Communication is an essential part of human life. People have been created as social units and they are unable to live too long far from other human beings. During the centuries people used face-to-face type of communication with personal presence. The situation has changed with the development of the innovative technologies which has changed the style of communication.
Now people can communicate without seeing each other or using the technologies to seeing the opponent but without being too close. Thus, nowadays people can experience both advantages and disadvantages of the modern technologies. Therefore the communication has become absolutely different, it is important to consider the advantages and disadvantages of modern technology and face-to-face communication.
It is obvious that the face-to-face communication is considered to be preferable for more people than the modern technology one. One of the main advantages of the face-to-face contact is the possibility to have a personal contact. People can shake hands and this is really important. Touch contact is important in communication as it gives an opportunity to feel a person better.
Face-to-face contact gives more chances to understand a person correctly as while communication we pay much attention to mimics and gestures. However, one of the main disadvantages of the face to face contact is the inability to see the person immediately when one needs it, especially when the opponents or on different continents.
The supporters of the modern technology communication do not have such problems as they are able to use different means for communication and be in touch any time and at any place they need. However, those who communicate over the telephone are unable to see the face of the opponent, to check his/her face impression and gestures which are usually important while discussing the problem.
The communication via e-mails is even more complicated and hidden as people are unable even to understand the intonation of the voice. There are different ways for communication via web camera and many people consider it as the substitute of the face-to-face communication.
However, this is not true as using the web camera people can see each other, but they are unable to feel each other which is really important. Still, the main advantage of the modern technology communication remains unchanged and it is considered as a strong argument in favor of this means.
Conducting a comparison and contrast analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face and modern technology communication, it is possible to stress that each type should be used in accordance of the appropriateness of the situation. Thus, the emergency cases should be considered with the help of the modern technology communication as well as those when the situation doe not allow personal presence (for example, when relatives live far from you and you want to communicate with them).
However, the serious business problems and other life conflicts or happy moments should be solved and supported only with face-to-face communication and personal presence. It is obvious that running business, those managers who deal with clients in their cabinet with the personal presence have more chances to succeed.
In conclusion, it should be stated that each type of communication, either face-to-face or with the use of the modern technology should be used in an appropriate situation. Only in this case communication is going to be successful and pleasant for both opponents.
Literature is a term which is commonly used to describe material that is either spoken or written (Cruse, 2000). It is a term that is used as a representation of a language, culture or tradition and thus introduces people to a whole new world of experience. Literature is also considered to be the basis of life as it places more emphasis on numerous topics ranging from human tragedies to tales of the search for love and affection (Donner, 2008).
Moreover, it is seen as the closest thing people have to being able to comprehend others whole-heartedly. Literature and communication tend go hand in hand as the latter is an essential part of our daily lives.
From what has been observed in the course of the years, effective communication tends to enhance peoples personal, career as well as social relationships, allowing them to make bonds with individuals from other cultures (Lankshear, Peters, & Knobel, 2000). Todays era is one that is rather saturated with communication technologies which have had an impact on people as well as societies.
Discussion
Evolution of Cell Phones and their Impact on Literature
Following the introduction of written language which is in itself a form of technology, humanity has in the course of the years experimented with various forms of technology to record their thoughts and ideas (Blashki & Nichol, 2005). It is a well known fact that the world today is being linked much closer due to the development of information technology. This particular evolution of communication technologies indicates the manner in which human lives are being transformed.
When looking at advanced communication technologies, the mobile technology simply cannot be ignored. Cell phones or the mobile technology has in the recent past greatly improved peoples lives in numerous different aspects for instance it has enabled them become much closer with each other through voice phone calling, social networking apps as well as texting (Cruse, 2000).
Cell phones are considered to be one of the most commonly used devices in the 21st Century for people to communicate with each other irrespective of the distance between them. It is also a form of technology that one has always had access to and have come to take for granted. A few years ago, cell phones used to be seen as luxury items for the wealthy or technologically savvy individuals; now they have become standard equipment particularly for teenagers.
If one was to visit a majority of homes, they would notice that people no longer rely on land line phones at home since they have their cell phones (Lankshear, et al., 2000). Recent studies have also indicated that such forms of communication technologies are growing in popularity thus making it even harder to imagine life without them.
According to recent statistics, it is only 12% of the total population of mobile users who have never used their phones for texting; half of these individuals happen to be over the age of 65 years (Blashki & Nichol, 2005). 70% of young people aged between 15 years and 24 years testify to the fact that they could not live without their mobile phones as it is the only reliable source of communication they know (Cruse, 2000).
It is true that communication technology has played a key role in our lives but it is also true that it has so far affected the way we communicate; communication technology has had a huge impact on literature and especially the English language. This is in regards to some of the new forms of technology that people encounter in their literacy practices, both within and outside the classroom. The way people speak today is seen as the way they spoke before the Internet became what it is, albeit with an enriched vocabulary (Donner, 2008).
However, what has perhaps greatly changed is the way people write today; the literature part of how people communicate has been influenced by the advent of cell phones.
Short message texting as well as emailing have altered the structure of the letter as a communicative instrument, bringing with it a completely different etiquette, new abbreviations such as OMG (oh, my God), IMO (in my opinion) and FYI (for your information), as well as new principles (Lankshear, et al., 2000). This also introduced the notion that words in upper case mean people are shouting.
The technological boom saw the rise of the now well recognized abbreviations lingo which is assumed to have started as a result of human typing errors, efficiency, speed or laziness (Blashki & Nichol, 2005). During that time, cell phone text messaging was also being charged per single message that contained a specified number of characters and as a way of saving up on the money, abbreviations were born.
Unknown to the majority of individuals today, such text messaging has had a negative impact as well as a positive one with regards to literature and particularly the English language. It is rather surprising to learn that the Oxford English Dictionary now incorporates textish terms such as LOL (laugh out loud) to make them an official part of the English language (Cruse, 2000).
Negative Impact of Cell Phones on Literature
It is estimated that about 97% of young adults who are in possession of a cell phone text on a regular basis and it is no wonder that texting slang has been incorporated into the classroom as well (Donner, 2008). One of the most common issues regarding cell phones and literature is its negative impact on education.
Todays students as well as a majority of individuals have fallen prey to short text messaging that uses abbreviations and with time, such people tend to lose the ability to spell correctly when it concerns formal matters such as writing formal letters of application to universities or companies (Blashki & Nichol, 2005).
Literature is all about expressing ones thoughts in writing or through speech and since todays children are addicted to using abbreviations in their communication, they are bound to fail in expressing themselves appropriately to their seniors.
Another negative impact of cell phones on literature concerns the future of linguistics. Shorthand texting is slowly killing the English language especially given the fact that majority of students today tend to write compositions and essays in bad grammar and spelling (Cruse, 2000). It is also slowly eliminating creativity as well as innovation when it comes to expressing oneself through poetry or writing novels.
People have become used to not using proper punctuation or inappropriate abbreviations which has in turn had a negative effect on their relation to literature. As it has been mentioned earlier on, a few dictionaries are currently considering the inclusion of textish terms to make them an official part of the English language.
This means that cell phone manufacturers and programmers will also be forced to include faulty information which has bad grammar as a way of appealing to the current target population of young people who prefer shorthand texting (Lankshear, et al., 2000).
Positive Impact of Cell Phones on Literature
Despite the negative effects which are associated with cell phones and in regards to literature, there are a few positive impacts of the same, for instance the fact that large amounts of information found on files such as PDF can be easily accessed via the cell phones (Blashki & Nichol, 2005). This means that those using cell phones to gather relevant information will be in a position to read and understand literature in its purest form, even though they themselves use shorthand messaging.
Another positive impact on literature which can be associated with cell phones is that this technology has allowed students who are in the developing nations to become more proficient in terms of the English language and literature (Cruse, 2000). Cell phones are today armed with various features including those that can translate the English language to another language, or vice versa.
With this in mind, cell phones have had a positive impact with regards to literature because students whose main language is not English can learn how to pronounce English words in addition to learning how to write them (Donner, 2008).
While there are some educators who view the use of abbreviations as negatively affecting written language and literature in general, others believe that texting provides a chance for educators to teach students about the evolution of language from Shakespearean English to Internet English (Lankshear, et al., 2000). It could be argued that cell phones have brought about a new form of literature that is not only embraced by the younger generations but could also mean the future for the majority of linguistics.
Each generation tends to possess its individual jargon and this has not yet changed the English grammar (Blashki & Nichol, 2005). Learning a new language, as it has been observed in the recent past, does not usually affect ones ability to make use of the English grammar and therefore text messaging as another language cannot either (Cruse, 2000).
All in all, people are quite enthusiastic and accepting of this particular technological advancement. One way that the cell phone technology can be altered or adapted to facilitate literacy practices as well as learning while avoiding the issues related to it, is by avoiding the slang language meant to attract young potential clientele.
Programmers can ensure that the cell phones incorporate software that is capable of making use of the appropriate language, grammar and pronunciations with regards to the English language. This will be the next step towards better and improved communication technology. Where we go from here will be determined by peoples creativity and innovation.
Conclusion
Looking at what has been discussed above, cell phones have had a great impact on literature and especially the way people communicate today. People are constantly evolving the language given the various new ways of communicating that is being applied.
Shorthand text messaging has grown in popularity following the advent of cell phones and a few concerns have been raised regarding its effect on the English grammar and literature in general. While there are those who argue that cell phones have brought about corruption of language and poor grammar, others argue that cell phones have actually introduced new forms of language which may be useful in future.
References
Blashki, K., & Nichol, S. (2005). Game Geeks Goss: Linguistic Creativity in Young Males within an Online University Forum. Australian Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society, 3(2), 77 86.
Cruse, A. D. (2000). Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Sematics and Pragmantics. United States: Oxford University Press Inc.
Donner, J. (2008). Research Approaches to Mobile Phone Use in the Developing World: A Review of Literature. The Information Society, 24, 140 159.
Lankshear, C., Peters, M., & Knobel, M. (2000). Information, Knowledge and Learning: Some Issues Facing Epistemology and Education in a Digital Age. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 34(1), 17 39.
Communication is a complex process that has a tremendous effect on peoples life. Those who have difficulties with communicating are not fully integrated into the society as the ties in the society are based mainly on communication. Therefore, it is necessary to have communication skills to be a member of the community.
It is also important to understand what communication is and how people communicate. There are two major types of communication, verbal and nonverbal. Verbal communication is based on words. It is crucial to pay attention to the meaning as there can be explicit and implicit meanings. People should be able to decode the meanings to adequately react. For instance, when Ann says that she is going to watch a dull movie, her friend, Lisa, can offer to go to the cinema or have a party as Lisa may know that Ann hates watching dull movies and simply has nothing else to do. If Lisa did not understand the hidden meaning but simply accepted it as a fact, Lisa would have to stay home and their friendship would not be that strong.
As for nonverbal communication, it involves such signals as facial expressions, tone of the voice, body language and even distance between interlocutors. Nonverbal communication enriches peoples interactions and adds meaning. Thus, although a person can use decent words, it can be clear that he/she is angry if he/she is frowning. It is also important to remember about cultural nonverbal signal. In other words, these are signals used by people of similar cultural background. Thus, hugs reveal affection and Americans can give hugs to people they just met. In China, this is inappropriate as hugs are only for close people.
Admittedly, it is crucial to know all (or at least the majority of) signals especially when people of different backgrounds communicate. It is necessary to understand all the meanings and signals as this will enable a person to respond adequately and communicate effectively.
Admittedly, to communicate effectively, a person should be a good listener. I am an adequate listener. I am always focusing on the speakers message and I keep an eye contact and pay attention to nonverbal signals to elicit additional meanings. I always try not to judge the speaker. I believe these are good traits.
At the same time, I feel I restrain from giving enough nonverbal signals when listening. I think such kind of feedback is important for the speakers as he/she is able to see my reaction. To train my skills in nonverbal communication I can read some sources on the matter to learn more about signals and try to be more relaxed during communication. I believe this will help me be more responsive. I also feel I lack for skills in decoding different meanings (especially when it comes to nonverbal communication) when communicating with someone from another culture. Again, research will help me learn more about verbal and nonverbal signals in different cultures. Another weakness of my communication is that I sometimes focus on the major idea and ignore details. It turns out details are often what is the most important in a conversation. To overcome this issue, I simply need to be more attentive.
When I have worked on my weaknesses, I believe I will become a more effective listener. I will be able to elicit all meanings. People will also feel more comfortable when communicating with me as they will see my feedback and they will understand that I am interested in listening to them.
This chapter addresses the subject of communication during the digital age. The chapter begins by defining the terminologies that touch on the subject of communication, such as mass communication and mass self-communication. The history of communication is also outlined at the beginning of the chapter. According to the chapter, the advent of digital media has changed mass communication in a big way. The transformations that have had a defining role in social media are also explored in this chapter. Also, these transformations are responsible for the convergence of modern communication. This paper summarizes the main points in the chapter titled Communication in the Digital Age.
According to the chapter, the technological transformation that has had a significant impact on digital media is subject to various digital innovations. These digital innovations include computer networks, high-capacity-broadband transmissions, internet access, and computer software. Furthermore, the audiences or communication consumers have undergone major transformations in the recent past. For instance, the media is heavily commercialized, and audiences are identified along cultural lines. Some of these transformations have prompted citizens across the world to seek for less commercialized communications outlets that accommodate consumer control and freedom.
The chapter also addresses the shift from mass communication to mass self-communication through processes such as the convergence of modes. This shift involves incorporation of different modes of communication into one communication channel. A notable effect of communication transformation is the takeover of local stations by big television networks. Consequently, local television stations have lost their ability to produce content for their targeted demographics. Radio stations have followed a similar path and lost touch with their localities. Overall, the media focus on culturally diverse populations has been abandoned in favor of mass-self communication. Mass self-communication ignores the needs of different cultural groups by trying to merge several groups into a single category. Most of the times, this trend is fueled by commercialization and the need to reach mass audiences.
There are several manifestations of self mass-communication in todays digital media platforms. For example, although television is still an important communication avenue, its mode of connecting to its audiences has changed considerably. For example, scheduling and means of distributing television broadcasts have since changed to include online and downloadable means. The same trend applies to print media where means of distributing and accessing print media have changed. According to the readings in this chapter, the transformation of communication is a major contributor to globalization. Also, these forms of transformation have created reliable communication between local and global audiences.
Nevertheless, some forms of free communication have created problems for governments that seek to effect censorship. Other governments and political outfits have embraced the new forms of communication in their daily activities. For instance, some governments post their public addresses through YouTube while in some countries presidential debates are broadcast live via YouTube. Another interesting aspect of mass self-media is the creation of an alternative world using videogame platforms. An example of such a platform is the videogame SecondLife where people can live alternative lives that utilize new social and political ideologies. According to the readings, mass self-communication refers to the focus on societal communication (Castells, 2013, p.70). Societal communication is communication that is focused on the aspects of a global audience.
The next part of this chapter explores how communication is managed in todays commercial environment. The section opens by noting that the media operates according to business logic, regardless of their legal status (Castells, 2013, p.71). Also, the autonomy of state-owned communication outlets around the world is explored. There is no media corporation in the world that can be termed as a completely global outfit. On the other hand, there are very few media-communication businesses that can claim to be local. The most dominant global media players operate under similar trends.
For instance, their ownership is quite concentrated in one region, and their businesses are always seeking optimal economies of synergy. The global network of media outlets consists of local, regional, and national media networks. The perpetuation of global media networks comes with several challenges to media businesses because it involves instilling global influences on local communities. Over the years, communication has evolved as a result of regulatory measures. In the United States, regulatory policies touch on the internet, intellectual properties, and telecommunication (Castells, 2013, p.101). Other major policies touching on communications media have involved efforts to create common fronts in the information age.
This chapter addresses the dynamics of communicative practices, including digital media, mass communication, and globalization. According to the article, the interactive capacity of new media accommodates a new form of communication known as mass self-communication. The article also asserts that different communication organizations operate under different global cultural dimensions. Therefore, the communications industry is shaped by both cultural influences and globalization. The media business is constantly under the strain of conforming to either individualism or communism. To achieve global presence, media businesses use any technological tools in their disposition. Global communication is likely to continue operating in a culturally diverse environment. Moreover, societal communication will continue to be used in a bid to accommodate culturally diverse audiences.
Reference
Castells, M. (2013). Communication power. Communication in the Digital Age (pp. 54-102). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
The social impact theory is the theory that is applied to individual and inter-group relations as well as tendencies that may be viewed in the course of human communication. In general, the theory investigates the influence of society on individuals and the opposite influence an individual may produce on society. it has been long ago proved that the interrelations of two individuals and influence they may produce on each other highly differ from the distribution of power that occurs between a group and an individual. Together with this, it is a fact that the more the size of the group is, the more effective the influence produced by it on a individual is. The opposite influence is also reducing with the extent of increasing the number of the group on which influence is produced. Scientifically speaking, it is a model that conceives of influence from other people& acting on individuals, much as physical forces can affect an object (Leslie).
Main body
There are two types of the social impact theories first of all, it is the general theory that claims that all forms of social influence, whatever the specific social process, will be proportional to a multiplicative function of the strength, immediacy, and number of people who are the sources of influence, and inversely proportional to the strength, immediacy, and number of people being influenced (Latane and Drigotas).
In contrast to the general theory, or as its consequence, there appeared a dynamic social impact theory that explores the relations between people within and between groups, juxtaposing the influence that may be produced by an individual on a group and vice versa. According to the opinion of Mabry and Sudweeks, the dynamic social impact theory has a disadvantage of not considering the relationd of space, time and communication modality, which makes it limited to a certain extent (Mabry and Sudweeks, p. 2).
The social impact theory has found much support and became very interesting for research as its functionality has been proved in many spheres. There is even a method of utilizing the theory in order to manipulate people and achieve ones goal: people who are knowledgeable in manipulating people may do it much quicker and easier if they involve some person into their influence thus creating a group, and then continue producing influence on other people with the help of this group. As a result, the number of people in the group enlarges, becomes more powerful and fulfills the initial aim of the initiator. Together with this, the members of the group may not even realize that the follow not their aims but the initially stipulated aim of the person who was the creator of the group.
The discussed theory has been successfully applied in many social events such as massive gathering, propaganda, group work in an organization, learning the principles of convincing people in something. Group pressure is also a common phenomenon in any place where an individual may come across a need to persuade some people thus entering the relations of mutual influence. It is absolutely commonplace to see the examples of the theory in action. In meetings in the workplace, few will speak out if their opinion differs from the majority (Social Impact Theory).
Conclusion
The theory has been developed recently; there were many findings represented in the sphere of psychology, furthering its findings. For example, it is interesting to note some of Latanes findings, for example, that each individual can influence others; but the more people are present, the less influence any one individual will have. Thus, we are more likely to listen attentively to a speaker if we are in a small group than if we were in a large group (Theory of Social Impact).
Works Cited
Latane, Bibb, and Drigotas, Stephen. Social Impact Theory. 2009.
Leslie. Social Impact Theory, 2008.
Mabry, Edward, and Sudweeks, Evelyn. Assessing the Impacts of Dynamic Social Impact Theory in Asynchronous Groups Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden, Germany, 2009.
Scholars believe that listening takes most of our time despite other activities. While listening we never think about the efforts we make, that is why people consider listening to be a passive process. Some of us always try to listen to another person attentively for him to understand every detail and remember as much information as possible. These people are completely involved into the process of communication and put a lot of effort for it, though they do not realize this fact. There exists such a type of activity as critical listening which can be viewed as an individual section of our communicative process. This kind of listening has its own characteristics and has been researched by many scholars.
Main text
Critical listening is a type of communication process that involves analysis and judgment of the remarks with the goal to get a complete understanding of the point. But such evaluation is considered to be an artificial obstacle on the way to good comprehension. The main goal of critical listening is not only to perceive the information but also to assess it to interpret the news that has just been heard. The people who are critical listeners always intend to ask probing questions; of course this type of communication activity requires a lot of skills. According to some investigations the following skills should be presented for the critical listening:
Creating opinions and backing up all the pretensions;
Differentiating views and facts that have been heard;
Presenting broad ideas, challenging;
Evaluating the main points that have been covered by the speaker;
Following the flow of the speech and discovering the development of the ideas of the speaker.
Making critical review of the speech.
In my personal life critical listening is a part of interpersonal communication and relationship; by saying it I mean that I am a critical listener with my romantic partner. I always try to analyze what was said and evaluate the meaning of the words. To my way of thinking it is really important in romantic relations because I should understand the deep sense of every word, as it helps me to feel the inner state of my partner. Of course sometimes it can lead to some obstacle in our ideal and calm relations, but I consider that critical listening should always be presented in my life because I cannot remain indifferent towards my partners flow of thoughts. I myself do not like critics very much but I understand their importance and always try to understand and pay attention to them.
There are a lot of cases when we meet critical listening in our life and even use it; I can even say that there are no places where we never face it. To illustrate it in more detail we can compare any family with the field for debates where all the members are the critical listeners. It is an open secret that we always try to evaluate the information presented by our close people and very often it results in conflicts and misunderstanding. One should remember some points not to get into a conflict situation during the process of communication: arguing is not always the way out of a difficult position and the main goal is to understand but not to prove your own point of view. In order to come to agreement one should try to paraphrase the received information; if the listener has negative attitude to the atmosphere or to the speaker, the communication will become more critical and can lead to unpleasant impressions. Communication is based only on the exchanging of the information, but if we consider interpersonal communication the results would be quite different. Interpersonal type of communication influences the listener and the speaker. (Petronio, Alberts) It stimulates emotions and feelings giving your brain additional material and background for reflection.
A great number of interpersonal communication researches showed that a lot of factors influence our process of communication such as:
Physiological (gender, age, nationality and others);
Psychological (sympathy, attitude, compatibility, trust and others).
One of the researches was carried out with the students to understand the process of the development of the interpersonal communication. It was held by one of the Research Centers and was directed on the results the students would provide. Their interpersonal communication took place over the internet with people of different nationalities and social positions. It showed that students were really involved in the process of communication but some physiological factors made obstacles for complete understanding. One cant but agree that such problematic points can really create difficulties and lead to wrong comprehension.
Our moral make up drew a kind of image of the ideal group of interlocutors in our mind to fit the bill for the conversations and any other processes of communicative activities. That is why interpersonal communication gives successful results for close people communication. Very often this kind of communicative process we can consider in the romantic relations between two loving people (Knapp, Daly, 2002). Interpersonal communication means the impersonal perception of the inner state of the speaker and the reflection of your thoughts in his mind. This type of communication involves critical listening when it needs to be understood and reflected in your partners words. Critical thinking, as well as listening, is a part of interpersonal communicative process. For the critical listener it is important to be able not only to evaluate the information but also to perceive the critical treatment on the part of the speaker. One should never confuse such notions as to listen to and
to hear because they have different aims and will bring different results. Just simple hearing is of no significance and covers only informative function that is fulfilled for a short period of time. The ability to listen to and analyze everything is one of the main points of the critical listening. Any critical listener never focuses only on the process of hearing or interpreting but on the results of the communication.
Critical listening researches are carried out by everyone almost every day of our life. As an example one can take into consideration political debates which require critical listening and thorough thinking. Watching such debates on TV or visiting different meetings with the candidates to speak and promote their campaign we try to understand the message of the speaker making different complicated analyses and judging their flow of thoughts. At this moment we should make an important choice and choose the person to support during the elections; and we have nothing to do but evaluate the situation by comparing the information of all the candidates, summing everything up for us not to make a rough mistake. This example shows the importance of the critical listening in some situations.
Conclusion
To draw a conclusion we should understand the benefit of the made research and why it was carried out. Now we completely realize the direct connection between interpersonal communication and critical listening. It has become clear that in our interpersonal communication we face critical thinking and listening for better comprehension of the information. The knowledge of the important skills that should be developed by the critical listener clears up the future tasks for our inner development. One should remember the reasons for the possible interpersonal conflicts between the listener and the speaker; when the level of evaluation is too high and the critical listeners negative attitude towards the speaker exasperate him the conflict can be inevitable. People should not forget about the efforts put in the process of listening, because it is not a passive state but an active action of your brain that helps you to develop new skills and abilities for interpersonal communication.
References
Petronio, S., Alberts, K. J., Hecht, L. M., Buley, J. Contemporary Perspective on Interpersonal Communication.(1993) Madison, Wisconsin: WCB Brown & Benchmark Publications.
Mark L., Knapp, and John A., Daly. Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, (2002). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 842 pages.
The given assessment will primarily focus on the attribution theory with an emphasis put on its summative analysis, implications for communication practice, and pros and cons assessment. It is important to note that attribution theory deals with the meaning projection and comprehension of individuals when faced with new situations, behaviors, and information. Since communication is heavily reliant on the involvement and exchange of information between at least two parties, the attribution theory can provide invaluable insight and perspective on the field of communication practice.
Summary of Key Concepts of the Attribution Theory
It should be noted that human beings are highly social creatures which are constantly involved in the meaning-making process when it comes to interactions. Attribution is a concept that explains humans attempts to explain and understand a particular behavior by attributing and projecting internal and external conditions, factors, and influences. Therefore, attribution can be highly useful and insightful, but it is also prone to errors, mistakes, and false assumptions since it heavily relies on a receiving and interpreting observer. Historically, Fritz Heider was the first psychologist to develop the foundation of attribution theory, who established two main aspects of the theory, which are still used today (Shaver 22). These include dispositional attribution and situational attribution, where the former refers to internal explanations and the latter involves external elaborations. For example, an individual might be observed as being angry, for which the dispositional attribution could be that this particular person is simply hot-tempered and has anger management issues. However, the situational or external attribution would focus on external factors, where the angry person might as such due to losing something valuable or experiencing some form of injustice. Therefore, a behavior can be explained through two different perspectives, which are dispositional or internal and situational or external.
One of the core concepts of the attribution theory is actor-observer bias. The given phenomenon addresses the human tendency to attribute external factors to ones own behavior and attribute internal factors to other individuals behavior (Shaver 62). In other words, a person tends to be less judgmental of his or her own character compared to other people. For example, if a male person A regularly fails to get the top grades in his classes, he is more likely to attribute the causes as being external, such as incompetence of an educator, poor class format, or the lack of conditions for proper studying. However, if another person B observes person A and sees his grades, the former is more likely to attribute the failure to get top grades to person As internal factors, such as laziness, low intelligence, and lack of diligence. Therefore, the attribution is highly biased, depending on whether the actor or observer is performing the attribution of the behavior.
Moreover, the internal attribution is also more likely to occur depending on the degree of freedom possessed by the actor when exhibiting the behavior, which is the prime focus of the correspondent inference theory (Shaver 84). Thus, people are more likely to attribute behavior to ones character if the actor is free to do otherwise. For example, observers are more likely to attribute the frugality of a person with low socioeconomic status to his or her situation, such as poverty, whereas the frugality of a wealthy person is more likely to be attributed to his or her character, such as being greedy. In addition, there are other factors that make the use of internal attributions more likely, which include directly helpful and harmful behaviors, behaviors directed at an individual, and particularly unusual behaviors (Shaver 101). For example, if woman A is walking down the street, and a man B starts to catcall her, she is more likely to attribute the behavior to man Bs character rather than external factors. The main reason is that catcalling is harmful, directed at a specific person, and unusual or abnormal; thus, the behavior is most likely to be attributed to ones personality.
Another key concept of attribution theory is Kelleys covariation model. The given framework provides a more in-depth analysis of correspondent inference theory. A person is more or less likely to make internal attributions on the basis of three major factors: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency (Shaver 107). When a behavior is low on both consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness, the attributions are made to the circumstances and situations. However, when there is high consistency and low distinctiveness and consensus, the attribution is made towards characters or dispositions. Consensus refers to the behavioral pattern as well as its outcome of surrounding individuals or other people. Consistency refers to the consistent exhibition of similar behavior in similar circumstances. Distinctiveness refers to how distinct the given behavior is from other behaviors exhibited by the person. For example, if person A gets an A+ grade on the history exam while others get lower grades, then the consensus is low. If person A also always performed well in all other classes and performed excellently through the history class, his distinctiveness is low, and consistency is high. Under such conditions, the attribution should be and will most likely be made to person A character or internal factors. Therefore, the variation of these three factors gives influences the target of the attribution from disposition to a situation.
Implications for Communication Practice
The implications of the attribution theory are massive in regard to communication practice, especially in a professional context. The first case representative of the attribution concept is the German automotive company Volkswagen AG (VW). In 2015, it was involved in a scandal for using software cheat to underreport its diesel emissions (Painter and Martins 204). The incident led to a major crisis both for the company and the automotive industry since it became possible that other companies might have been doing a similar activity. For the given case, the attribution theory will inform understanding of the crisis management strategies used by VW to mitigate the effects of the emissions scandal in terms of customer response and legal liability (Painter and Martins 206).
The main reason for utilizing this particular theoretical framework is manifested in the fact that the theory explains the cause for behavior by showing whether or not the action is due to disposition or situation. For example, VW could have positioned the company as a victim of situational factors or the companys internally poor management of its technical measurements. The analysis reveals that attributions regarding the origins of the software deceit are for the most part internal: they are either attributions to individual employees or attributions of disposition with respect to the company itself (Painter and Martins 214). In other words, the crisis management response primarily used internal factors as the core rhetoric when describing the cause of such deceit. VW was unable to highlight situational factors since the consensus level was low because no other company was involved in the scandal. In addition, the behavior was low on consistency but high on distinctiveness, which makes the situation unambiguously inclined towards disposition. Therefore, it is evident that the role of the attribution theory played a critical role in the response of VW to the scandal, where it chose to attribute the deceit to the company itself rather than pinpointing circumstantial factors.
The second case of the attribution theory is centered around the blame attribution among European citizens in regard to its governance on both national and European levels in the context of populist messages. It is stated that previous research on attributions of responsibilitya concept strongly related to populist blame attributionindicates that citizens political attitudes are affected by messages that emphasize who should be blamed for causing political problems (Hameleers et al. 872). In other words, the factor of attribution plays a critical role in determining whether or not politically perceived problems will be attributed to the government or external factors. The emphasis of the given case is put on emotional blame attribution. It is stated that with the exception of blame perceptions toward the EU, identity attachment functioned as a perceptual screen, moderating the effects of populist blame attributions on perceptions toward the political establishment (Hameleers et al. 884). The findings suggest that a citizen with a strong national identity was more likely to attribute the blame to the EU rather than the national government, whereas individuals with a weaker national identity were more eager to accept the blame on the local governance.
It is also stated that populist communication that attributes blame to the national government needs to use an emotional style to be effective, whereas populist communication influences blame perceptions toward the EU by mentioning that the EU is responsible for causing the problems of the heartland (Hameleers et al. 890). In other words, the element of attribution can be affected by external forces in order to promote more or less disposition, which, in this case, is the blame of the national government. Populist messages and communication increase or decrease a perceived degree of consensus, which can impact the inclined pathway of attribution. For example, a German citizen might either attribute the cause of social issues to the German government, which is a disposition, or to the EU, which is external. The judgment of attribution is influenced by the factors of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness of a social problem in the national context. Populist communication might be able to persuade that such events are common in all other EU nations, which would increase consensus and thus promote EU blame. However, if populist messages precisely highlight the German issue as a key narrative, then one would be inclined to blame the national government. It should be noted that a multitude of factors also influence the attribution process, such as national identity since a patriotic person will most likely blame the EU even under low consensus factors.
The third case is focused on the attribution patterns of global consumers in regard to corporate social responsibility or CSR initiatives. It is stated that individuals with a dispositional attribution style responded more favorably to evidence-based CSR messages than to belief-based messages, while those with a situational attribution style responded more favorably to belief-based messages than to evidence-based messages (Lim et al. 11). In other words, a person can attribute a CSR initiative to either a companys inherent disposition or external forces, such policies mandating a company to implement in this manner. The results are indicative of the fact that people with dispositional inclinations need facts to attribute a CSR initiative to the companys internal factors, whereas individuals with non-dispositional stances need to see a companys beliefs and values. It is evident that such a framework has major implications in professional communication, especially in regard to public relations or PR.
Pros and Cons of the Attribution Theory
Pros
Although the attribution theory is a comprehensive framework, which has strong predictive capabilities in regard to attribution, it is important to highlight and identify its key strengths and weaknesses. The main advantage of the theory is the most prominent when the cause is known but needs to be communicated. In other words, communication professionals can use the attribution framework to address or attribute the cause by communicating in accordance with the tendencies of individual dispositions or external attributions. For example, a company helped a vulnerable community in the region of interest, which means that a communication professional knows the cause of such action to be the company itself and not some government mandate or policy. In this case, professional communication needs to communicate dispositional attribution towards the company, not external forces, which can be done by adhering to low consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.
Another strength of attribution theory is rooted in the fact that it can identify a probable cause when assessing an unknown party of interest. For instance, a company wants to better understand its customers and consumers in the market by identifying the likely cause of the current consumer behaviors. A communication professional can assess the common behaviors and change the marketing and PR narrative to influence these behaviors if the cause is situational or external. In other words, the attribution theory expands the capabilities of professional communication specialists to be able to find novel solutions in addition to the standard ones. The attribution theory is of greatest importance during crisis management when communication professionals need to defend the organization or minimize the effect of public distrust and blame.
Moreover, the attribution theory can help to identify potential biases during cross-cultural communication and eliminate them to improve the communication process conducted by professionals. The concept of attribution plays a critical part in the communication process and practice, particularly in cross-cultural communication and interpersonal one in professional environments. In the case of the former, the cultural differences create a large gap for potential bias and causal errors in interpreting ones actions. In the case of the latter, interpersonal communications contain a higher degree of detailed information about each party, which makes a more in-depth use of the attribution theory. The success of intercultural communication, including professional communication, largely depends not only on the level of proficiency in a foreign language but also on the adequate perception of the communication partner and the correct interpretation of his communicative behavior. At the same time, the criterion of the effectiveness of cross-cultural communication is the achievement of mutual understanding by partners in the process of intercultural dialogue.
However, such mutual understanding is not always possible due to the fact that in the course of intercultural interaction, the student inevitably faces the problem of communicative failures if there are obstacles in the transmission and adequate perception, understanding, assimilation, and assessment of the message by intercultural communicants. The factors contributing to the emergence of communication barriers and, accordingly, interfering with the correct perception and assessment of partners in intercultural communication can be attributed to social and perceptual factors that characterize any communication and factors that characterize exclusively cross-cultural interaction. The first group includes the inability to determine the motives and intentions of people in a specific communication situation, the presence of predetermined attitudes, beliefs, assessments, the presence of formed ethnic stereotypes, and the underdevelopment of the ability for empathy. The second group of factors includes ignorance of the characteristics of the national character of the communication partner and dominant features of verbal and non-verbal behavior inherent in his type of culture.
Cons
The primary weakness of the attribution theory is its either-or format in regard to causes. It is important to note that many behaviors and actions can be the result of a multitude of factors, some of which are attributable to personality and others to situations. However, the attribution theory is blind to these complex cases, which is why overreliance on such a simplistic measure might yield simplistic communication with no special attention paid to key details. For example, the attribution theory fails when discussing controversial behaviors, such as why women choose to abort a baby or want the abortion to be legal and accessible. It is evident that it would be inaccurate to attribute such behavior to womens disposition or situation since this action is influenced by a range of factors.
Another weakness of the attribution theory is the difference in perception between an actor and observer, which results in a possibility of attribution bias. Since the attribution theory focuses on the cause of behavior, such as external or internal, it can be blind to non-evident biases, which is why communication professionals should be aware of not promoting or increasing the degree of biases by not being able to identify their nature.
The phenomenon of attribution is of great importance for understanding the causes of communication failures in the process of cross-cultural communication. In the theory of intercultural communication, this concept came from social psychology, where attribution is the act of attributing some directly, not perceived property, to some object, person, or phenomenon. If the attribution of causes to events and actions observed and experienced by an individual is characterized as incorrect and unreasonable, especially in situations where these actions seem unusual or different from the expected, which are called attribution errors. In intercultural communication, attribution errors are usually associated with misinterpretation of the motives of the behavior of communicative partners. The personal qualities of communication partners, the relationship of communicants, as well as the attitude of communication partners to the communication situation can be interpreted erroneously. At the same time, the reasons for behavior are seen exclusively in personal factors, in internal dispositions, and the influence of general cultural norms inherent in a particular linguistic culture, situational and group factors are underestimated.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the attribution theory is a highly comprehensive framework that aims to understand the cause of behavior through the attribution dynamics and patterns. The attributions can be either external or internal, such as attributing behavior to ones personality or circumstances. Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency play a critical role in determining the attribution of behavior, where low levels in each create a disposition.
Works Cited
Hameleers, Michael, et al. They Did It: The Effects of Emotionalized Blame Attribution in Populist Communication. Communication Research, vol. 44, no. 6, 2017, pp. 870900.
Lim, Rachel Esther, et al. Connecting with Global Consumers Through Corporate Social Responsibility Initiatives: A Cross-Cultural Investigation of Congruence Effects of Attribution and Communication Styles. Journal of Business Research, vol. 88, 2018, pp. 11-19.
Painter, Christopher, and Jorge Tiago Martins. Organisational Communication Management During the Volkswagen Diesel Emissions Scandal: A Hermeneutic Study in Attribution, Crisis Management, And Information Orientation. Knowledge and Process Management, vol. 24, no. 3, 2017, pp. 204-218.
Shaver, Kelly G. An Introduction to Attribution Processes. Routledge, 2018.
Being aware of issues involved in cross communication has become increasingly crucial. Communication across cultures is usually affected by assumptions, interpretations as well as expectations. Traditionally, the study of intercultural communication was approached from a social science approach (Nishida 1999, pp. 753-777). Understanding peoples culture, language and their behaviors is quite important.
Culture has an immense contribution to our perceptions on situations. According to Samovar, Porter and Mc Daniel (2009, p.14), perception and language is quite important in intercultural communication as people from diverse cultures tend to view the world differently. This discourse hence aims at discussing at length about foreign language and communication as well as stereotypes.
Discussion
Spitzberg and Hecht (2000, pp. 575-599) believes that there are three major conditions that ought to exist before we consistently and consciously compete in our intercultural interactions. They are; skills, knowledge and motivation. If a speaker lacks one of those conditions, then the probability of competent intercultural communication is diminished.
Understanding stereotype of peoples culture
Cultural identity and understanding stereotypes is a significant component of intercultural communication (Samovar, Porter and McDaniel 2011, pp. 51-52). To avoid offending other people it is important to learn their culture as far as stereotypes are concerned and understand it.
We should learn about stereotypes so as to avoid miscommunication, ethnocentrism, stereotyping and prejudice. Also learning about stereotypes eliminates the problems of understanding people who are different from us hence this will help us not to misjudge people and understand their way of life.
To effectively communicate with a foreigner or people different from us, we ought to understand the stereotypes or details of their culture. That is generally the essentialist view of culture. Experiences do portray differences in how diverse cultures value space, language and time depending on diverse situational contexts (Fishman 1999, pp. 67-99). Thus cultural awareness is crucial so that cultural norms are not read as ingratitude or rudeness.
On the other hand there is the non-essentialist view of culture which assumes that to communicate with anyone who belongs to a different group or culture with which we are unfamiliar; we need to understand the complexity of who they are. Having knowledge on stereotypes helps us to appreciate the fact that particular groups do not conform to other cultures or own stereotype. Otherwise this can be interpreted as being ignorant and misinformed.
In intercultural communication, it is important to distinguish between peoples personality and their cultural background. The aspects of culture do range from values, attitudes and behavior. It might seem perfect to generalize, but people need to be careful when generalizing individuals.
By learning other peoples culture stereotypes we realize that our perceptions of a particular group are not always accurate. Ethnocentric attitudes and stereotypes can prevent sound judgment as they obscure reality in favor of emotional ideologies that might hamper effective communication.
Learning a foreign language ensures effective communication
It goes without saying that if one learns a foreign language, then they are in a better position to communicate effectively. When learning to use a foreign language, we ought to be aware that speakers from the target language might use diverse systems and assumptions when using language. We should be aware of other alternatives and be ready for anything.
Additionally, we ought to check clearly on our interpretations of what is obvious (Rufjes 1991, pp. 18-31). Communicative functions do operate at different levels. Areas of sociolinguistics which are usually more concerned with interactional analysis do focus mostly on smaller units of language for instance brief exchanges that include greetings and requests and single utterances.
All human societies do have a stock of interpersonal verbal routines for instance, condolences, thanks, greetings, apologizing, complaining among others. Learning a foreign language ensures effective communication. What is normal in one culture does not necessarily have to be normal in another culture.
Lack of knowledge on other peoples way of life in most scenarios can be seen as ignorance and rudeness hence learning a foreign language will also ensure that one learns on how to use effective language at the right time and place.
Our culture has offered us with a major framework of principles of interpretation which we often use. We do not necessarily need to work out how to use apologies or greetings, how to request and thank people, how to take turns or even interrupt others or what silence might mean. However, when dealing with foreigners and people different from us, we should learn about sociolinguistic use of language.
The main problem when learning a foreign language is usually to learn how to adapt to as well as manage the sociolinguistic uses of that language. For example it is very important to know that greetings vary across cultures. For example in a country like China, asking somebody whether they have eaten is in itself a greeting and not an invitation to have a meal (Grimshaw 2007, pp. 299-311).
In other countries like Malaysia and Fiji, asking people where they are going is not just an enquiry on peoples destination but it is rather a greeting. In South Asia, verbal greetings are used less frequently and with less variability depending on the time of the day hence there is a need to learn.
Another linguistic feature is that of thanking. The use of expressing thanks for example in South Asia, is relatively sparse in variety and use. The often and frequent use of thank you as well as other expressions of thanks between close friends and family members in most English speaking worlds, seems to be misplaced to most South Asians. Asians feel expressing of thanks verbally, is not needed in situations of intimacy as it implies a reduction in intimacy and social distancing (Ferguson & Hoshner 1996, pp. 89-119).
Additionally learning a foreign language helps to understand sociolinguistic uses of compliments. This is because it can lead to dilemmas on the nature of expected responses. For example, complimenting a Chinese can mean a different thing to them. This is because in China, a compliment ought to be rejected so as to show modesty unlike in other cultures where compliments are acceptable.
Speakers attitudes can be highly influenced by interpretations which are usually influenced by the cultural systems. It ought to be noted that cultural expectations lead to diverse use of language which hence lead to miscommunication.
In the long run this leads to wrong assessments as well as stereotypes. Nevertheless, a major way in which such vicious circles can be done away with is to be conscious and fully aware of the likely complexities, have clear knowledge about other peoples cultures and finally try and enhance intercultural skills.
In cross-cultural communication it is very imperative to understand on the cultural presuppositions that lie behind the speakers words as well as their interpretations and expectations (Kim 1991, pp. 120-151). Another example of sociolinguistic aspects of language is in the use of invitations. Most of the Latin Americans and Chinese usually respond to invitations by affirming the request though it does not necessarily mean they will attend.
To most British and North Americans, this is dishonesty. Hence it is important to understand that when a Chinese promises to come, they are showing good will rather than immediate disappointment to the host.
Therefore, when learning a foreign language, you get to understand that Latin Americans and Chinese base their responses on the social values whereas the North Americans and the British people consider their truth values first. When this is understood, then the situation tends to be easier to both sides. It is hence important to learn and understand foreign language so as to be per with other people so as not to be misunderstood.
Conclusion
To effectively communicate with people from diverse cultures we need to understand the stereotypes of their culture and endeavor to learn their language. Understanding other peoples culture in relation to language, prejudices, stereotypes and behaviors will help us to avoid prejudices and biases and be at per with other people who are different from us.
Generalities on cultural groups should not always be applied to individuals. It ought to be understood that every culture has got balance between diversity and unity, groups and individuals as well as choice and response. It is clear that learning about other cultures stereotypes and language will help a lot in effective communication.
References
Ferguson, C & Hshner, T 1996, sociolinguistic perspectives: papers on language in society, 1969-1994, Oxford University press. New York.
Fishman, J 1999, who speaks what language to whom and when? JSROR Journal of linguistics, Vol. 1 no. 2, pp. 67-99
Grimshaw, T 2007, problematizing the construct of the Chinese learner: insights from ethnographic research, Educational studies, Vol. 33 no.3, pp. 299-311
Kim, M 1991, Cross cultural comparisons of the perceived importance of conversational constraints. Human communication research, vol. 21 no. 1, pp. 120-151
Nishida, H 1999, a cognitive approach to intercultural communication based on schema theory. International journal of intercultural relations, vol. 23 no. 5, pp. 753-777
Rufjes, D 19991, Mediating languages and cultures: towards an intercultural theory of foreign language education. Multilingual matters. New York.
Samovar, L., Porter, R and McDaniel, E 2009, Communication between cultures, Cengage learning. New York.
Samovar, L., Porter, R & McDaniel, E 2011, Intercultural communication: A reader. Cengage learning. New York.
Spitzberg, B.H & Hecht, M 2000, A component model of relational competence. Human communication research, vol. 10 no. 1, pp. 575-599
Communication is the most essential concept in all life situations. It is a key to a successful relationship, as people always rely on emotions. This is especially important in marriages, as partners need to know the ways to talk to each other to have a long life together. However, individuals are not born with good communication skills, as it is something that is required to be learned and practiced during the lifetime. According to a poll conducted by The Today Show and SurveyMonkey, the lack of communication is the second most common cause for divorce, trailing only infidelity (as cited in Greg & Smalley, 2020, p. 29). Psychologists all over the world study communication skills and most of them suggest that happy couples communicate differently than unhappy ones, distinguishing certain interaction styles, which could be helpful in choosing an appropriate way for understanding the partner.
There five main communication styles being distinguished by the psychologists: assertive, aggressive, passive-aggressive, submissive, and manipulative. The first type is connected with the notion of self-esteem. It is the most effective style, especially in marriages, which makes the speaker confident, allowing them to communicate without playing games or manipulating others. Its major behavioral characteristics include achieving goals without hurting others, respect to others rights, being responsible for the made actions and choices, and asking for what is required, being ready for a rejection. However, despite the fact that this type of communication is useful for human relations, assertive style is the least one used.
The second style implies the individuals strong desire to win at any expense. An aggressive type of communication suggests the person behaves in a selfish manner, as if their needs are the most crucial. The major characteristics of this style include talking in a frightening, hostile, or threatening manner, readiness to trample over others, being intimidating, and bullying. This type of communication is ineffective as the purpose of the conversation is often lost because people are being emotional. The other person in this situation tends to feel hurt, humiliated and becomes defensive, losing respect for the partner. This is the style, which is the most damaging for marriages, as it does not allow people to come to an agreement, thus, ruining the relationships.
The third style is passive-aggressive, meaning people seem patient on the surface but are acting out of anger. Those who behave in this manner often feel resentful, and powerful, and they are indirectly aggressive. Such individuals are not reliable and are often considered to be sulky, and hypocritical. Their expressions are typically inconsistent with their thoughts, as they behave decently when facing a person, but behind their back, they demonstrate their real feelings. People dealing with such individuals usually feel confused, angry, and hurt what is disruptive for any kind of human relationship, including marriage.
The next style of communication is submissive, characterized by a desire to please other people, and avoid conflicts by all means. A person choosing this type of behavior acts as if other peoples needs, rights and desires are more important. Such individuals are apologetic because they feel as if they are in debt when they ask for other peoples help. They do everything to avoid confrontations and put the preferences of others above their own. They also refuse to express their desires or show true feelings. Such people never use loud voices, as they try to remain in a shadow, and seem small. Those who surround them often feel frustrated as they do not know what to expect.
The last style of communication is manipulative, implying that people using it are skilled at influencing or controlling others. When speaking, such individuals always have a hidden message in their words, which the other side is unaware of. These people are cunning, and tend to control others by various methods, including fake tears, making others feel guilty, and indirectly asking for satisfying their needs. Those, who are treated this way, usually feel guilty, angry, and irritated. This communication style is especially harmful to close relationships, especially marriage, as one of the sides, which is being manipulated, begins to feel non-meaningful, and not respected.
In conclusion, successful communication is one of the major skills for improving and preserving the marriage. However, there are different interaction styles, which are inherent to individuals, and they need to be considered when building a relationship, as certain types are more damaging than others. People need to be aware of these peculiarities to be able to control their behavior and emotions to have a stable marriage, which would last for a long time.
Public speaking is one of the biggest challenges to many people. Some people are always shy when it comes to speaking in public. They develop overwhelming fear that affects their ability to speak out effectively. I had this problem in the past. I was very comfortable when it came to group discussions of five or six people. I presented my points clearly and concisely. In such discussions, I argued my points articulately, and I would convince the team members. However, when it came to the presentation of our findings in front of the class, I experienced a complete breakdown in my ability to communicate. Sometimes I hesitated and stuttered, which made it very difficult to express my points to the class. I realized that it was a problem that I had to address to avoid embarrassing situations in future.
In-Depth Analysis
Public speaking is an art that is very important in any organization. Baden Eunson is one of the scholars who have looked into the art of communication, and how it affects individuals life. In his book Communicating in the 21st Century, this scholar critically analyzes the transformation that has taken place in the field of communication. The book scrutinizes the role of technology in advancing communication in the modern day society. Public speaking is one of the aspects of communication that many people find very challenging. It does not only need the ability of an individual to communicate articulately to the audience, but also the courage to face the crowd. It also requires from an individual to attract the attention of the entire audience in order to make the speech successful. Some people have the courage to stand in from of the crowd, but lack the intellect to get hold of their attention throughout the speech. Such individuals would make the audience bored, especially if they fail to understand the expectations of the public. Public speaking is different from person-to-person communication. In public speaking, the speaker must realize that he or she is addressing an audience that is uniquely different. What one person may find interesting may be very boring to another individual. But a speaker must find a way of engaging all the audience despite this difference.
The main problem that people face when speaking to the public is the inability to understand the expectations of the audience. People always want to be told what they want to hear. When a group of people gathers in a place to listen to a given speaker, there is always some expectations of the speech that will make them feel satisfied with the communication process. Failing to understand this expectation may lead to a complete breakdown in the communication process. This is especially so in cases where the topic to be talked about is controversial. A clear example can be the ongoing political crisis in Ukraine. It is difficult to find someone saying that they are neutral about the possible invasion of Russia into Ukraine. In most of the cases, you will get a group that is against the invasion, while the other group will always be positive towards it. For this reason, it is important to first understand the audience in order to avoid an embarrassing situation.
When speaking to a group that is against the invarsion, it is not advisable to start praising the invasion. There is a possibility that the audience may decide to switch of deliberately because their minds cannot digest what they are hearing. In other extreme cases, the audience may even attack the speaker, leading to very humiliating moments. This does not mean that the audience should always be told what they want to hear even if it is wrong. When the speaker feels that there is a valid reason why it is wrong to tell the audience what they want to hear, then in such cases, it may be necessary to strike a happy medium, and try to explain why it is important not to hold the same view as that which the audience expects. In such delicate situations, the speaker must identify the values that he or she shares with the audience. This should be the foundation of the speech. While explaining why a given process or action is wrong, the speaker should make a constant reference to an ideology, an event, or any other thing that the audience values.
In cases where the speaker is shy, the best way of addressing this is through constant practice. Extreme cases of shyness can be dealt through counseling. The affected individual may need to be taken through a counseling process before he or she starts practicing. At first, he or she may start by talking to empty seats in a hall. After some time, he or she will need to address four or five people. The size of the audience can be increased as one gains confidence to speak in public. This is how I have been able to fight the fear I had when communicating to the public.
Theories
Some scholars have come up with communication theories to explain why some people may find it challenging to speak freely and effectively to a group of people. One of the most common theories of communication that can be applied in this case is the Cognitive Dissonance Theory. This theory holds that the mind will always try to avoid conflicts and tensions through various mechanisms in order to attain harmony. Sometimes the desire of the mind to maintain harmony may be irrational, making it difficult for an individual to speak freely to people. This is a common problem among the perfectionists who always try to please everyone. Their ability to speak to the public is always affected by the fear that their statements may hurt others, or that they may be judged harshly. This theory explains what was affecting my ability to speak to the public. There was always a constant fear that people may judge my speech harshly.
Conclusion
Public speaking is an important aspect of communication that one needs to master. Effective public speaking is a process that one learns through constant practice. However, one needs to understand that to be able to address the public, he or she must understand their expectations. The speech must address their expectations as much as possible. I was able to address the fear of public speaking through the constant practice. I realized that when speaking to the public, it was important not to be too self-conscious to be able to address the public freely. I have also learnt that it is important to understand the choice of words based on the age, gender, social class, race, and other demographical factors of the audience.