure of a persons ability to speak English because the examinee is not required to speak at all during the course of the test. These tests mostly rely on the probability that the test taker can be able to Speak English proficiently (Luoma 2004).
Indirect speaking tests have been considered by many English facilitators and assessors to be highly invalid and ineffective methods of measuring the speaking capabilities of test takers because they incorporate a substantial portion of specific testing formats such as mimicry of heard phrases, the descriptions of pictures, sounds and visual objects and the reading out loud of printed text.
This method also removes the face-to-face interaction that takes place between the interviewer and interviewee, making it difficult for the examiner to determine the accurate proficiency of the test taker. There have been many advantages and disadvantages that have been propagated for the use of indirect testing in measuring the learners ability to speak and pronounce English (Comings et al 2006).
A study conducted by Lado in 1961 on the effectiveness of indirect tests in measuring the English competency of individuals revealed that indirect tests could not be used as substitutes for direct tests. This was mostly attributed to their impracticality and inability to accurately measure the actual speaking abilities of the examinee.
Underhill in his 1987 study also criticised indirect assessments in EFL speaking tests by arguing that the reasonability of the tests did not hide the fact that they were highly invalid and ineffective in measuring the speaking abilities of the examinees.
Underhill argued that as long as the testers and test takers were not happy with the test, the results of the indirect assessment would more than likely yield poor results. He noted that the best way of determining the validity of the test was to question the different people who used the test in measuring their speaking competency (Weigle 2002).
In terms of the semi-direct methods of English assessment, the validity of these methods is somewhat similar to that of direct tests as examinees are required to carry out some practical speaking tests that are less realistic when compared to those of the direct tests. Such tests involve responding to tape recorded questions, imitating voice models done on tape recordings and describing visual objects out loud to the examiner.
The validity of this method of English speaking assessment has also experienced some criticism as it does not involve any active speaking. The examinee participates in artificial language use when they respond to tape recorded questions or voice imitation which means that they are not able to experience real life communication.
This method while similar to direct testing has a higher reliability because of the uniformity of elicited responses from the examinee which is usually performed in a standardised procedure. This uniformity is however impossible in direct testing because of the variability of the plan being used by the interviewer during the test (Davidson and Lynch 2002).
Lazarton (1996 cited by OLoughlin 2001) supported the reliability of semi direct tests by arguing that the potential of the interviewers uneven performance during the face-to-face interview was one of the major reasons why the semi direct tests were more appealing as they removed the variability introduced by the examiner during the speaking tests.
Lazartons observations were true when the unstandardised OPI tests were used in assessing the speaking abilities of test takers. The content and form of questions in OPIs varied in a considerable way from one interview to another, making it difficult for this method to be viewed as reliable (Lazaraton 2002).
According to Underhill, the lack of standardised questions created adverse effects on the performance of the examinee in the tests, making the direct method of assessing the speaking skills of examinees unreliable.
Underhill pinpointed that the lack of scripts in oral interviews gave direct tests more flexibility than the semi-direct tests. He noted that semi direct speaking tests had a more predictable content when it came to the candidate output during the tests as they were required to participate in unsequenced test questions.
The scoring criteria for semi- direct tests were more easily constructed and accurate when compared to the direct assessment method. Underhill noted that this was more than likely to yield more reliable results which would determine the accuracy of the examiners speaking abilities.
Apart from being more reliable than the direct tests, semi-direct assessments offer more practicality in assessing the speaking proficiency of the candidate than the direct tests. This is because a group of candidates can be tested at once through the use of a language laboratory which means that semi-direct tests are more economical and efficient (Lynch 2003).
Semi direct tests are also more practical than direct and indirect tests because the marking is done in real time since the performance of the candidate during the test was recorded in audio. This creates some convenience for the test marker and test taker as they can be able to get the results of the test at any time.
Semi direct tests follow a fixed structure which allows the examiners to listen to the audio recordings by forwarding the tapes to important parts of the examinees performance.
These tests are less costly when compared to the direct tests as they do not require any selection and training of interviewers. They might prove to be unreliable when the tape recordings are of a poor quality but this might be overcome with live assessment tests (Sundh 2003).
Conclusion
The findings of the discussion have revealed that direct tests are more effective than the semi direct and indirect assessments of speaking English. These tests are however more costly and less reliable than the semi direct tests. Semi direct tests are less costly and they can be administered to many candidates at the same time through the use of language laboratories.
Language assessors who want to save time and money prefer the use of semi direct tests as they also offer real time tests scores. The study has also revealed that of all the three tests, the indirect assessments are the least reliable as they do not measure the speaking ability of the candidate in a practical way.
References
Alderson, J.C. and Banerjee, J. (2002) Language testing and assessment. Language Teaching, Vol.35, pp 79-113
Bazerman, C., (2008) Handbook of research on writing: history, society, school, individual, text. Oxford, UK: Taylor and Francis Group
Cohen, A.D. (1998) Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. New Jersey: Longman Publishers
Comings, J., Garner, B., and Smith, C., (2006) Review of adult learning and literacy, Volume 6. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Davidson, F. and Lynch, B. (2002) Testcraft: A guide to writing and using language test specifications. New York: Yale university press
Davies, A. (2000) Dictionary of Language Testing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Douglas, D. (2010) Understanding Language Testing. New York: Oxford University Press
Ferrer, H., Speck, B.P., Franch, P.B., and Signes, C.G., (2001) Teaching English in a Spanish setting. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia.
Fulcher, G., (2003) Testing second language speaking. New Jersey: Pearson Education
Fulcher, G. and Davidson, F. (2007) Language Testing and Assessment: an advanced resource book. Oxford, UK: Routledge
Fulcher, G. (2010) Practical Language Testing. New York: Oxford University Press
McNamara, T. (1996) Measuring Second Language Performance. New Jersey: Longman Publishers
Lazaraton, A., (2002) A qualitative approach to the validation of oral language tests. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Luoma, S. (2004) Assessing Speaking. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Lynch, B.K., (2003) Language assessment and programme evaluation. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburg University Press Limited
OLoughlin, K.J., (2001) The equivalence of direct and semi-direct speaking tests. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Press
Shaw, S. and Weir, C.J. (2007) Examining writing: research and practice in assessing second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Schumm, J.S., (2006) Reading assessment and instruction for all learners. New York: Guilford Press
Silly, H., (2006) Total preparation for the new TOEFL IBT. New York: Studyrama
Sundh, S., (2003) Swedish school leavers oral proficiency in English. Sweden: Uppsala Universitet.
Taylor, L. and Falvey, P. (eds) (2007) IELTS Collected Papers: research in speaking and writing assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Weigle, S. (2002) Assessing Writing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Lack of spontaneous communication and delayed language acquisition have been recognized as among the most consistent challenges facing children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (Duffy & Healy, 2011; Kim, Junker, & Lord, 2014). Although research shows that the number of children with autism who speak fluently has increased beyond earlier approximations (Chiang & Carter, 2008), these challenges remain a central feature of the disorder as children with autism tend to initiate communication in fewer contexts compared to typical children (Duffy & Healy, 2011; Kossyvaki, Jones, & Guildberg, 2012). Although many researchers have studied the effectiveness of interventions aimed at eliciting spontaneous communication, only a few (e.g., Ploog, Scharf, Nelson, & Brooks, 2013) have focused attention on computer-based interventions.
Review of Literature
Available scholarship demonstrates that most individuals with autism share common deficits in social and language skills, which include failure to develop peer relationships, lack of engagement in play with peers, lack of emotion recognition, difficulties in communicative interactions, and generally poor social skills (Ploog et al., 2013, p. 301). The inability of some individuals with autism to elicit spontaneous communication has interested many researchers (Bauminger-Zviely, Kimhi, & Agam-Ben-Artzi, 2014; Duffy & Healy, 2011).
Although the concept of spontaneous communication lacks a universal definition in the literature, it has generally been defined as communicative behaviors that occur in the absence of prompts, instructions or other verbal cues (Duffy & Healy, 2011, p. 977). Using this conceptualization, persons with a diagnosis of autism are said to lack spontaneity in their interactions as they often depend on prompts such as oral cues, modeling, and material direction to induce some form of communication.
Several scholars have focused attention on the concept of spontaneous communication and its relationship to autism. In their study, Chiang and Carter (2008) define spontaneous verbalizations as communicative behaviors in response to nonverbal stimuli, in the absence of verbal discriminative stimuli (p. 698). These authors are clear that spontaneous communication must occur in the absence of questions and without partner prompting, meaning that it normally takes place without specified antecedents.
However, another study by Loncola and Graig-Unkefer (2005) shows that spontaneous communication is said to occur when a child utters something that may be directed to another child or object but not prompted by an adult. Such an utterance, according to these authors, usually occurs within 10 seconds of a specified antecedent. This view is reinforced by Potter and Whittaker (2001), who argue that spontaneous behaviors should not be judged by the existence of specific antecedents but rather by their demonstration to meet the communication requirements of the situation and their functionality in the given context. The description given by Potter and Whittaker (2001) provides some proof that computer-generated visual images may indeed be used as an intervention to elicit spontaneous communication in children with autism.
Some researchers have studied how the use of computer-assisted technology (CAT) influences the social, communicative, and language development in individuals who have been diagnosed with autism. One review by Duffy and Healy (2011) revealed that CAT and Applied Behavior Analysis can be incorporated together to enhance spontaneous communication in individuals with a diagnosis of autism through the use of procedures such as time delay/prompt fading, milieu language teaching, direct instruction, script fading, and fluency training (p. 978).
Another review by Stromer, Kimball, Kinney, and Taylor (2006) found that computer-generated activity schedules can be used to encourage learning about multiple cues and reinforce functional verbal skills of children with autism by increasing attention to projected stimuli. The capacity of computers to simultaneously integrate vocal and video cues was found to be particularly beneficial as it can be used to pair static visual support with additional instructional stimuli such as audio and video recordings to trigger social, communicative, and language development in children with autism (Stromer et al., 2006).
Another review by Ploog, Scharf, Nelson, and Brooks (2013) found that most researchers have recognized the potential of computer technology as an effective and efficient tool in research and treatment of autism as most children show a high affinity to computers and professionals using CAT are more likely to implement treatments with higher precision and less variability than those using traditional treatment approaches.
The review found that CAT may provide new ways of teaching language skills to children with autism, particularly in terms of increasing the use of voluntary speech for social communication, reinforcing the skills needed for enhanced adaptive functioning, and providing a higher precision in training (Ploog et al., 2013). Some of the flaws associated with the use of CAT noted in the review include reinforcement of undesirable behavior, a distraction from the relevant information intended to be conveyed, increased social isolation due to interaction with computers rather than humans, and encouragement of limited acts of behavior and ways of responding to various stimuli.
Need for the Proposed Study/Problem Statement
Despite recent advances in technology and the overflowing scholarship on autism and associated interventions, a fundamental question that remains unanswered is whether computer-based approaches are effective in eliciting spontaneous communication in children with a diagnosis of autism. Unfortunately, as reported by several scholars (e.g., Goldsmith & LeBlanc, 2004; Ploog et al., 2013), research studies that can be used to answer this question are sparse and highly fragmented.
Additionally, the few studies that focus on this area are exploratory and fail to demonstrate a rigorous assessment of the effectiveness of computer-based approaches (Duffy & Healy, 2011; Ploog et al., 2013). As such, many language therapists may still be unsure about the efficacy of computer-based interventions judging by assertions that more rigorous assessments need to be done to convincingly demonstrate the efficacy of these interventions. The proposed study aims to fill these gaps by evaluating the efficacy of computer-generated stimuli in eliciting spontaneous communication.
Purpose Statement
Drawing from the problem statement, the proposed study seeks to use professional language therapists to evaluate the effectiveness of computer-generated stimuli in reinforcing spontaneous communication in children with autism. The independent variable for the proposed study is computer-generated stimuli, while the dependent variable is spontaneous communication.
The independent/dependent variable relation that will be addressed in the proposed study is how exposure to computer-generated stimuli can generate spontaneous communicative episodes (e.g., vocalizations elicited in trying to ask for something, clarify a visual image, describe a visual image, or retell a video story) among children diagnosed with autism. These variables (computer-generated stimuli and spontaneous communication) are empirical since they deal with objects in the observable physical world surrounding us (Iversen & Gergen, 1997, p. 14). Their delimitation is described below.
Computer-generated stimuli will be conceptually defined as a thing or event that is performed by a computer system to elicit a particular functional reaction or to provide an incentive to behave in a particular way (Duffy & Healy, 2011). However, the concept will be operationalized as audio or visual incentives that are generated by a computer system to evoke a specific communicative reaction among children with autism. In the proposed paper, computer-generated stimuli will be delimited to incentives provided by computer-generated video images (video modeling), virtual reality, and audio-visual (multimedia) technology.
Spontaneous communication is conceptually defined as the vocalization of concepts generated by the speaker (Chiang & Carter, 2008, p. 694). In the proposed study, spontaneous communication will be operationalized as the capability of children with autism to demonstrate some form of communicative behaviors in the absence of physical prompts, instructions, or other orally-initiated cues. The spontaneous communicative behaviors will be delimited to the therapists feedback on their observation of children who are exposed to computer-generated stimuli to develop their communication skills. The issue of interest will be whether the children attempt to clarify something, tell a picture story, describe a picture, or retell a story without oral prompts (Kim, Junker, & Lord, 2014).
Method
Participants
Thirty (30) professional language therapists who use computer-based interventions to treat and manage children with autism will be enrolled in the study through purposive sampling. The therapists will be required to provide their perceptions about the effectiveness of computer-generated stimuli in encouraging spontaneous communication in children diagnosed with autism.
Internal Validity and Factors that Compromise Internal Validity
To achieve the required internal validity in the proposed study, the variations in the dependent variable [must] originate from variations in the independent variable(s) and not from other confounding factors (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001, p. 234). The variables that can compromise internal validity in the proposed study include (1) inadequate understanding of stimuli, (2) participants understanding of selected interventions, (3) researcher perceptions, (4) unrepresentative sample, (5) participant dropout, and (6) ineffective grading criteria of the perceptions provided by participants.
These variables can be categorized into factors which include instrumentation errors, subject/participant effects, mortality, and selection bias (Creswell, 2013). Researcher effects may present in the form of deliberate or unintentional attributes or expectations of the researcher that may influence the study participants, while instrumentation errors may appear in the form of ineffective measurement scales in the questionnaire as well as lack of understanding of various stimuli and how they affect spontaneous communication.
Additionally, subject/participant effects in the proposed study may take the form of inadequate understanding of stimuli as well as insufficient participant understanding of selected interventions and their effectiveness. The mortality problem may occur when some subjects fail to participate in the research study, resulting in a bias. Lastly, selection bias may occur due to failure by the researcher to use an effective sampling strategy to get the language therapists who will take part in the study (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001).
Plan to Control the Factors
The researcher intends to remain objective and also to pilot the data collection instrument with the view to addressing researcher effects and instrumentation errors. Participants will also be taken through the data collection instrument to ensure that they understand all the items and hence reduce response errors that may be related to instrumentation (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001).
To deal with subject/participant effects, the questionnaire will be administered only once and efforts will be made to ensure that participants are comfortable when responding to the questions contained in the questionnaire. The mortality factor will be addressed by educating the selected subjects on the need to participate in the study and also by removing bottlenecks to participation (e.g., distance, time, and location). Lastly, the researcher intends to address selection bias by using purposive sampling technique to ensure that all participants will have deep and insightful knowledge about the interventions under investigation and their effectiveness (Creswell, 2013).
Instrumentation
Quantitative data used to evaluate the effectiveness of the two interventions will be collected from sampled speech therapists through the use of a standardized questionnaire containing 5-point Lickert-type questions. Most of the items in the questionnaire will be closed-ended with possible responses as strongly agree , agree , not sure/no opinion , disagree , and strongly disagree (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001, p. 267).
The questionnaire will be administered online to remove the time and distance constraints that often lead to problems associated with mortality. A pilot study involving three language therapists will be administered before the actual data collection phase to ensure that the questionnaire is reliable and valid in terms of consistency of measurement and ability to measure what it is intended to measure.
Statistics
Data collected from the field will be analyzed using a statistical program known as SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) with the view to providing answers to the noted research gaps. Descriptive statistics will be used to investigate the effectiveness of the computer-based intervention based on percentages, mean scores, and standard deviations of various questions contained in the questionnaire.
According to Balnaves and Caputi (2001), descriptive statistics are highly preferred in this type of study as they not only use measures of central tendency (e.g., mean scores) to describe the most typical value in a data set (in this case, effectiveness) but also employ measures of dispersion (e.g., variance and standard deviation) to describe the variability of the responses given. It is also possible to present findings using frequency distributions and graphical presentations that are created by the software program.
References
Balnaves, M., & Caputi, P. (2001). Introduction to quantitative research methods: An investigative approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.
Bauminger-Zviely, K., Kimhi, Y., & Agam-Ben-Artzi, G.A. (2014). Spontaneous peer conversation in preschoolers with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder versus typical development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(4), 363-373.
Chiang, H.M., & Carter, M. (2008). Spontaneity of communication in individuals with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 38(4), 693-705.
Creswell, J.W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.
Duffy, C., & Healy, O. (2011). Spontaneous communication in autism spectrum disorder: A review of topographies and interventions. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(2), 977-983.
Goldsmith, T.R., & LeBlanc, L.A. (2004). Use of technology in intervention for children with autism. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 1(2), 166-178.
Iversen, G.R., & Gergen, M. (1997). Statistics: The conceptual approach. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Kim, S.H., Junker, D., & Lord, C. (2014). Observation of spontaneous expressive language (OSEL): A new measure for spontaneous and expressive language of children with autism spectrum disorders and other communication disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(12), 3230-3244.
Kossyvaki, L., Jones, G., & Guildberg, K. (2012). The effect of adult interactive style on the spontaneous communication of young children with autism at school. British Journal of Special Education, 39(4), 173-184.
Loncola, J.A., & Graig-Unkefer, L. (2005). Teaching social communication skills to young urban children with autism. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40(2), 243-263.
Ploog, B., Scharf, A., Nelson, D., & Brooks, P. (2013). Use of computer-assisted technologies (CAT) to enhance social, communicative, and language development in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 43(2), 301-322.
Potter, C., & Whittaker, C. (2001). Enabling communication in children with autism. London: Jessica Kingsley.
Stromer, R., Kimball, J.W., Kinney, E.M., & Taylor, B. (2006). Activity schedules, computer technology, and teaching children with autism spectrum disorders. A Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 21(1), 14-24.
The paper reveals that the differences are present between white and black population segments in South Africa. The study states that the primary dissimilarities are defined by a different level of clarity, ambiguity, and involvement of emotions while building argumentation. Nonetheless, the critical similarity is the lack of competences in written communication due to the preference of oral interaction for the cultivation of trust.
Introduction
The ability to communicate with the assistance of the written skills requires attention in the modern world due to a high level of illiteracy in some regions such as South Asia and Africa (Kornblum, 2011). Nonetheless, written communication is more complicated while referring to the idea-expression due to the absence of personal contact (Martin & Chaney, 2012; Fielding, 2006). The primary goal of the paper is to analyze differences and similarities in written communication between black and white social segments in South Africa. In the end, the conclusions are drawn to summarize the findings acquired with the assistance of the statistical analysis and literature review.
Differences between Written Communication of Black and white Segments in South Africa
The primary difference in written communication is portrayed by the level of clarity among black and white citizens of South Africa (Hogeschool van Amsterdam, 2012). In this instance, the whites to present their ideas in an organized manner while focusing on the achievement of the goals (Hogeschool van Amsterdam, 2012). In turn, blacks tend to have a problem to present their ideas in the written form, as they have to rely on non-verbal communication while having a conversation in the real world (Hogeschool van Amsterdam, 2012).
In terms of the presentation of the ideas in the written form, the whites tend to support their ideas with logical argumentation (Hogeschool van Amsterdam, 2012). In turn, blacks tend to consider emotions and personal experiences a core basis for the relevant decision-making (Hurtley & Bruckman, 2008). This aspect is also identified by a different level of ambiguity and the significance of emotions.
Similarities between Written Communication of Black and White Segments in South Africa
Despite a wide range of differences, the core similarity is the preference of the oral communication to the written one due to the essentiality to build trusting relationships with the assistance of the personal contact (Hogeschool van Amsterdam, 2012). These aspects define the overall principles of South African business communication since they portray the necessity of the individual approach while establishing relationships with the partners. Consequently, both groups lack writing skills and are unable to present their ideas clearly due to the absence of direct interaction (Rasmussen, Mylonas, & Beck, 2012).
Additionally, it remains apparent that both social groups experience struggle due to the lack of practice of written communication (Hogeschool van Amsterdam, 2012). In this case, this matter is the primary source of difficulties for international business operations. Nonetheless, the existence of this factor can be explained with the unimportance of this approach to South African etiquette.
Conclusion
In the end, the aspects of written communication have differences and similarities while referring to the comparison of the key principles among whites and blacks in South Africa. The core differences can be explained by the dissimilar utilization of logic level of clarity and necessity of the expression of emotions as a key argument in the communications. Nonetheless, despite being vehemently different in the expression of the ideas in the written form, the critical similarity is the deficiency of the competence in the written communication due to the absence of the popularity of this aspect in South African business culture. In turn, this matter is present, as the whites and blacks highly value the essentiality of personal interactions while building trusting relationships with customers and partners.
References
Fielding, M. (2006). Effective communication in organizations: Preparing messages that communicate. Lansdowne, Cape Town: Juta & Co. Ltd. Web.
Hogeschool van Amsterdam. (2012). Where cultures meet: A cross-cultural comparison of business meeting styles. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Hogeschool van Amsterdam. Web.
Hurtley, P., & Bruckman, C. (2008). Business communication. London, UK: Routledge. Web.
Kornblum, W. (2011). Sociology in a changing world. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Web.
Martin, J., & Chaney, L. (2012). Global business etiquette: A guide to international communication and customs. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. Web.
Rasmussen, R., Mylonas, A., & Beck, H. (2012). Investigating business communication and technologies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Web.
Creating the environment in which students will be eager to share their experiences, collaborate actively, and address emerging conflicts efficiently by applying appropriate negotiation strategies is a crucial step toward enhancing the process of knowledge acquisition by the target population. In their article, Hale, Freed, Ricotta, Farris, and Smith (2017) stress the significance of a teacher using the communication approach that incorporates essential elements of body language.
According to the authors of the study, the adoption of a proper body language technique as the means of conversing with students is bound to lead to a massive improvement in the quality of the education process and leave a profound effect on learners. Apart from increasing the levels of investment among students, the use of a body-language-based communication framework triggers a rise in the levels of analytical thinking and successful problem-solving. Therefore, the tool must be considered a crucial addition to the set of communication strategies used by a teacher.
Reaction
I was far from being surprised to find out that body-language communication is viewed as essential for successful learning. Indeed, a significant amount of information is received with the help of nonverbal communication. Therefore, the idea of using body language as the means of identifying the levels of engagement among learners, as well as deploying specific elements of body language to make students pay attention to specific themes, ideas, and concepts that are addressed during the lesson seems quite legitimate to me.
However, the idea of incorporating body language into the process of teaching, especially when meeting the needs of ESL students, raises a lot of questions. For instance, I wonder whether it is possible to develop a set of universal signs that cannot possibly be misinterpreted by the learners whose ethnic and cultural backgrounds are different from the ones of a teacher and the rest of the class. The article inspires me to explore the challenges associated with deploying a body-language-based teaching strategy in an ESL classroom and identify the means of managing the associated difficulties successfully.
Implementation in a TESOL Classroom
To use a teaching strategy based on body language, an educator will have to consider the needs of learners carefully by taking account of the unique characteristics of the target population. For instance, teachers will have to use the elements of body language that can be misinterpreted by the representatives of specific cultures and ethnicities. The resulting set of gestures that cannot possibly be misinterpreted by any of the learners should be used as one of the tools for rendering essential information.
At the same time, an educator must keep in mind that body language is only a part of an efficient communication system. Thus, it must be used in tandem with other techniques contributing to a faster understanding of the essential information and acquisition of the relevant knowledge and skills. ESL learners are expected to develop crucial reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills within a relatively short amount of time once body language is incorporated into the set of available communication strategies.
Therefore, the adoption of the teaching techniques based on the active use of body language should be viewed as a necessity when addressing the needs of ESL learners. By using nonverbal elements of communication, a teacher will be able to deliver key messages without causing any misunderstandings. Thus, body language tools should be incorporated into the set of teaching tools to be used in the ESL setting.
Reference
Hale, A. J., Freed, J., Ricotta, D., Farris, G., & Smith, C. C. (2017). Twelve tips for effective body language for medical educators. Medical Teacher, 1(1), 1-6. Web.
Explain how the knowledge of psycholinguistic levels can help translators in producing an equivalent discourse in the process of translation
The language aspect of communication has to be examined for the efficient delivery and reception of information. The need for people to pick up, use, and comprehend language necessitated the demand to study the psychological aspect of language, which is referred to as psycholinguistics. The discipline digs into the neurological and psychological features of language in a bid to identify the factors underlying it from a scientific point of view. In this case, the knowledge of the various levels of psycholinguistics is necessary for professionals who translate one language into another without distorting the intended message.
From the neurological perspective of understanding language, the translators understand the importance of cognitive engagement and connectionism. The knowledge of the two aspects of translation enables the translators brain to read the source information and translate it instantly without errors. The psychology of language entails the application of some syntactic rules that govern the organisation of information received before it is translated. In this view, language is presented in the form of symbols and strings that need to be processed in a digital like manner. Therefore, before translating any language, the translator engages his/her left hemisphere actively whereby a series of analyses take place for the extraction of the right words. This technique of translation is further enhanced by the local serial principle (LSP) that provides for the sequential processing of symbols before translation. In this regard, information received by the translator has to undergo some serial processing before the symbols are translated to avoid the distortion of information.
In order to understand the text information from the source, the translators need to connect well with their intuition. By knowing this aspect of language, the translators would be in a position to think and translate according to the context simultaneously. For this reason, the translators use their common sense to comprehend the literary piece of information intuitively as presented to them before converting it into the preferred language. Knowledge of the connectionism concept equips the translators with the essential techniques of linking objects with the discourse. Thus, the engagement of the brain not only enhances the clarity of the discourse, but also puts it into the right context, thus resulting in better comprehension.
Knowledge in psycholinguistics adorns the translators with a well-structured framework for purposes of information processing. Understanding the systematic change of standard speech gives the translators an edge, and thus they engage their memory in processing the source text or sounds in their approach. Before interpreting the sentences and clauses semantically, the translator firstly divides the speech into natural linguistic groups comprising of clauses and sentences. Equivalent translation then proceeds after engaging the memory and systematic processing in the brain.
Therefore, psycholinguistics is essential for the enhancement of the translation process concerning connecting the symbolised ideas in the literary text through connectionism. In this regard, the neurological aspect of communication becomes a primary factor for consideration in a bid to engage in an efficient discourse. This aspect ensures that grammatical and orthographic errors are avoided whereby comprehensiveness of the information in the target language is achieved. In this light, translators can deliver translations that do not welcome the suspicion that they have been translated into, thus resulting in the delivery of quality literary works of translation.
Discuss how the translation of discourse and culture can be a challenge while translated from one language into another
The translation of language and discourse can be a threat to the efficient translation of one language into another. Literary texts of historical and cultural importance require a lot of effort from the translator to avoid falling victim of cultural variations in translating. Since language is a primary aspect of culture, it is significant to uphold it since it is a tool that is used for socialisation through discourse. Discourse entails the use of names and episodes that have substantial meaning to a particular culture whose language is subject to translation. Therefore, the translator needs to maintain the original context of the translation that could have a similar comprehension when the translated literary text is presented to people of a different culture.
The problem of translating unique names has troubled translators for a long time. In literary materials, characters are given names that go in line with their attributes in a particular culture. The need to translate the names correctly without interfering with the cultural context is thus essential for efficiency. For instance, a good number of the character names in the Harry Potter series had to be translated into other languages considering the context and accuracy. This aspect implies that the new names given to the characters have to consider the culture of the new language that it is being translated to in a bid to gain relevance in the new setting given that Harry Potter is an aesthetic piece of literature. In this regard, the need to bring out the artistic attributes of the story has to consider the translated names impact in the new context based on the culture. For this reason, cultural diversity challenges translators especially when character names have to maintain their meaning.
Religion is an important feature of culture whereby locations or names given to characters in the source text may have spiritual meaning. The religious context in which the names appear in the original text needs to be acknowledged by the translator in a bid to uphold the spiritual relevance that they possess. For example, the Islamic culture values names that have religious sense, thus leading to the commonality of names such as Abdullah and Mohammed . Translating these names from the Arabic context to a language of different culture poses problems in case the other culture does not have names that symbolise the religious attributes of the characters. The use of proper names in the Arabic culture portrays the conservative nature of their culture that might be contrary to other religions in which the text needs to be translated. Muslims have a unique way of conducting their greetings, thus implying that the discourse of the translated greetings might have different implications for other cultures. Social functions embedded in religion in the form of greetings characterised by self-ingratiation, humility before God, gratitude, and expressions of philanthropy tend to pose contextual challenges in translation.
Some communities use two languages at the same time for different reasons. Sociolinguistics refers to this situation as diglossia. For instance, discourse in the Arabic culture is characterised by diglossia that in turn could pose problematic cases when translating. The highly used vernacular (H) may prove to be easier to translate as compared to the lowly used vernacular (L), thus causing difficulties in translation. For instance, in the Arabic culture, H is used for formal purposes while L is common in colloquial or informal discourses. In this light, the application of lowly used vernacular tends to inhibit accurate translation since evoking the reactions intended could be relatively hard in another culture.
Comprehension begins with the perception of sounds Discuss this notion by providing an analysis of the speech organs and how they produce sounds: consonants and vowels
The reception of sounds during communication elicits different perceptions that affect the comprehension of the intended message. Speech perceptions from the psycholinguistics point of view entail picking the relevant information presented by the source whereby the linguistic capabilities of the listener are put to the test. The speech signal is usually given in the form of sounds that incorporates consonants and vowels. The production of speech is facilitated by various speech organs that undergo precise mechanisms as one speaks. Understanding how the organs of speech function provides one with valid information that could be used to understand foreign languages and enhance correct interpretation. Therefore, the way vowels and consonants are uttered influences the first impression and comprehension in the process of communication.
Speech organs above the lungs facilitate the production of speech in the form of consonants and vowels whereby air from the lungs is modified into sounds. The significant organs in this process include the nose, tongue, glottis, pharynx, and the lips. When these organs are closed or narrowed, air from the lungs is regulated, thus resulting in the production of vowels and consonants in the form of sounds that can be recognised by the listener. Therefore, the listener identifies the individual sounds that form words that build meaningful sentences regarding the topic that is being discussed. The listeners comprehend the sounds better through maintaining eye contact with the lips movement, hence sending signals to their brain, thus creating different perceptions in the process.
The frequency at which the listeners hear a word from the speaker enhances the right comprehension of the communicated message. The regular pattern of words uttered by the speaker implies that the listener perceptions are enhanced, hence efficiency in communication. The aspect of frequency in the reception of the regular consonants and vowels is psychological in nature, thus indicating that the neurological framework is tuned according to the context. Therefore, listeners are highly accurate in sound recognition and interpretation when the stimuli they hear is from the same speaker since they are familiar with their voice.
The lexical neighbourhood of a word also plays a vital role in its perception. Consonants and vowels forming words that have many similarly pronounced words tend to create difficulties in comprehending the actual intended meaning. For instance, in English, the word cat has a number of neighbouring words that tend to delay the comprehension of the sounds uttered by the speaker. For this reason, consonants and vowels produced to form words that do not have many lexical neighbours tend to be comprehended fast according to the context.
Listeners translate the speech that they hear according to their understanding. Some listeners encode the sounds received in idealised or symbolic forms. In most cases, this aspect depends on the listeners and the speakers genders. For this reason, recorded vowel stimuli tend to evoke different perceptions of the message when the gender of the speaker is concealed. The accent too has a bearing on the interpretation of vowels and consonants. Speakers that are not fluent in the language they are communicating in may face accent problems, thus affecting the comprehension of sounds among listeners. Consequently, different perceptions of the sounds emanate thereby challenging comprehension.
The current essay deals with a very important issue of mass communication impact on modern language. By thorough analysis of mass communication literature and the main facets of media discourse formation, conclusions are made concerning its role in the formation of modern language.
Media studies are the interdisciplinary domain of research that embraces social psychology, political economy, linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis and sociology. Hence, there is no denying the importance of the fact that the analysis of mass communication impact on language should be made through a multidisciplinary prism encompassing all measure findings of contemporary social and natural sciences. Two main approaches are conceptualizing the impact of mass communication and mass culture on language formation dominance.
The first approach proceeds from liberal principles in the analysis of mass culture and mass communication impact on the modern language. Its main representative is McLuhan, who is technologically determinist manner claimed that the level of technology determines media messages that are translated to a final recipient.
In the dominant vein of this tradition, media communication and mass culture are regarded as the main factor of language democratization and diversification. Language, according to this tradition, is democratized because it becomes more easy and understandable to ordinary people.
Aristocratic language dominance earlier is not widespread and becomes a historical artefact that can be found in literature and dusty archives. As McLuhan suggests, mass media and mass culture create a global village where all people are connected by the same cultural and cognitive value which can be understood by anybody. Besides this, mass culture is described to have a positive impact on language in terms of developing different linguistic patterns for different social and cultural identities for people, which provides the possibility for celebrating diverse lifestyles and orientations. Different underground youth communities, youth organizations and movements, as well as other civil institutions, are heavily indebted to modern media and mass culture, which play an important role in the dissemination of their language vocabulary (Flagan 2001). Youth language is developed by different musical programs on TV, radio, thematic journals, songs, films and other products of mass culture. Hence, the transformation of language can be described as the primary tool for constructing viable identities in postmodern society. Language becomes more and more differentiated and heterogeneous, which postulates heterogeneity of the modern society. Differences among various sociolects are diffused, and all layers of the populace obtain equal access to mass culture products. In this way, mass culture becomes closer to everybody. To sum up, a discussed approach to the abovementioned problems leaves no rule for critical analysis of language transformation as a result of the increasing impact of mass culture in the production of cultural products for the majority of the population.
Within the frames of another tradition, the impact of mass communication and mass culture on language and mass consciousness is analyzed in a different critical way. Adorno and Horkheimer criticize mass culture for its totalitarian impact on language in their work Dialectics of Enlightenment (1979). They claim that mass communication and mass culture is governed by the rules peculiar to a modern monopolist enterprise with mass production of standardized and purified from content mass products which are disseminated on the market. These mass cultural products are as homogenous in their form as the mass consumer products of monopolist enterprises. This standardization of culture results in the inevitable destruction of languages richness and its transformation into a commodity, a tool needed for the functioning consumerist society. The language which was used in culture mainly as the means for finding aesthetic truth now increasingly becomes just an operator of production. The abundance of its meanings is considerably increased, the scope of words used to signify emotions, feelings, abstract notions etc., are replaced by practical words, neologisms which are used not to widen the scope of understanding reality but for its control. Different marketing, PR, business and other dialects contaminate existing languages and reduce them to instrumental tools of communication.
Hence the conclusion is made that mass culture and media communication results in degradation of language, which in its turn leads to degradation of peoples consciousness. Language is inextricably linked to consciousness, and thus its degradation means degradation of peoples perception of reality and their living conditions (Hall 1992, p. 45-67). All this resembles Orwell description of Big Brother policy to exclude all dangerous and revolutionary meanings from the language, which is vividly described in his novel 1984. In the vein of this approach to this central problem, the diversification and differentiation of language sociolects as a result of mass culture are sufficiently underestimated, which results in a one-sided method of analysis.
The two concepts described above help us understand the role of mass culture and media in the process of language formation. It should be noted that neither of them presents a comprehensive account of the existing problem, and hence an alternative approach is to be elaborated. There is no denying the importance of the fact that Manichean vision of reality is not an appropriate tool for its cognition. Thus, a more balanced approach to the interrelation between language and mass culture must be developed, which puts primary emphasis on balanced vision.
References
Flagan, A. 2001, The Language of New Media, Afterimage, 29(1), 20.
Hall, S. (Ed.). 1992, Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-79, London, Routledge.
Adorno, T. Horkheimer M., 1976, Dialectics of Enlightenment, Continuum International Publishing Group.
McLuhan, M. 1962, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man. Toronto, University of Toronto Press.