Category: Colonialism

Introduction

• Higher education was introduced in the united states even before the nation became a sovereign state.
• Most of the early settlers of New England were alumni of established universities in the United Kingdom from universities like Cambridge and Oxford (Tobin and Kincheloe, 2006).
• These individuals felt that education is an essential aspect of life and thus advocated for the development of institutions of higher education.
• This led to the establishment of Harvard.
• By the end of the 19th Century, there were nine Universities in the United States that are now referred to as colonial colleges (Baker, 2000).
• At the present moment, institutions of higher education form a strong basis of the economy and culture of the United States.
• There are approximately 4000 renowned institutions of higher education that have enrolled over 15 million students (Baker, 2000).
• Annually, approximately 2,000 students graduate with various diplomas and degrees in the nation (Baker, 2000).
• The experience that students have received while in these institutions may have changed with time but is tremendous.
• To determine this, I interviewed a university student, Steven Jones from the Texas A&M University and compared his experience with that of colonial colleges.

Educational Context

• The educational context of colonial colleges was concrete (Thelin, 2007).
• Students enrolled in practical courses that improved their knowledge on the physical world.
• The curriculum emphasized more on practical work that theory.
• There were also a number of programs funded by affiliate institutions that students were involved in.
• The educational context of modern universities is still concrete.
• However, Jones felt that the curriculum is currently emphasizing on the theoretical aspect of education than the practical aspect.
• Just like colonial colleges, modern universities have research programs which students can that are funded by the government and other private institutions.
• Modern universities spend approximately $26 billion annually on research and development (Baker, 2000).

Student Culture

• There is a slight difference in the culture and students way of life in colonial colleges and modern universities.
• In colonial colleges, students were referred to as scholars.
• Through their dressing, it was possible to differentiate scholars from other individuals in the society.
• It was also possible to differential scholars of different levels.
• Buildings in these institutions have ancient architectural designs mainly from the romantic period.
• In modern colleges, students are also referred to as scholars.
• However, they do not have a special code of dressing. It is thus impossible to differential students of different academic levels and students from other members of the society.
• Students also have the culture of drinking and parting which happened rarely in colonial colleges.
• From the interview, Jones stated that the people of his age group now dress with fashion and were involved in activities that would make them look cool.
• Most of the buildings found in these institutions have modern architectural designs.

Recreation Activities

• It is essential for any institution to have recreation activities.
• During the colonial era and the early years of self rule in the United States, colonial colleges mainly used arts as the main form of recreation activity.
• This included performing arts such as symphony orchestra, drama, opera and poetry.
• Modern universities also embrace recreational activities like colonial colleges.
• Modern universities however embrace sports over performing arts.
• This may be due to the formulation and development of different forms of sports in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
• Sports such as football, basketball, baseball, soccer and hockey are among the leading activities that students are involved in (Ellsworth, 2005).
• Jones, for instance was a basketball player. He had played basketball while at Junior High and wishes to be drafted in the NBA on his senior year.

Campus Administration

• There are some differences in the manner in which colonial institutions are run as compared to modern institutions.
• Colonial colleges could only accommodate a small number of scholars. To enroll in these institutions, students had to be of high academic excellence.
• These institutions were partly financed by the government hence faced financial constrains.
• Finally, these courses offered courses of few disciplines. These included law, medicine and architecture.
• Modern universities are run in a relatively different manner.
• Despite the fact that only students who have high GPA scores and high school grades get enrolled in these institutions, the number of students which they can accommodate is much higher.
• There are a variety of courses that students can choose from ranging from sciences and arts to economics and law.
• Finally, the state allocates a higher proportion of its budget to run these institutions. This has improved the quality of higher education through research and development (Ranciere, 1991).

Conclusion

• Despite of the changes that are being experienced in higher education, there are a lot of similarities between colonial colleges and modern universities.
• These institutions form the base of the American culture and economy.
• It is due to this fact that they are highly respected and embraced my the American community.

References

Baker, S. (2000). Factors enhancing sustained use of research-based instructional practices. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33 (5), 445-457.

Ellsworth, E. (2005). Places of Learning: Media, Architecture, Pedagogy. New York: Routledge.

Ranciere, J. (1991). The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation. Stanford: Standford Universtiy.

Thelin, J.R. (2007). A History of American Higher Education. New York: Pearson Custom.

Tobin, K. and Kincheloe, J. (2006). Doing Educational Research: A Handbook. Rotterdam: Sense.

Introduction

China has one of the fastest growing economies. Since the last half of the 20^th century, the Chinas government has undertaken various strategic decisions that have improved the economy of the country significantly. China is currently the second largest economy. China has a huge influence on Africa. Trade ties between Africa and China have increased significantly. China has overtaken the U.S., France, and the U.K. in trading with African countries.

Diplomatic relations of China with Africa have also improved. Time will tell whether China will have a positive or negative influence on Africa. On the other hand, the Spanish colonized Latin America during the end of the 15^th century. The Spanish and Portuguese have had a great impact on the culture of Latin Americans. There are several differences and similarities between the Spanish conquest of Latin America and Chinas venture into Africa.

Chinas Strategy in Africa

One might think that economic relations between China and Africa began recently. However, the economic relations started many centuries ago. Currently, China is targeting Africa since Africa is rich in minerals. It is a fact that Africa is one of the continents that have the largest amount of minerals.

Many areas are unexploited. Therefore, China targets areas that are rich in oil, timber, minerals, and cotton. These countries include South Africa, Nigeria, Angola, and Sudan. China also targets areas that have prospects of finding valuable minerals and oil (Rotberg 39). Discovery of oil in Kenya and Uganda has increased Chinas interest in East Africa. China strives to form trade and diplomatic ties with these countries.

China undertakes large-scale structural projects in various African countries. It offers the countries soft loans to undertake the projects. One of the conditions of the soft loans is that the countries should ensure that Chinese contractors would undertake the projects. These projects include construction of roads, dams, airports, and railway lines. These projects facilitate the movement of the natural resources of these countries to China (Shinn and Eisenman 153). In addition, the projects provide China with exploitation and drilling rights.

Africa has a population of slightly more than 1 billion people. This provides China with a large market for its products. China uses a low-cost approach to venture into the African market. The country offers various products at very low prices. This increases the competitiveness of products from China.

Since African countries are low-income countries, cheap manufactured goods from China are in high demand in these countries. The economies of most African countries are developing very fast. Therefore, in the future, Africa countries would provide a large market for various high-end products from china.

Africa exports minerals and raw materials to China. On the other hand, it imports various finished goods from the country. African countries can manufacture some of the products that they import from China. Therefore, importation of finished products from China limits the development of the production capabilities of these countries.

In addition, exporting raw materials and minerals does not add value to the products. This practice makes Africa lose billions of dollars annually. In countries where China undertakes large infrastructural projects, it imports labor and equipment from China. In addition, it does not transfer skills to the local communities. Therefore, the relationship between Africa and China only benefits China. It hinders the development of most African countries.

Chinas government has a policy of not interfering with the local politics of African countries with which it has trade relations. This may be detrimental to the development of the countries. Chinas government may provide loans to dictators in various African countries (Chan, Cheung and Ku 34). In addition, failure to interfere with local politics may make soft loans that the country provides various African countries be beneficial to a few elite politicians.

China has the largest market of ivory. In places where China is undertaking various projects, poaching is usually rampant. In fact, police in various African countries have apprehended Chinese citizens in various airports trying to smuggle ivory and other game products (Gooch 141). Poaching poses a major threat to tourism, which is one of the major economic activities of most African countries.

Spanish Conquest of Latin America

The arrival of Christopher Columbus in America in 1492 marked the beginning of the Spanish conquest of the Americas. Columbus undertook several voyages in search of new lands. Latin America was rich in gold and silver. Therefore, the Spanish conquered the land in an effort to acquire the precious minerals (Saunders 107).

In addition, Latin America was a source of slaves. After returning to Spain from various voyages, Columbus usually carried slaves. He usually sold the slaves in Spain. Latin America had rich agricultural land. The Spanish created slave establishments. They forced the slaves to work on the agricultural land with little or no pay. Several natives refused to work in the farms. They created rebellions that led to guerilla warfare.

One of the major characteristics of European colonization is Christianity. The Spanish strived to convert the natives of Latin America to Christianity. Several Spaniards claimed that they went to Latin America to preach to the natives. The natives usually welcomed people who came to preach in their lands.

The Aztec empire was one of the major empires in Latin America. Spaniards who went to preach to the Aztecs conspired to bring down the empire while pretending to spread the Gospel (Farhadian 154). The effect of the early Spaniards who conquered Latin America is visible up to date. Christianity is the major religion in Latin America.

Differences and Similarities between Spanish and Chinese Colonialism

The search for mineral was the major driving force that made both countries venture into new lands. The Spanish desired to acquire the gold and silver treasures that were in Latin America. On the other hand, the Chinese want oil, minerals, and other raw materials that are abundant in Africa.

The Spanish used force to conquer Latin America. Their weapons were more efficient that the weapons of the natives. Therefore, they conquered them easily. However, the Chinese did not use force to venture into Africa. China uses various means to entice African countries. It gives soft loans to these countries. In addition, it does not interfere with the local politics of these countries. This makes the countries prefer to deal with China instead of Western countries, which usually interfere with the local politics of African countries.

Religion played a major part in the Spanish conquest of Latin America. Spaniards converted Latin Americans to Christianity. On the other hand, China did not use religion to venture into Africa. This has reduced the resistance that China faces in various African countries.

Conclusion

Colonialism has shaped various cultures. Colonialism shaped the Latin American culture. Currently, China is striving to influence various African countries. Time will tell whether China will have a negative or positive impact on these countries.

Works Cited

Chan, Kwok Bun, Tak-Sing Cheung, Agnes S. M. Ku. Chinese capitalisms, Leiden: BRILL, 2007. Print.

Farhadian, Charles E. Introducing world Christianity, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Print.

Gooch, Frederick. Shoot on sight, Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation, 2011. Print.

Rotberg, Robert I. China into Africa: Trade, aid, and influence, Baltimore, MD: Brookings Institution Press, 2009. Print.

Saunders, Nicholas J. The peoples of the Caribbean: An encyclopedia of Caribbean archeology and traditional culture, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Print.

Shinn, David H. and Joshua Eisenman. China and Africa: A century of engagement, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. Print

Decolonization affected the world in many different ways because the process was very long and global. Firstly, we have to say about the direct impact of decolonization on the colonized territories. The partition of the British Indian Empire into independent India and Pakistan provoked a gigantic population swap, with hundreds of thousands of people on both sides dying of starvation. The territorial disputes between the two splinters of British India remain unresolved to this day. In India, the chaos that followed independence was only halted when a Hindu fanatic nearly killed the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi. Today, however, the outcome of British colonial rule in India does not look so unambiguous. From the British, India inherited its parliamentary system, making it the largest democracy in the world. Moreover, thanks in no small part to the mass familiarity of Indians with the language of the colonizers, English, India today has become the worlds center of offshore programming.

Secondly, decolonization has also had a substantial impact on the economic component of the formerly colonized territories. This impact can be seen both positively and negatively in different territories. For instance, Pakistan, a neighboring country to India, can boast of neither a sustainable democracy nor a developed economy. Although, there is the successful Singapore, which has almost completely recovered from colonization and has developed a stable economic system. On the other hand, there is also Zimbabwe, which is currently experiencing an economic disaster. For more than ten years now, Zimbabwe has been going through one economic crisis after another. Therefore, the question of whether colonialism has benefited or harmed the economy of the colonized is unlikely to have a simple and definitive answer, as each case is different.

Finally, it is worth talking about the impact of decolonization on the current political system of the once colonized territories. It can be assumed that the strategy chosen by the metropolis determines the current development of these countries. Where climatic and epidemiological conditions were favorable, Europeans established settlements and stable political institutions, as in Australia or New Zealand. Where the death rate was high, Europeans tended to avoid settling  these regions were only of interest to them as a source of resources. Accordingly, a repressive system of government was created, and political institutions were not developed. In addition, an economy focused on the export of resources provided a basis for the formation of corrupt regimes.

Talking about the impact of IT progress is worth noting that information technology has made our lives much easier. After all, it took so much time and effort to calculate economic processes, as many factors affecting the economy were involved. Today, all calculations are performed using computers. In doing so, the results are accurate, and the calculations are made in a matter of seconds. Programs have been created to help bankers and economists. The list could go on ad infinitum, as information technology has penetrated almost all areas of human life. Another area that has been impacted by information technology in education. Teachers at universities and other educational institutions are increasingly practicing the downloading of lectures onto electronic carriers and the practice of the independent study of topics. It is also worth noting the importance of distance learning. People with disabilities now have a chance to get an education.

Introduction

There is the idea that the evolution of our world is cyclic. Having created some approach or explored a perspective on a certain phenomenon, society recognized its importance and great impact on its further evolution. However, in the course of its development, these notions become forgotten, and new ones appeared. Yet, the great practical use, importance, or cultural significance of a notion precondition the undying interest and existence of a certain group of admirers who want to revive this approach and make it topical again. This tendency is peculiar to all spheres of human activity. Art and design are not an exception. For instance, the way Colonial Gardens were organized became popular again. The movement aimed at the restoration of its unique features was called Colonial Revival garden.

Colonial period

In general, Colonial Gardens could be taken as an integral part of the American Society of the 1600s (Colonial Revival in America par. 5). Being the main resource base for the most powerful European states, America attracted the attention of noble people who recognized the existence of numerous opportunities for evolution. That is why they created their residences there. Trying to underline their status, aristocrats used beautiful architectural styles and approaches to decorating to create the unique image of their dwellings and gardens. These tendencies contributed to the creation of a unique Colonial Gardens style that became one of the main distinctive features of the American landscapes. It combined the usage of rectilinear beds, pathways through the garden, low hedges to enclose it, and other elements of a decor (Colonial Revival garden par. 5).

Colonial Revival garden

Thus, the contribution of the given style to the creation of a recognizable image of the American countryside and its impact on the cultural heritage preconditioned the stable interest to this approach. Besides, the Centennial International Exhibition of 1876 that was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania gave rise to a new round of interest to the colonial garden. The movement was peculiar mainly to the eastern United States where colonial heritage was still strong, and people had the need for the restoration of these approaches. It is difficult to outline a single person who could be considered responsible for the reanimation of these tendencies as there was a group of people who wanted to use the patterns peculiar to the past.

Peculiarities

However, being reanimated, it also obtained several new features that changed it in the way it could satisfy the altered needs and demands. Colonial Revival Gardens do not just replicate the landscape and style of actual colonial gardens (Colonial Gardens par. 3). Yet, they could be considered a kind of their romanticized version that is created to appeal to peoples feelings of nostalgia and belonging to the American culture. However, Colonial Revival gardens still give great attention to direct lines and symmetry. Additionally, there are numerous plants that are typical of the colonial area. They are used to create the atmosphere and emphasize the feeling of the past times that were significant for a state and people.

Conclusion

Altogether, the shift of priorities towards the adherence to the past practices and the renewal of the interest to colonial gardens became an important phenomenon that is known as Colonial Revival Gardens. It tends to satisfy peoples needs for the exploration of the traditional images, the satisfaction of the feeling of nostalgia combined with the adherence to new tendencies and practices. For this reason, its popularity remains high, and people still like this very style.

Works Cited

Colonial Gardens. n.d. Web.

Colonial Revival garden. n.d. Web.

Colonial Revival in America. n.d. Web.

Introduction

India is a country of contrasts where European architecture is intricately intertwined with the local styles. It is especially interesting to explore the impact of the British Empire on Indian colonial architecture as the latter one has long been under the impact of the first. In this connection, the research question of the project is to examine the Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture that was established during the British colonization under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901).

Rationale and background of the topic

At the end of the XIX century, people thought that a new era of progress and prosperity governed by the great empires of the world is coming. Each of the most powerful countries began the so-called golden age with the invention of distinct architectural styles and the corresponding greatness of the historical moment¹. The British Empire was so great that it had to invent different architectural styles in its different colonial parts. In India, it came up with a style that reproduced the main features of Mughal architecture and went down in annals under the name of the Indo-Saracenic architecture. Several buildings related to this style can still be found in the major cities of India and neighboring Pakistan and Bangladesh. The Indo-Saracenic style was intended to please the local population, both Hindus and Mohammedans, at the same time convincing the two that the British Empire is great². At this point, different architects were interpreting the heritage of their medieval colleagues to create a new style. Such architects as Bhai Ganga Ram, Bhai Ram Singh, an Englishman Samuel Jacob who worked in Jaipur, Indore, and Bikaner were among the best representatives of the Indo-Saracenic architecture.

A brief overview of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture

This eclectic style integrates the elements of Western medieval Gothic, Islamic, and Hindu architectural styles. The Indo-Saracenic style appeared in the period of strengthening positions of Great Britain in India and resulted from attempts of British architects to create a style aimed to demonstrate the power of the British Empire in the late XIX century³. This style has been part of the British concept of traditional India which was based on the idea that enlightened colonialists are more aware of the cultural identity of the colony⁴. The style combines smooth arches borrowed from Indian temples with angular and tending upwards of European Gothic. There are plenty of detail, smooth transitions from the dome to the sharp peaks, and ease of unobtrusive designs.

Research focus

In this paper, I will focus on the following three buildings: Madras High Court set of buildings in Chennai, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai, and North Block of the Secretariat Building in New Delhi. It seems especially important to explore the mentioned style of architecture located in different cities. It would promote the comprehensiveness of the research and allow making relevant conclusions. After reading scholarly sources that would be identified later, I consider enlightening the following points: the characteristics of the chosen architecture, the most prominent architects related to it, the attitudes of Indians towards the style, and its connection to the concept of the global architecture. Furthermore, I would look through numerous illustrations related to the topic to create a deep understanding of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture. Thus, analyzing both the reading material and illustrations, I will answer the identified questions and create a well-organized paper that, in turn, would contribute to my increased awareness of Indian architectural style as well as its connection to the global architecture.

Annotated Bibliography

Gupta, Narayani. Of giants and jewelers: The monumental and the miniature in Indias historic landscapes. Thesis Eleven 105 (2011):35-43.

This source focuses on architecture as an Indian heritage offering a new perception of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture instead of regarding it as imperial and hybrid style. It is essential to use the article to consider the chosen Indian architecture in the global context that would contribute to my research by offering several examples and clarifications concerning the topic. Such a clear and detailed representation of materials allows learning the information effectively, hence, I would like to use this source in my research.

Jarzombek, Mark, and Vikramaditya Prakash. A Global History of Architecture. 2^nd. New York: Wiley, 2011.

The authors reveal the most important characteristics of the chosen style supporting their views with the evidence. The information presented in the source seems interesting and significant to use in the project due to its clear presentation. I would like to use this source to identify the notion of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture and to analyze its effects on the local population to ensure the project with the qualitative data.

Sen, Siddhartha. Between Dominance, Dependence, Negotiation, and Compromise: European Architecture and Urban Planning Practices in Colonial India. Journal of Planning History 9 (2010): 203231.

The source discusses the impact of Europe on the establishment of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture focusing on various analytical and theoretical frameworks. This source is necessary to create a strong argument that would reflect the core of the style while the analysis of the data that was made by the author can be proved as there is evidence of it being taken from reliable sources. A number of vivid illustrations also contribute to the usefulness of the source.

Sengupta, Indra. A Conservation Code for the Colony: John Marshalls Conservation Manual and Monument Preservation between India and Europe. Archaeologizing Heritage 5 (2013): 21-37.

The article by Sengupta provides insights into the rules of preservation of local buildings. In particular, the author claims that Indo-Saracenic buildings were designed in order to create an illusion of British rule in India. In this regard, the article is beneficial to study the origins and the purpose of the Indo-Saracenic style.

Footnotes

1. Narayani Gupta, Of giants and jewelers: The monumental and the miniature in Indias historic landscapes, Thesis Eleven 105 (2011): 36.
2. Siddhartha Sen, Between Dominance, Dependence, Negotiation, and Compromise: European Architecture and Urban Planning Practices in Colonial India, Journal of Planning History 9 (2010): 215.
3. Indra Sengupta, A Conservation Code for the Colony: John Marshalls Conservation Manual and Monument Preservation between India and Europe, Archaeologizing Heritage 5 (2013): 25.
4. Mark Jarzombek and Prakash Vikramaditya, A Global History of Architecture, 2^nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 2011), 38.

Introduction

The Blackfoot indigenous people comprise the Kainai, Piikani, and Siksika communities. The traditional residency of the Blackfoot people was in Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada and in the northern parts of Montana in the United States. This indigenous group of people refers to themselves as Niitsitapi, meaning the real people, or Siksikaitsitapi, meaning Blackfoot-speaking real people (OShea et al., 2021). The Black nation was initially nomad hunters and fishermen who operated from the great plains of Alberta, in Canada, to the Yellowstone River, Montana, United States of America. In 2016, the census showed that 22,490 people were identified to have Blackfoot ancestry (OShea et al., 2021). The census report showed that 5,565 people still speak the Blackfoot language and makeup about 98.7% of the total number of people in Alberta.

Pre-colonial Life

The Blackfoot nation lived freely on their lands before the 18th century. They participated in nomadic hunting and sheltered in camps known as the tipis. The social units comprised families with about 10 to 30 shelters, making about 80 to 240 individuals. Each unit was referred to as a band and was headed by a respected leader. The people were organized in communal life, sharing buffalo hunts prepared by the women in the bands (Stevenson et al., 2018). Most hunting was done during the summer and stored for winter, where hunting was minimal. The Blackfoot people believed in a superior being known as Old Man who created all life forms. They participated in celebration activities within the band, and members were allowed to move from one band to another.

Colonial History

The first encounter with the European traders was in the 18th century when they traded horses. Traders from Cree and Assiniboine also supplied them with firearms during the same period. The Blackfoot nation fought with American traders until 1870, which caused the death of about 220 Piikani people. The population of the Blackfoot nation comprised about 20,000 people in 1833 and dropped significantly to about 6,350 after the smallpox pandemic (Stevenson et al., 2018). In 1855 and 1877, the Blackfoot confederacy signed a treaty with the US government and the Canadian government (Stevenson et al., 2018). The Piikani people settled in Montana, while the Kainai and Siksika settled in Alberta, Canada.

Current Situation

Communities of the Blackfoot nation have retained much of their traditional cultures and ways of life. The communities have emphasized education, healing and wellness programs, and essential aspects of their daily lives. Nowadays, the majority of the indigenous communities participate in farming, own ranches, and are business people (OShea et al., 2021). The majority of the people in the indigenous communities face unemployment due to the limited resources in their rural areas. Consequently, the lack of employment opportunities has resulted in the rural-urban migration of people. Additionally, the leadership of the community allowed the extraction of natural gas and other resources over the years.

In the political scene, the people are represented by elected chiefs and council members. Over the years, members of the confederation have achieved victories by being elected into the federal and provincial governments (OShea et al., 2018). This information was obtained from the Red Crow Community College in Alberta, which was opened in 1989. The School had a cultural center that allowed people to learn about the Siksika Blackfoot nation.

Reflection

The knowledge about the Blackfoot has given me a profound understanding of the indigenous community in my area. I have been able to gather new information from internet sources as well as at the cultural center. The Blackfoot community is mainly divided into three central communities, and most of the settlers are in the area around Alberta. What interested me the most was learning about the traditional practices and cultures of the Blackfoot nation. I was surprised to learn that the previous main economic activity was nomadic hunting. The communities valued their festivals and celebrations back then, and they still do that up to date.

Being a nurse, there was a deep interest in knowing the history of medical practices of the Blackfoot people. I was surprised to learn that the communities had a medicine man referred to as Ni-namp-skan. The communities used medicine pipes which were stems that were thought to heal diseases. The medicine man offered prayers, and those who would be in favor of their god would be healed. Disease conditions were believed to be caused by evil spirits, and those healed were considered favored.

Colonization of the Blackfoot indigenous people led to the trading of various products where they acquired horses and firearms. During that period, there was an outbreak of smallpox that caused the death of more than half of the Blackfoot population. Colonization led to treaties where the communities were influenced to sell vast land to the US and the Canadian governments. Colonization led to industrialization that impacted a change in the traditional way of life. To my surprise, colonization had more negative than positive impacts, including erosion of their beautiful culture.

Conclusion

The knowledge of the Blackfoot people has given me an insight into the historical background of my community and some of their cultural practices. I aim to improve patient experiences by being culturally competent while executing my nursing duties. Cultural competence encourages nurses and other healthcare professionals to acknowledge and accept differences in the behavior and culture of their colleagues and patients (Nair & Adetayo, 2019). Additionally, competence ensures care is not provided based on cultural identity. As a nurse, I have learned to appreciate other peoples cultures and always seek their approval before providing nursing care.

References

Nair, L., & Adetayo, O. A. (2019). Cultural competence and ethnic diversity in healthcare.Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Global Open, 7(5), e2219. Web.

OShea, M., Kohli, P., & Neilson, H. (2021). Watching the skies: An overview of indigenous astronomy curricula for Canadian K-12 Teachers. Web.

Stevenson, S., Peterson, E., & Miller, J. (2018). The Blackfoot Confederacy in Canada.Interdisciplinary Dialogue Proceedings, 2(1). Web.

Abstract

The Israeli-Palestine conflict remains one of the most inflexible upheavals in the world today. Many Palestinians have been forced to leave their ancestral lands due to the ongoing settler colonialism project promoted by the government of Israel. Using the concepts outlined by Edward Said, this paper explains why Orientalism informs the relationships between Western nations and the Arab world. The Bedouin people have been unable to achieve their dreams and aims due to the governments tendency to oppress and deny them basic needs. This paper presents a balanced view of these issues and goes further to offer evidence-based solutions that can minimize the existing tensions. Such initiatives will make it possible for the region to have two independent states that can promote and protect the rights of the people and make it easier for them to lead high-quality lives.

Introduction

Within the past century, Israel has been constructing and pursuing a complex settler-colonial agenda in the name of the Zionist dream. After its establishment in the year 1948, Israel launched a new effort that was intended to eliminate the native people of Palestine, expand this state, and empower the people with additional resources. Despite these settler ambitions led by the Israeli government, the presence of the Palestinians in the region remains a reality. Most of the people adhere to their natural rights and continue to prevent Israel from realizing its dreams. The purpose of this paper is to give a detailed literature review of the issue of settler colonialism in this troubled region and the position of the indigenous people and their respective rights. It goes further to offer conclusive discussions and deliberations that can guide different stakeholders to have a better view of this problem and become part of the solution.

Literature Review

The issue of settler-colonialism in Israel has attracted attention of many stakeholders and historians for many decades. The natives of the regions in the Southern Levant are believed to be the Jews. The present-day Palestinians are descendants of Arab immigrants and Muslim invaders.¹ This means that they engaged in settler colonialism somewhere around the 19th and 20th centuries, thereby being in a position to occupy their present land. This reality explains why some scholars continue to view the argument that Israel is wrong to engage in settler colonialism is something misleading or erroneous.

The concept of Orientalism has become a powerful theory for examining the issues many Israelis and Palestinians continue to face. According to Said, this ideology emerged in the early 19th century when different Europeans and Americans started to view Muslims and the people of the Middle East as inferior and incapable of achieving their goals.² Consequently, they were convinced that the time the right time had come for them to help or rescue the Arabs by colonizing them. Different World Fairs were organized during this period to promote this concept and inform more people about the peculiar behaviors and predicaments associated with these people of the East.³ Over the years, this notion remained the starting point for many Western countries that intend to analyze the cultural, economic, and social issues of the Arab World. This kind of assumption encouraged different Western countries to support the establishment of Israel and get rid of the natives who were identified or treated as inferior human beings.

The presence of a vibrant and strong Palestinian population in this troubled region explains why the Israeli-Palestinian conflict continues to exist. These natives have been keen to resist any form of colonial order by the government of Israel. They have decided to remain united, adhere to their rights, and ensure that the Zionist dream is never realized. Despite such barriers, Israel has remained steadfast and relentless in an attempt to dominate and continue to support its settler colonialism project. These developments explain why such a conflict might not end any time soon. Many Zionists have been targeting Palestines land by the notion of divine will. They have been examining and following the Biblical narrations about the Jews and how the contested region remains their promised land as Gods chosen people.⁴ The move has been pursued in an attempt to promote self-determination and eventually support the establishment of a monopolistic state that has no foreigners from the Arab world.

At the same time, the Palestinians have remained deviant since they believe that the current region will be useful towards the establishment of a future sovereign state. This is a clear indication that their self-determination and focus on independence remain strong. These people also believe that they are the natives of this region. They argue that the state of Israel and the entire world should take their rights more seriously than ever before. Many Palestinians have indicated that the world should allow them to keep their national identities and rights to self-rule.⁵ Nonetheless, they have continued to encounter fierce opposition and struggle from the ongoing Zionist movement.

The nature of the Israeli-Palestine conflict is embedded on Western imperialism. The establishment of this state of Israel was backed or supported by different Western powers, including the United States and Britain.⁶ The support received from different nations made it easier for Israel to pursue its objectives in the name of this colonization project. This has also been seen as an extension of the foreign interests of these nations. With the presence of a stable state in the Middle East, chances remain high for these nations to continue chasing their geopolitical interests and hegemonies.

Sectarian conflict is a major problem defining the nature of this conflict between Palestine and Israel. This has occurred since there are Arabs and Jews living in the same region. These people have diverse views and opinions on a wide range of issues, including culture, religious beliefs, language, and societal values.⁷ Their goals are also diverse since the Palestinians have been opposed to the ongoing settler colonialism movement launched and promoted by the Israeli government. Consequently, this kind of upheaval has remained the most obdurate or intractable in nature. Waxman indicates that the occupation of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank has been ongoing for the last five decades and might not be ending any time soon.⁸ Consequently, more people will continue to record numerous challenges in the troubled regions and eventually be unable to realize their potential.

Similarly, the Bedouins of Israel have continued to encounter diverse challenges in this country. This group accounts for around 3.5 percent of this countrys population.⁹ Despite being the natives of Negev desert and other regions, these people live in pathetic or poor conditions. They lack some of the basic rights, such as education, shelter, and water. They are usually threatened by the settler colonialism project since their homes are demolished frequently. The constant challenge of being evicted any time is a major issue affecting them. This is a clear indication that the relevant authorities in Israel have been steadily targeting and suppressing the rights of these people.

Members of this ethnic group are not recognized in different parts of the country. Their liberties, cultural practices, and religious events are usually controlled. The state has been keen to disrupt their ways of life by making it impossible for them to move with their herds from one location to another. Such government-sponsored initiatives have triggered various predicaments for the Bedouins, such as unemployment, loss of culture and tradition, and increasing levels of poverty.¹⁰ Their rights as the indigenous members of the society are no longer recognized by state authorities. Despite having their natural rights as native people accorded by the United Nations (UN), members of this ethnic group continue to encounter numerous challenges.

Discussion

Saids opinions and views offer a powerful model for understanding the nature of this conflict between Israel and Palestine. His theory of Orientalism appears convincing since it explains how the West has been treating different groups in the Middle East, including the Arabs.¹¹ Most of the propagandas and social descriptions have continued to view or treat these people as uncivilized and backward. Applying similar notions and pursuing the ideals of Western imperialism, Israel has continued to implement its settler colonialism project without considering or supporting the demands of the Palestinians. Since Israel has become the victor in this contest or struggle, it has continued to reflect its political ambitions in every activity. With the support of different Western countries, Israel approves its actions by presenting a narrative that is intended to manipulate the reality. Consequently, this country has continued to demolish most of the structures and homes in the troubled regions.

After examining the nature of this conflict, it becomes quite clear that Israel might not relent any time soon. This is true since it has been focusing on history to explain why the contested region was the Jews original land. Consequently, more people in Palestine currently live in fear since the chances of losing their resources increase every day. The reality is that such a move to colonize and occupy West Bank and the Gaza Strip is inappropriate.¹² This is true since it creates a scenario whereby the liberties and rights of these people are ignored. Israels Zionist movement or agenda is capable of causing a humanitarian crisis since it has disrupted the lives of many Palestinians within the past five decades. This is a clear indication that an evidence-based solution will be needed in an attempt to empower the people and make it possible for them to realize their potential.

Similarly, the Bedouin people of Israel have been forced to live in pathetic and dehumanizing conditions. The measures this government has implemented have disrupted this ethnic groups way of life. Majority of them have been unable to access basic needs, such as water and electricity.¹³ The government has introduced new measures to oppress these people and make it impossible for them to pursue their aims in life. The UN recognizes the rights and freedoms of indigenous people in their respective countries. Despite the nature of this provision, the government of Israel has failed to support these people. Consequently, the levels of poverty ad disruption have been on the rise. Chances are high that members of this ethnic group will eventually suffer from culture loss. Without proper mechanisms and international policies to protect these people, experts believe that the Bedouins will eventually be expelled out of this country.

Most of the talks held in the past to find long-lasting or sustainable solutions to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict have failed to deliver positive results. A peace agreement is yet to be recorded between the two regions. Majority of the stakeholders have been overwhelmed by the suffering and pain many Palestinians have to go throughout. The issue of historic rights have dominated most of the discussions and sessions aimed at addressing this conflict.¹⁴ The wave of settler colonialism has continued to make it impossible for the affected region to attract tourists or support the promotion of human rights. Many people have been unable to pursue their economic or careers aims.

With these issues in place, it is appropriate for different stakeholders to consider the formation of two sovereign states. The establishment of a new country that belongs to the Palestinians will address this upheaval and make it possible for the people of both regions to focus on their goals. Unfortunately, this approach or decision has been considered and tried in the past without delivering meaningful results. Since each side has been recording casualties, it would be appropriate for all leaders to consider the most appropriate solution that is capable of protecting lives. Israelis settler colonialism project should be stopped since it is informed by the concept of Orientalism.¹⁵ The government of Israel can also consider the rights of the affected people and introduce new procedures to support and guide them to achieve economic prosperity. When such an approach is considered, more people will begin to treat their counterparts from the Arab world in a respectable manner and empower them to achieve their dreams.

Similarly, the challenges many natives face in this country should never be taken lightly. The UN can be involved in an attempt to compel Israel to appreciate the liberties and rights of these indigenous people and protect them. Different Western countries can be involved by presenting evidence-based guidelines that have the potential to result in superior policies aimed at protecting these minorities.¹⁶ With such a strategy in place, chances are high that majority of them will be able to get adequate services and eventually lead high-quality lives. They will be able to access better education, engage in various economic activities, and be empowered to lead their nomadic lifestyles. Consequently, the cultural practices and traditions of these people will be preserved.

Conclusions

The above discussion has identified the ongoing Israeli-Palestine conflict is a major upheaval that has affected the lives and experiences of many people. For the Palestinians, this kind of disagreement has made it impossible for them to achieve their goals. The concept of Orientalism has guided the government of Israel and its allies to promote various malpractices that deny these people their liberties. Similarly, the Bedouins continue to live in poverty and horrendous conditions despite being the natives of this region. Evidence-based solutions will be needed in an attempt to address these issues and support the creation of two independent states.

Bibliography

Dana, Tariq, and Ali Jarbawi. A Century of Settler Colonialism in Palestine: Zionisms Entangled Project. Brown Journal of World Affairs 24, no. 1 (2017): 197-219.

Said, Edward W. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London: Penguin Books Limited, 2016.

Veracini, Lorenzo. Israel-Palestine Through a Settler-colonial Studies Lens. International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 21, no. 4 (2019): 568-581.

Waxman, Dov. The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.

Yiftachel, Oren, Batya Roded, and Alexandre (Sandy) Kedar. Between Rights and Denials: Bedouin Indigeneity in the Negev/Naqab. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 48, no. 11 (2016): 2129-2161.

Footnotes

1. Tariq Diana and Ali Jarbawi, A Century of Settler Colonialism in Palestine: Zionisms Entangled Project, Brown Journal of World Affairs 24, no. 1 (2017): 198.
2. Edward W. Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient (London: Penguin Books Limited, 2016), 11.
3. Said, Orientalism, 16.
4. Diana and Jarbawi, A Century of Settler Colonialism, 198.
5. Ibid., 198.
6. Ibid., 201.
7. Ibid., 208.
8. Dov Waxman, The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: What Everyone Needs to Know® (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 34.
9. Oren Yiftachel, Batya Roded, and Alexandre (Sandy) Kedar, Between Rights and Denials: Bedouin Indigeneity in the Negev/Naqab, Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 48, no. 11 (2016): 2130.
10. Yiftachel, Roded, and Kedar, Between Rights and Denials, 2131.
11. Said, Orientalism, 12.
12. Diana and Jarbawi, A Century of Settler Colonialism, 199.
13. Yiftachel, Roded, and Kedar, Between Rights and Denials, 2137.
14. Lorenzo Veracini, Israel-Palestine Through a Settler-colonial Studies Lens, International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 21, no. 4 (2019): 569.
15. Said, Orientalism, 19.
16. Veracini, Israel-Palestine, 572.

African Resistance to Colonialism

The African history is closely associated with European colonization, which was mainly caused by the economic, religious, and political factors. To acquire larger territories of Africa, Europeans employed various means of suppressing the local population and supported it with the so-called mission of making Africa a civilized nation. In fact, they used the mineral resources and cheap labor and put African in dependence from Britain, France, and other countries. Nevertheless, the African continent showed resistance to a colonial rule by paganizing national parties, demanding equity, and struggling for national liberation. This paper focuses on various forms of resistance to clarify how Africans struggled against oppression.

The early resistance to colonialism in Africa began in the late 19th century with the increasing unrest in East Africa and several organized groups. This primary resistance was not unified and centered, yet it allowed understanding that the colonial rule and the presence of Europeans in Africa were negative (Chamberlain 89). It should be stressed that the initial stage of colonization did not significantly the rural regions of the continent and the lives of people.

With a more extensive introduction of European control, several resistance cases were initiated against the colonizers. For example, the Battle of Adowa occurred in Ethiopia in the 20th century, when this country resisted successfully, and only a part if it was colonized (Black Mans Land  White Mans Country PT. 1). Being interested in expanding their economic and political influence, Europeans met stiff resistance from Asante in Ghana, which was expressed in the form of a battle.

The evolution of resistance steadily went on its second stage that can be characterized by such concepts as self-identity, human and civil rights, as well as self-government. The secondary resistance was aimed at achieving political and geographical independence along with overcoming colonial imperialism. These forward-looking ideas were supported by new, educated leaders and preceded by the relatively quiet period of the so-called inter-war years (Laumann 20).

In spite of a lack of the direct opposition, Africans demonstrated religious resistance. For example, Maji-Maji (Tanganyika) and Chimurenga (Zimbabwe) can be noted among the leaders who collaborated with the priests to combat the colonial regulations. In particular, based on Christian values of fairness and equality, they proposed that the colonial regimen did not meet these principles. Some new churches were formed as a protest against the colonizers and the requirement for independence.

Economic and political resistance contains the two more forms of resistance, which were poorly organized until the beginning of the World War II. The attempts to organize worker unions West and East Africa can be noted, while these actions cannot be considered important in terms of the whole population of the continent. Several mass protests, including the Aba Womens War, spoke against colonial policies that discriminated against them.

The participants of mass protests destroyed buildings before they were stopped by the police. Another form of resistance was the demands for inclusion and opportunity, which were practiced predominantly by educated Africans, who focused on human rights (Reynolds 15). Building on the idea of equality, they opposed a lack of opportunities, but their claims were not strong enough, and these organizations had limited membership for the elite.

When Africans were recruited in British and French armies during the World War II, those who returned home questioned their unfree position. The veterans also noted the experience of other countries who overcame the colonial rule, which led to the emergence of new mass-based political parties. The growth of African nationalism caused more pronounced claims for independence, and the struggle in the majority of countries was non-violent (Nkrumah).

Nevertheless, Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe, and other states remained colonies since the interests of European colonizers were strong. Initially, these countries tried to change the constitutional rules in a peaceful way based on political demands. In turn, the colonizers responded by banning the ability of the local population to participate in political protests. Violence towards them was expressed in mass imprisonment, and the struggle turned out to be the armed opposition (Nkrumah). The liberation movements were supported by the African countries that have already acquired independence (Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples). Through suffering and sacrifice, the all the countries of Africa achieved independence by means of different resistance forms.

To conclude, one should stress that African resistance to colonialism took many forms, including economic, political, and religious opposition. At the same time, battles and mass protests were initiated against the colonial rule. The primary stage of resistance was expressed in battles with the European colonizers, which largely affected non-rural regions. In the inter-war years, the demands for independence were declared by the African elite that organized in groups. Religious opposition was presented in the form of creating new churches and following Christian values. The secondary resistance was associated with the growth of American nationalism and armed struggle. Thus, a look into the resistance of Africans clarifies the ways they combated European colonialism and discrimination.

Colonial Economies and Africans

The colonization of Africa was closely connected with the penetration of capitalism into the economy of its countries. This paper explores the main features of the economic system that was created by colonialism due to the penetration of capitalism in the African countries. This is a brief overview of the problems associated with the underdevelopment of the economies of Africa. To understand the key features of the structure of the colonial economy is, it means understanding the reasons for the economic backwardness of African countries today.

A distinctive feature of the colonial economy is the fragmentation or disintegration of its individual parts. First of all, this means that sectors of the economy were not characterized by complementarity. In a whole economy, complementarity and interaction of individual regions and / or sectors are observed. For example, one region specializes in agricultural production, while another one supplies industrial products to it.

Along with the exchange at the general interregional or intersectoral levels, there should also exist a system of direct and reverse production ties. An example of feedback is a situation where the demand from industry for coal means that the exploitation of proven coal reserves is economically feasible. The direct connections can be discussed, for example, in the case when the creation of ferrous metallurgy facilitates the production of motorcycles on the spot (Laumann 10). In this connection, the entire economy is a system of such ties, its regions, and sectors complement each other and interact with each other through exchange. The colonial economy, as a rule, lacked such connections, complementarity, as well as interactions.

In the early period of the colonization of Africa, there was little native capital that could be mobilized for investment and development. For such reasons as the struggle for independence and poor support from the colonizers, the amount of savings in the colonies remained low. A significant part of the funds received by a particular country from colonial trade was spent on imports. Colonial capitalism, in which the accumulation of outwardly has the character of the original, left the local population quite narrow opportunities to accumulate wealth.

All this led to the dependence of the colonies on foreign capital, while capital resources were sharply limited, the need for them remained critical. In particular, it was necessary to develop infrastructure, especially railways and roads, create energy resources if the country did not want to, so that its development boils down to increased exploitation. A lack of equity, on the one hand, and the need to make investments, on the other, made the African colonial economy highly dependent.

In foreign trade and global economy, the colonial countries of Africa depended primarily on the metropolis. This dependence reflected the exploitative essence of the industrial inclusion of the colonial countries in the capitalist system of metropolises. Such an inclusion was also the result of enforcement measures that the colonial states used to take advantage of the economy of the colonies.

The contradictory nature and diversity of production relations in colonial Africa occurred mainly due to the influence of the imperialist countries of Europe, namely, the penetration of the capitalist mode of production into Africa (Black Mans Land  White Mans Country PT. 1). However, even if the imperialist countries were not responsible for the penetration of capitalism, and were limited only to the initial accumulation in Africa, difficulties and inconsistencies would still be sufficient.

Colonial Africa was a conglomerate of various modes of production and social patterns. Simple commodity production could coexist here with the patriarchal, as well as with those or other features of the feudal and slaveholding methods of production. When a colonial state tried to adjust its economy and social system to this conglomerate, certain changed appeared (Reynolds 18). Most importantly, when the capitalist mode of production distributed and subjugated all pre-capitalist structures, it meant that African countries are ready to collaborate with global economies.

Are pre-capitalist ways disappearing, mutating or transforming, or is a new complex community formed? The elements of colonial capitalism connected, making colonial capitalism unique o, while being based well-known laws of capitalist development (Black Mans Land  White Mans Country PT. 1). All these are quite difficult questions that researchers in Africa and the problems of backwardness have long been trying to solve, but only partially successfully.

To conclude, in modern conditions, unlike the era of European imperialism, financial capital is no longer a decisive force in international political and economic relationships. In spite of the economic weaknesses, many newly-free countries support the international labor movement and the national liberation movement, providing the contribution to political independence. The important changes leading to the release from a dependent position have also occurred in countries in which imperialism has largely retained its political and economic control.

The national states that emerged during the liquidation of the colonial system tend to pursue peaceful, anti-imperialist, and anti-colonialist policies, playing an important role in modern international relations and establishing the principles of coexistence.

References

Black Mans Land  White Mans Country PT. 1. YouTube, uploaded by Dre Jordan. 2018. Web.

Chamberlain, Muriel Evelyn. The Scramble for Africa. 3rd ed. Routledge, 2010.

Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. United Nations Human Rights.

Laumann, Dennis. Colonial Africa, 1884-1994. Oxford University Press, 2013.

Nkrumah, Kwame. I Speak of Freedom. Marxists. 

Reynolds, Jonathan T. Sovereignty and Struggle: Africa and Africans in the Era of the Cold War, 1945-1994. Oxford University Press, 2015.

The study of newspaper advertisements in the colonial territories helps to draw detailed conclusions about the lifestyle of women in the 18th century. The essential proclamation of the bourgeois revolution, adopted in 1776, did not include women among those who have unalienable rights as human beings, liberty, and the common good. Many years before the Declaration of Rights and Liberties, they were sentenced to complete disenfranchisement. Generations of mid-18th-century American women fought hard to secure their minimal civil liberties for decades to come. These events have had a dramatic impact on the life of the United States today. Women became full members of society and also organized several movements for the freedom of law. The au pair job postings offer an assessment of what basic criteria were essential and sufficient for hiring. Most of the advantages presented in advertising are discriminatory.

The first paragraph contains offers of the services of a young black girl. The main attributes presented in the ad are age, race, work experience, and place of residence. While the last two may be necessary to work, the reference to skin color and age is racist and anti-aging (Eliza Lucas Pinckney 80). The second advertisement offered the domestic services of a young Scottish girl. Critically analyzing the paragraph, it can be said with certainty that the authors considered it necessary to indicate age, race, and nationality, which is a manifestation of discrimination.

Nevertheless, the second letter mentions the personal qualities of a girl. The authors noted that she is a thoroughly honest girl (Eliza Lucas Pinckney 80). This indicates that the degree of stereotypical perception of the image of girls was different from European countries, as a set of character traits, independent of gender or race, became an important criterion. It is important to note that a similar phenomenon is also evident in the modern US. Society has not been completely freed from stereotypes, so in advertisements for domestic work, the nationality of the worker and their gender are still essential criteria.

To summarize, women have come a long way in overcoming inequality and gaining freedom, but gender inequality is still an issue. However, they had relatively greater economic freedom than European society and were perceived through the prism of essential social determinants of colonial times. Thus, an analysis of these ads in the North Carolina newspapers shows that women have gone through severe legal trials that helped them achieve equality.

Work Cited

Eliza Lucas Pinckney. Letters of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739-1762. University The South Carolina Press, 1997. pp. 78-86.

Introduction

The gender-based violations and crimes against female citizens may consist of emotional, physical, sensual, and sexual abuse. This problem is considered a severe obstacle towards the enjoyment of fundamental human rights by women internationally and is strongly condemned in developed countries. Femicide is the murder of women, usually following the violence solely on the basis of their gender. This particular criminal action against women is of remarkable importance because of its severity and spread (Liu and Fullerton 4261). Mexico takes first place among the countries by the number of criminal records recognized as femicides (Lopez 163). This is why the term was first introduced in this country, later extending to other nations with similar illegal tendencies. The reasons for these statistics could be historical prerequisites bringing the present social mindset and resulting in current circumstances. This paper will apply intersectional and feminist analysis to carefully consider the effects of colonialism on todays power structure in Mexico.

Main body

The history of colonialism directly affected the problem of equality in Mexico. In the era of New Spain, the racial hierarchy was assembled in the way that white people were considered superior, while Indian, African, and mixed individuals were discriminated against. Fortunately, this fact did not hinder the development of local artistic directions, which nowadays can be seen as evidence of past events. Katzew analyzed this social structuring in her work about casta painting (51). She also highlighted that the pieces of art could be considered as confirmation of racial segregation (Katzew 143). As a result, the women and sexual minorities of the victimized nations experienced more pressure than those of Europeans (Kempadoo 18). There are known instances of racial femicide when the enslaved women were treated as objects of sexual desires and killed afterward because of defiance (Ellman and Goodman 81). In the past, white women generally tended to be more accepted and protected because of the higher level of respect towards them due to their race. This tendency is conserved up until the present, making racial femicide a topical problem in Mexico.

Aside from that, there is strongly marked gender inequality evidence in Mexico, resulting in unfair distribution of social roles and violence against women solely because of their gender characteristics. It should be noted that until the 1990s, the female unemployment rate was incredibly high compared to those numbers for the male population (Liu and Fullerton 4265). The consideration of men as breadwinners for families has emerged into a lessening of the importance of woman imaging and dismissive treatment towards them (Lopez 167). Although today, females are employed more than in the past, they experience fewer rights compared to their male counterparts and severe violations of their labor powers (Liu and Fullerton 4270). Economic inequities demonstrate the diminishing of the role of females in the community flowing into the vast discrimination.

The gender inequality in the workplace can be observed in Maquiladora, which is the name for the factories inherent to Latin American countries. The women population of Mexico started working in these plants after the Mexican currency devaluation crisis at the end of the last century. Since then, the employees are discriminated against according to their gender characteristics. Men workers in this type of institution are often employed for management, supervision, and engineering positions (Maldonado-Macias et al. 210). At the same time, female representatives are given only low-skill jobs. They do not have the opportunity to earn the same salary as their male counterparts (Maldonado-Macias et al. 214). Moreover, feminine workers are also segregated according to their age, whereas young women are generally employed in factories with better working conditions (Liu and Fullerton 4267). Despite numerous injuries women acquire in the workplace, Maquiladora usually does not report the accidents, which helps the owners not to compensate. Besides unequal treatment, women experience sexual harassment from their employers (Lopez 164). It should be noted that the treatment of operators in these working places is very close to that in the colonial era. The nature of the violence can be attributed to the countrys historical features (Kempadoo 169). All of these factors contribute to the development of the situation with femicides in Mexico as Maquiladora is the tool of oppression female population.

The significant consequence of such financial oppression is the dependence of the female part of the society on the male members for a living. The economic pressure in the families is often the motive for males to feel dominancy and express their violent and despotic character, even though not the reason for it. The named situation is the case not only for marginalized communities but also for well-off families. There was evidence of gender violence and femicides when the subjects of the crimes were women from different social classes and income levels (Liu and Fullerton 4263). This fact attributes to the conclusion that women generally suffer from tyranny, which in turn emerges into the murder of women crimes.

Apart from that, inequality and unfair treatment of different gender representatives can be observed in other social constituents. Women are treated differently in the medical sphere, where officials considerably neglect instances of violent treatment and do not disclose them to law enforcement agencies. Moreover, the legislative institutions themselves ignore the reports of crimes against women or decide to accuse the victim herself. These factors indicate a dangerous level of discrimination not to take into account the usual persecution of sufferers in case of sharing their stories with the public. Chasing women is not followed by punishment, which makes the situation even worse and spread over time. Despite the adoption of protective laws, the lack of their practical implementation results in the fact that the problem persists to develop further, resulting from the abusive mentality of the society.

The past events that occurred in Mexico also significantly affected the development of sexuality in this region. The cultural legacies and traditions of different nations and races were combined, bringing new inherent and individual identity to the Mexican people. This tendency has impacted the reproductive arrangements changing the notions of the concept mentioned above. Consequently, the ideas are substantially different from Western ideals allowing diversity, polygamy, homosexual and bisexual practices. Although these instances are more applicable to disempowered and criminalized communities, their effect on the deterioration of the situation with femicides cannot be neglected. As Kempadoo (2004) has noted, the women resist the traditional oppressive and exploitative nature of masculine dominance by struggling against it in different social class structures, including marginal sexual spaces. There were also cases of lesbicide when women were killed based on their sexual orientation and gender (Ellman and Goodman 134). Frequently, victims are battered and discriminated against when trying to access the justice system. Henceforth, in regards to sexuality, there is evidence for the oppression of women and sexual minorities.

As mentioned above, Mexicos judiciary structure is positioned against the female part of the society, neglecting the criminal records against them. The legislative regulations which are directed at the protection of womens rights are not implemented thoroughly. Further, law-enforcement agencies do not exhibit the behavior of protecting women against their oppressors. The reason for that is the patriarchal social mindset, which states that women are accusable if they are the subject of violence because of their inappropriate actions and behavior. As a result, military structures do not support the victims, but on the contrary, they exhibit more pressure on them. Although there are initiatives to investigate the instances of femicides in detail or at least without bias and corruption, they are hardly achieved through international media coverage. Moreover, only numerous crime records are checked, which leaves many cases neglected.

Today the situation of femicide shows the deteriorating tendency in Mexico. The rates for femicide are considerably growing, making up 145 percent in 2019 compared to 2015. It should also be noted that the figures are undercounted because some states do not consider femicide an individual crime. It is hard to adequately assess the present situation as the institutions in Mexico do not provide fully reliable statistical information (Lopez 169). The absence of records of victims impedes knowing the real magnitude of the case.

Furthermore, given the pandemic circumstances, more women face domestic violence, which often has detrimental consequences in the form of female murder.

Since the society does not support the victims in Mexico, and governmental structures are positioned against women too, the situation does not seem to improve (Ellman and Goodman 45). The social structures accuse the women of their inappropriate style of clothing, behavior, and appearance, making the victims feel ashamed of what happened to them (Liu and Fullerton 4268). Ignorance of the people surrounding those women brings them closer to death because of a lack of support and care. As intimate partner femicide is the most common type of this crime, the victims tend to be too troubled with their feelings to report anything (Lopez 177). The impunity only contributes to the deterioration of the case as the murderers do not feel tremendous pressure caused by their deeds.

Conclusion

To conclude, femicide is an ongoing problem in Mexican society that has its roots in the countrys history, traditional mentality, and social structure. Colonialism left the discriminatory culture in the region, which resulted in inequality among the inhabitants, including women. Furthermore, gender inequality is the problem of not only the past but also the present as there are no effective measures for its prevention. In addition to that, the oppression of female constituents of the community is observed in the economic part of life too. A maquiladora is one of the institutions that have been using the feminine workforce in heavy physical labor. Unfortunately, law enforcement agencies do not take responsibility for the implementation of protective laws, thus fostering impunity. Women are also prosecuted for their sexual orientation, which is called lesbicide. It indicates a dangerous level of non-inclusiveness and human rights violations in Mexican society.

References

Ellman, Paula, and Nancy Goodman, editors. The Courage to Fight Violence Against Women: Psychoanalytic and Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Routledge, 2017.

Katzew, Ilona. Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-Century Mexico. Yale University Press, 2004.

Kempadoo, Kamala. Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, Race, and Sexual Labor. Routledge, 2004.

Liu, Yu, and Thomas Jr. Fullerton. Evidence from Mexico on Social Status and Violence against Women. Applied Economics, vol. 47, no. 40, 2015, pp. 4260-4274.

Lopez, Angela. Femicide and Gender Violence in Mexico: Elements for a Systemic Approach. The Age of Human Rights Journal, vol. 12, 2019, pp. 158-183.

Maldonado-Macías, Aide, et al. Job Strain Index by Gender Among Middle and High Managers of the Maquiladora Industry in Ciudad Juarez Mexico. Advances in Manufacturing, Production Management and Process Control, edited by Waldemar Karwowski, Stefan Trzcielinski, and Beata Mrugalska, Springer, 2020, pp. 209-218.