Africa is a continent that consists of more than fifty countries, which were almost all dependent on others until decolonization. This event occurred from 1950 to 1975 and caused developments in Africa and the entire world. Eventually, European empires lost control over their colonies, and this shift is acknowledged as a progressive one. This personal statement will examine changes that resulted in African countries independence and provide my opinion regarding regions decolonized in another way.
The Way by Which African Countries Became Independent
The variety of internal and external reasons caused independence from European colonization powers for Africa. In February 1941, Franklin Roosevelt, the United States president, suggested a number of provisions, one of which was the autonomy of imperial colonies after the Second World War (Jeppesen & Smith, 2017). This statement was a part of the Atlantic Charter and the reason for African colonies to request their independence from European countries.
Decolonizations internal cause is a sociopolitical situation that occurred before and during the Second World War. Despite European empires efforts to suppress the African communitys self-determination, some individuals spread the ideas of independence gaining (Jeppesen & Smith, 2017). In addition, colonizers were distracted by the wars events and unable to keep strict control over their territories because of the lack of resources (Jeppesen & Smith, 2017). The mentioned evidence shows that the European countries influence weakened, and African nationalists negotiated decolonization on the Atlantic Charter basis.
My Personal Opinion About Independency of the African Countries
Despite the minor resistance most colonies met on their way to independence, I believe that some countries overcame the challenges of military conflicts. Kenia, Algeria, Zimbabwe, Angola, Mozambique, and Namibia sacrificed significantly as many of their citizens were repressed during the decolonization movement (Jeppesen & Smith, 2017). After a number of confrontations and thousands of victims, European forces had to leave colonies territories. Most African countries obtained independence through negotiations, but not the regions mentioned above.
Conclusion
Decolonization of Africa is a significant event that occurred after the Second World War. The president of the United States contributed to independence gaining through the suggesting the Atlantic Charter. Together with the European countries weakened control over the occupied territories, it resulted in colonies liberation. From my perspective, some regions did not experience the discussed method of decolonization as they met military conflict and sacrificed many people.
Reference
Jeppesen, C., & Smith, A. (2017). Britain, France and the decolonization of Africa: Future imperfect? UCL Press.
The issues of Orientalism by Edward Said and post-colonialism by Homi K. Bhabha are regarded to be the similar views o geo-politics, philosophy, history and culture of the Eastern region. The fact is that, these views represent similar ideas, however they contradict each other in some moments, that are essential for the clear interpretation and implementation of these considerations. Both emphasize the shared cultural and national identities, however the suggestions to overcome the consequences of colonial past are different in the very basis. Orientalism and Nation and Narration both touch upon the historical origin of Oriental cultures, however Nation and Narration by Bhabha gets much deeper in history and aims to analyze the pre-colonial period. The key concept of geo-political approaches here is in the realization of neo-Marxist view of the world structure: the states should aim to be the center, while most of them stay in the semi-periphery of the world system.
Introduction
To begin with, it is necessary to mention, that the studies of Orientalism and post-colonialism often differ, and contradict each other in some particular moments. Originally, Orientalism is the division of philosophical, historical, cultural and political studies, that relate the place and the role of the Eastern countries in the world politics, and the lives of the other countries all over the world. This approach mainly regards the Eastern countries as the former colonies of the European states, and argues on the matters of the contemporary Islamic culture, that plays significant role in shaping the security principles, fuel price politics and the military regulation processes.
Homi K. Bhabhas position stands for the post-colonial issues, and claims that former colonies is the homogeneous block of the states, that should unite, and act jointly. The key principle of his studies is that all the national differences of the ex-colonies are artificial, and should be eliminated. He makes the particular emphasis on the antagonism between the colonizers and the colonized.
Saids Orientalism
Originally, the historians, and the other scholars who are linked with history, base most of the premises and principles on the Saids Orientalism, that was issued in 1978. Still, it stays actual, and it is claimed, that in some measure it is forecasting. Edward Said mainly concentrates on the issues of Occident and Orient, that he regards as the key concepts of the Europe and East relations. Occident is the term used for the West the States that are linked the most with the Middle East (France, Great Britain and the USA). Orient is the romantic and misunderstood Middle East and Far East.
Said argues that the Western states have shaped the specific attitude towards the East, and this attitude is featured with racism and prejudice. These states are often backward and absolutely unaware of their history and culture. To fill this hole, the West has shaped a culture and potential promise. This is the key premise not only for the studies of the Orient, but also for the issues of political imperialism of Europe in the East.
Edward Said once stated the following: Unlike the Americans, the French and Britishless so the Germans, Russians, Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, and Swisshave had a long tradition of what I shall be calling Orientalism, a way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orients special place in European Western Experience. The Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europes greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the Other. In addition, the Orient has helped to define Europe (or the West) as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience. Yet none of this Orient is merely imaginative. The Orient is an integral part of European material civilization and culture. Orientalism expresses and represents that part culturally and even ideologically as a mode of discourse with supporting institutions, vocabulary, scholarship, imagery, doctrines, even colonial bureaucracies and colonial styles (Said, 1979).
This Orientalist approach claims, that there is continual Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo-Islamic nations and their culture. Said stated, that the tradition of European imagining of the Eastern countries in the romantic viewpoint served as the essential justification of the European and American colonial and imperial ambitions. Said equally denounces the Arab historians, philosophers and political scientists, who internalized the American and European Orientalist ideas of pan-Arabic culture, as the object of colonial ambitions. Thus, in 1980 Said accused the world (particularly the Western world) in poor realization of the Arab culture:
So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists. Very little of the detail, the human density, the passion of Arab-Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people whose profession it is to report the Arab world. What we have instead is a series of crude, essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression (Said, 1979).
Homi Bhabha
Bhabha is one of the leading scientists of political philosophy, and the Orientalist sphere who supports the postcolonial theory. His work of Oriental post colonialism is essentially impacted by the post structuralism. Thus, in his Nation and Narration Bhabha challenges the trend to support the claim, that post-colonial States should be regarded as the homogenous block. Consequently, it leads to the notion, that ex-colonial region should share the same identity.
Bhabha claims, that the nationhood of the Oriental countries is mainly artificial. This viewpoint is explained in the concept, that the colonial dominance is ambivalent, as on the one hand the colonizers benefited from the colonies, and on the other hand they were afraid of the concealed power and might of the Oriental peoples. This explains the dilemma of most post-colonial states: they have enough resources to start living independently; however, they got used to live under someones regulation, and feel like a nestling that learns to fly.
One of his central works Nation and Narration challenges the realities of the notion of nationhood as it is lived in the essential ambivalence of some approaches, that are used to explain the central concepts of post colonialism, and define the reasons of the shared identity. Originally, these ambivalences cause the most contradictions with the Edward Saids views on the Oriental national identity and post-colonial traditions (Bhabha, 1990).
Thus, it is necessary to mention, that the imitation of the authority and power of colonial conversation is rather deep. The ambivalence that features the strategy of explaining the power of colonial authority in Bhabhas works is rather obvious. Thus in Lockes Second Treatise, that reveals the restrictions of freedom in the double use of the term slave: first use is descriptive as the position of a genuine form of possession, then as the trope for an unbearable, illegitimate implementation of power. Consequently, the term power may be used in different senses, and this encourages the ambivalence in the interpretation of the central terms of the studies.
Bhabha argues, that all the nation with colonial history should act jointly, and share the only aims in the internal and external politics. The key concept of the study, that all the national differences are artificial is supported by the Alexander Humboldts geo-political work of creating the buffer states in the Oriental region. Thus, Humboldt offered to create Pakistan in order to separate India and the Arab world (Zimmerer, 2006). Another thesis is that the most states share the only culture (either Hindu or Arab), that should unite the peoples, end encourage the joint action on the world arena. The fact is that, these conclusions have the rational ground, however the cultural similarity is not enough for the unification, as even the Latin American states do not wish to share the national identity ideas, while the issues of pan-Americanism are better developed, then the issues of pan-Orientalism (Bhabha, 1994).
Contradictions
Taking into account the key premises of Saids Orientalism and Bhabhas post-colonialism it is necessary to mention, that originally these two views are similar. It is stated, that the ideas of pan-Orientalism are not essentially developed, and the authors do not claim to develop them. However, they try to shape the powerful national identity, based on the clear realization of culture and history of the Oriental states, and overcoming of colonial remains, that are sometimes met in the minds. They both accuse the elites of their cultural regions in shaping the national identity on the colonialist views, though, they contradict each other in the use and explanation of the term power. Bhabha describes it from the viewpoint of slavery, while Said argues on the meaning of influence (explaining, that colonizers just heavily influenced the policy of the colonies).
From the historical point of view it is necessary to mention, that Bhabha claims to address the periods of Roman empire, that united the Oriental territories (contemporary Turkey) and Europe. He argues, that the empire united the nations, and was the sample of strict order and discipline. From his point of view, this model should be transmitted to the contemporary Eastern region, and the peoples should unite. Said, in his turn, claims, that the there is no necessity to unite, as the national identity is not the most essential factor, however, it is necessary to shape the self realization of the Arab world and undermine the colonial ways of thinking, and self identification as an ex-colony.
Taking into account the geo-political matters of Orientalism and post-colonialism, it is necessary to mention, that the creation buffer states and the unification under the ideas of pan-Orientalism are regarded to be the extremely opposite ideas, that may equally harm the successful development and the welfare of the countries. However, Bhabha, in his Nation and Narration argues, that the shared identity is the future of the Eastern world, as Europe split the colonies in order to weaken them, and benefit from the sever exploitation. Said, in his turn, argues, that the in spite of the shared identity and common colonial history, the countries should live their own lives, as the attempt to unite is just the attempt to correct the mistake of half millennium remoteness. This is absolutely unnecessary, as the history goes ahead, and there is no time to correct these mistakes.
It is necessary to emphasize, that both Orientalists forget about the Wallersteins neo-Marxist world structure, that regards the world as the center, semi-periphery and periphery. The states will never be able to unite (neither politically, nor economically) while they are in different spheres of this structure (Kasaba, Wallerstein, 1991).
Conclusion
In conclusion it is necessary to emphasize, that the views by Homi K. Bhabha and Edward Said can not be regarded as too different. The extent to which they contradict each other is related only to the issues of overcoming the colonial remains in the minds, policy and ambitions of the countries. The fact is that, both emphasize the necessity to live for the future for the welfare of the countries, however different are only the measures and tools of achieving this welfare. The issues of Orientalism touch upon the relations with Europe all over the history, while post colonialism is associated only with the sorrows and weakness, that featured the States of Middle and Far East during the colonial period.
References
Bhabha, H.K. (1990) Nation and narration Routledge publishing
Bhabha, H.K. (1994) The Location of Culture Routledge publishing
Brody, D. (2003). The Shifting Lens: Orientalism and Representations of Chinatown. Art Journal, 62(3), 107
Kasaba, R. & Wallerstein, I. (Eds.). (1991). Cities in the World-System: Studies in the Political Economy of the World-System. New York: Greenwood Press.
Said. E (1979) Orientalism Vintage; 1st Vintage Books ed edition
Zimmerer, K. S. (2006). Humboldt and the History of Environmental Thought. The Geographical Review, 96(3), 456
The history of humanity is the record of inventions and discoveries made in different periods in its development. In this record, the discoveries of new lands, islands, and continents take a special place as far as they widened the knowledge of the human beings about the Earth and added to the shaping of modern society. Discoveries, such as Columbus discovery of America, have also contributed to the development of the economies of numerous states and impacted the progress of sciences and technology. The discovery of Australia by James Cook is another significant event in the worlds history because it both completed the geographical maps of the world and gave birth to one of the most original and culturally rich nations the Australians. The focus of this paper will cover the initial stages of the development of the Australian colony of New South Wales in the period between 1788 and 1792. This paper will examine the major concerns and preoccupations that the colonizers faced in their settling and working on the newly discovered land, including their internal issues, exploration of nature, unknown diseases, conflicts with the native inhabitants of the continent, etc.
Background
To begin with, it is necessary to briefly recollect the background of the period under consideration. First of all, the late 18th century was the time when all the possible geographical discoveries were thought to have been made. Fleets of such colonialist countries as Great Britain, France, Spain, and others explored the seas and oceans discovered looking for some islands where they could either get additional labor force in the form of slaves or obtain access to the natural riches or launch the markets to sell their products. Australia became the last geographical discovery of global importance and served Great Britain not only according to the above-enumerated needs but also as an exile place where numerous dangerous criminals from the United Kingdom were sent. However, both the military forces of Great Britain and the criminals they were sent to supervise were further directed at one joint aim an exploration of the new land in order to develop the appropriate conditions for living and building a civilized society. To civilize the native inhabitants of Australia on the whole and New South Wales, in particular, was one of the major tasks set for the explorers. As a result, this aim posed serious challenges for the latter, and they will be discussed in the following passages.
Major Concerns
Natives
The first concern that the settlers of New South Wales had to deal with after their arrival from Great Britain was the issue of establishing contacts with the native inhabitants of the area. However, at the initial stages of the development of these contacts, the natives demonstrated their hostility and reluctance to accept the proposed friendship or adjust to any customs of the newcomers: Unabated animosity continued to prevail between the natives and us: in addition to former losses, a soldier and several convicts suddenly disappeared and were never afterward heard of. Three convicts were also wounded, and one killed by them, near Botany Bay: similar to the vindictive spirit which Mr. Cook found to exist among their countrymen at Endeavour River, they more than once attempted to set fire to combustible matter, in order to annoy us. (Tench, Ch. 2)
The conflicts with the native inhabitants of New South Wales ranged from the separate attacks they undertook to cause damage to the British forces to the kidnapping of soldiers and civilians and killing them in a violent manner. The exploration of the unknown areas of New South Wales was also connected with the contacts with natives. Examining the areas of Botany Bay and trying to find the unknown rivers that should have marked the borders with China, the British soldiers were subject to violent attacks of the natives and had to seek ways to regulate their relations with the latter. When nothing predicted the possible improvements in the relations with the native inhabitants of New South Wales, the manifestations of friendship and goodwill assisted the British colonizers in this problem. The examples of the natives, who were civilized, learned English, and lived in accordance with the European customs showed the Indians that the newcomers were not on their territory to hurt. Missions were created consisting of the colonizers and the civilized natives to be sent to the settlements of the Indians, and soon an intercourse with the natives was about to commence (Tench, Ch. 9)
After these improvements, the native Australians became the assistants to the colonizers in their concerns about the exploration of the new land, finding out the specific features of flora and fauna of New South Wales, and naming the discovered phenomena in accordance with their native words. Thus, the peaceful cooperation of the European colonizers and the native inhabitants of New South Wales provided for the successful civilizing of the area.
Internal Problems
One of the major groups of concerns that the explorers of New South Wales faced could be observed in the internal structure of their Military Corps. As it has already been mentioned, the forces of the people who settled in New South Wales consisted of both convicts and soldiers sent to control them. As a result, numerous misunderstandings between the two sides of the same group of people sprung out from time to time. These conflicts resulted in robberies conducted by the convicts who escaped from the camps where they were held: &hardly a night passing without the commission of robbery (Tench, Ch. 4). To fight these issues, the military authorities had to introduce the system of guards selected from the number of the most reliable convicts, who had to patrol the camps and residences of all the soldiers and convicts in it. Also, the system of tattoos was established to mark the time after which no one was allowed to walk the camp. All the violators of this rule were arrested and tried according to the martial laws. The guardians themselves were under the severe control of the authorities: Any negligence on the part of those who shall be employed on this duty will be punished with the utmost rigor of the law. (Tench, Ch. 5)
Moreover, the convicts used to rebel against the authority in an open way and settle their disputes with natives violently: Sixteen convicts left their work at the brick-kilns without leave, and marched to Botany Bay, with a design to attack the natives, and to plunder them of their fishing-tackle and spears: they had armed themselves with their working tools and large clubs (Tench, Ch. 3). In this case, the natives managed to defend themselves against the violence of the convicts, but the very presence of such facts was a rather troublesome sign for the British authorities in New South Wales.
Finally, the internal issues were observed among the sailors of the British Navy in New South Wales: Six marines, the flower of our battalion, were hanged by the public executioner, on the sentence of a criminal court, composed entirely of their own officers, for having at various times robbed the public stores of flour, meat, spirits, tobacco, and many other articles (Tench, Ch. 3). These cases are closely connected with the next group of challenges faced by the first settlers of New South Wales. People could not adjust to the climatic conditions and natural environment, which caused them to starve and look for any means to feed themselves.
Exploration
Thus, exploration of the natural resources of the continent discovered was another major concern of the British settlers. The inability to initially adjust to the conditions of the local environment, the supposed impossibility to cultivate the usual European corms and seeds and the inappropriate climatic conditions of the continent made the European settlers suffer a lot during the period between 1788 and 1792. The continent presented no facilities for the comfortable life and work, and the first settlers considered New South Wales to be hostile to the newcomers: We were eager to escape from tents, where a fold of canvas, only, interposed to check the vertical beams of the sun in summer, and the chilling blasts of the south in winter. (Tench, Ch. 1)
Moreover, the attempts of the settlers to cultivate certain grain types of vegetables in New South Wales turned out to be failing. The soil was not so fertile as in Europe and demanded additional fertilizers to produce at least minimal crops. As the fertilizers were not available in the area, the settlers had to leave the idea for the better times: Almost the whole of the officers likewise accepted of small tracts of ground, for the purpose of raising grain and vegetables: but experience proved to us, that the soil would produce neither without manure; and as this was not to be procured, our vigor soon slackened; and most of the farms (among which was the one belonging to government) were successively abandoned. (Tench, Ch. 1)
Drawing from this, the soldiers who had to practice their martial skills were involved in agricultural, and building works in order to create the basis for the further development of civilization in New South Wales. Needless to say, incessant toil and lack of the proper food caused numerous diseases among the new settlers (Tench, Ch. 1). Some of them were introduced by the newcomers, while others were the usual Australian illnesses conditioned by the incompatibility of the organisms of the newcomers and the food and environment observed in New South Wales.
Diseases
Thus, diseases constituted a substantial part of the concerns of the new settlers in New South Wales. The first manifestations of the health problems that Europeans had in Australia were the deaths of hundreds of sailors either during their passages to the continent or in hospitals after their arrival to New South Wales. Moreover, climatic conditions of such regions as Batavia, New South Wales, and others were hostile to human health. Numerous soldiers and civilians died of fevers caused by unusually low temperatures observed in those times in the harbor of Sydney, Rose Hill, and some other regions of the colony.
At the same time, the most serious preoccupation that the settlers had to deal with was the fighting with the smallpox epidemic that burst out in New South Wales in April 1789. The British soldiers found numerous Indians dead of the unknown disease that suddenly appeared as the major threat to the population of New South Wales. All the symptoms of the illness reminded the ones of smallpox, but but how a disease, to which our former observations had led us to suppose them, strangers, could at once have introduced itself, and have spread so widely, seemed inexplicable. (Tench, Ch. 4) The pictures of the epidemics were really horrifying, especially for the people that had arrived on this land several months ago. Arabanoo, one of the natives adjusted to living among the European settlers, is reported to die from smallpox, but he was not the only victim. The epidemic touched upon the European settlers, as well as led to the deaths of the prominent military officers who served in the British Navy in Australia.
On the whole, the smallpox epidemics took the lives of thousands of people all over the newly discovered continent: Here they found an old man stretched before a few lighted sticks, and a boy of nine or ten years old pouring water on his head, from a shell which he held in his hand: near them lay a female child dead,and a little farther off, its unfortunate mother& (Tench, Ch. 4)
Conclusion
To conclude, it is obvious that the first colonizers of Australia had numerous concerns and preoccupations in New South Wales in the period between 1788 and 1792. The major concerns consisted in establishing friendly relations with natives, overcoming their hostility, and civilizing them. Moreover, the British colonizers were preoccupied with exploring the natural environment and discovering the natural resources of the continent. Finally, the colonizers had the development of the appropriate infrastructure of the area for further living in it as their major concern. Dealing with these preoccupations and facing severe challenges, the first New South Wales settlers were happy to leave it in 1792, but their contribution to its development is difficult to overestimate. The years considered can be called the formative years in Australian history as the first colonizers put the basis for the further development of the country and its formation into an independent nation of today.
Works Cited
Tench, Watkin. A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson. 1792. Free Read. Web.
The colonization of the indigenous peoples of America by the British and Spaniards had a tremendous impact not only on political, social and economic aspects but also on education. For the most part, this contribution was highly negative, and in a reasonably short time, the invasion of foreigners completely transformed the lives of the indigenous population. Decentralization and many laws played a unique role, which completely suppressed the indigenous culture and reduced its importance in the educational process of the population. The colonization contributed to significant changes in the education system, negatively impacting the life of the indigenous population, as shown in numerous studies, providing quality information about the missionaries, boarding schools and reduction of superstitions in the process of studying.
The British and Spanish Colonization of the Indigenous of America
During the years of the invasion by the British and Spaniards of the Native American peoples, there were many revolutionary sentiments and battles that greatly shocked both sides. Research states that education was both a target and tool of colonialism, destroying and diminishing the validity and legitimacy of Indigenous education (Pihama and Lee-Morgan 19). This aspect greatly influenced the educational system, which had its own peculiar features. Before the arrival of foreigners on their lands, the indigenous population spoke many different languages and was characterized by a wide range of views and beliefs and ways of life. The basis of the educational process was ceremonies and the transfer of cultural traditions and superstitions.
As for the English introduction to the territory of indigenous peoples, it mostly carried an oppressive mood. At the same time, despite this actions negative results, it also had several positive features. Hence, there have been significant changes in the education of people; that is, there has been a modernization of the system for studying information about the surrounding world. As a result of this factor, people began to believe less in predictions and the supernatural and found a more logical approach to life.
The book by Reyhner and Eder called American Indian Education has made an instrumental contribution to the study of the topic, as it describes the process of assimilation of European immigrants to North America. This process occurred through the school systems transformation and how the indigenous population reacted to them. Thus, the importance of new missionaries and boarding schools, which were created to spread and strengthen the Christian religion and bring civility into society, is noted. Authors state that the rapid erosion of traditional culture by immersing students in an all-English environment in boarding schools often led to cultural disintegration, not cultural replacement (Reyhner and Eder 5). Attention was also paid to agricultural training for the mass use of indigenous labor. The Spanish colonization carried with it the goal of further spreading Christianity in education. Despite the fact that, like the English introduction, it had negative consequences for the indigenous population, exhausting them with work, the Spaniards considered it necessary to transform the American people.
Conclusion
Therefore, the central colonization on the part of the Spanish and English people had a remarkable impact on the education of the indigenous population of America. First of all, it limited the influence of the supernatural on people, which played a significant role in their educational system. Moreover, the Christian religion was constantly spread through missionaries and boarding schools. At the same time, it is worth emphasizing that the negative consequences still prevailed and seriously affected the general way of life of the indigenous population, destroying their cultural heritage.
Works Cited
Pihama, Leonie, and Jenny Lee-Morgan. Colonization, Education, and Indigenous Peoples. Handbook of Indigenous Education, 2019, 19-27.
Reyhner, Jon and Jeanne Eder. American Indian Education. The University of Oklahoma Press, 2017.
Higher education was introduced in the united states even before the nation became a sovereign state.
Most of the early settlers of New England were alumni of established universities in the United Kingdom from universities like Cambridge and Oxford (Tobin and Kincheloe, 2006).
These individuals felt that education is an essential aspect of life and thus advocated for the development of institutions of higher education.
This led to the establishment of Harvard.
By the end of the 19th Century, there were nine Universities in the United States that are now referred to as colonial colleges (Baker, 2000).
At the present moment, institutions of higher education form a strong basis of the economy and culture of the United States.
There are approximately 4000 renowned institutions of higher education that have enrolled over 15 million students (Baker, 2000).
Annually, approximately 2,000 students graduate with various diplomas and degrees in the nation (Baker, 2000).
The experience that students have received while in these institutions may have changed with time but is tremendous.
To determine this, I interviewed a university student, Steven Jones from the Texas A&M University and compared his experience with that of colonial colleges.
Educational Context
The educational context of colonial colleges was concrete (Thelin, 2007).
Students enrolled in practical courses that improved their knowledge on the physical world.
The curriculum emphasized more on practical work that theory.
There were also a number of programs funded by affiliate institutions that students were involved in.
The educational context of modern universities is still concrete.
However, Jones felt that the curriculum is currently emphasizing on the theoretical aspect of education than the practical aspect.
Just like colonial colleges, modern universities have research programs which students can that are funded by the government and other private institutions.
Modern universities spend approximately $26 billion annually on research and development (Baker, 2000).
Student Culture
There is a slight difference in the culture and students way of life in colonial colleges and modern universities.
In colonial colleges, students were referred to as scholars.
Through their dressing, it was possible to differentiate scholars from other individuals in the society.
It was also possible to differential scholars of different levels.
Buildings in these institutions have ancient architectural designs mainly from the romantic period.
In modern colleges, students are also referred to as scholars.
However, they do not have a special code of dressing. It is thus impossible to differential students of different academic levels and students from other members of the society.
Students also have the culture of drinking and parting which happened rarely in colonial colleges.
From the interview, Jones stated that the people of his age group now dress with fashion and were involved in activities that would make them look cool.
Most of the buildings found in these institutions have modern architectural designs.
Recreation Activities
It is essential for any institution to have recreation activities.
During the colonial era and the early years of self rule in the United States, colonial colleges mainly used arts as the main form of recreation activity.
This included performing arts such as symphony orchestra, drama, opera and poetry.
Modern universities also embrace recreational activities like colonial colleges.
Modern universities however embrace sports over performing arts.
This may be due to the formulation and development of different forms of sports in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Sports such as football, basketball, baseball, soccer and hockey are among the leading activities that students are involved in (Ellsworth, 2005).
Jones, for instance was a basketball player. He had played basketball while at Junior High and wishes to be drafted in the NBA on his senior year.
Campus Administration
There are some differences in the manner in which colonial institutions are run as compared to modern institutions.
Colonial colleges could only accommodate a small number of scholars. To enroll in these institutions, students had to be of high academic excellence.
These institutions were partly financed by the government hence faced financial constrains.
Finally, these courses offered courses of few disciplines. These included law, medicine and architecture.
Modern universities are run in a relatively different manner.
Despite the fact that only students who have high GPA scores and high school grades get enrolled in these institutions, the number of students which they can accommodate is much higher.
There are a variety of courses that students can choose from ranging from sciences and arts to economics and law.
Finally, the state allocates a higher proportion of its budget to run these institutions. This has improved the quality of higher education through research and development (Ranciere, 1991).
Conclusion
Despite of the changes that are being experienced in higher education, there are a lot of similarities between colonial colleges and modern universities.
These institutions form the base of the American culture and economy.
It is due to this fact that they are highly respected and embraced my the American community.
References
Baker, S. (2000). Factors enhancing sustained use of research-based instructional practices. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33 (5), 445-457.
Ellsworth, E. (2005). Places of Learning: Media, Architecture, Pedagogy. New York: Routledge.
Ranciere, J. (1991). The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation. Stanford: Standford Universtiy.
Thelin, J.R. (2007). A History of American Higher Education. New York: Pearson Custom.
Tobin, K. and Kincheloe, J. (2006). Doing Educational Research: A Handbook. Rotterdam: Sense.
China has one of the fastest growing economies. Since the last half of the 20th century, the Chinas government has undertaken various strategic decisions that have improved the economy of the country significantly. China is currently the second largest economy. China has a huge influence on Africa. Trade ties between Africa and China have increased significantly. China has overtaken the U.S., France, and the U.K. in trading with African countries.
Diplomatic relations of China with Africa have also improved. Time will tell whether China will have a positive or negative influence on Africa. On the other hand, the Spanish colonized Latin America during the end of the 15th century. The Spanish and Portuguese have had a great impact on the culture of Latin Americans. There are several differences and similarities between the Spanish conquest of Latin America and Chinas venture into Africa.
Chinas Strategy in Africa
One might think that economic relations between China and Africa began recently. However, the economic relations started many centuries ago. Currently, China is targeting Africa since Africa is rich in minerals. It is a fact that Africa is one of the continents that have the largest amount of minerals.
Many areas are unexploited. Therefore, China targets areas that are rich in oil, timber, minerals, and cotton. These countries include South Africa, Nigeria, Angola, and Sudan. China also targets areas that have prospects of finding valuable minerals and oil (Rotberg 39). Discovery of oil in Kenya and Uganda has increased Chinas interest in East Africa. China strives to form trade and diplomatic ties with these countries.
China undertakes large-scale structural projects in various African countries. It offers the countries soft loans to undertake the projects. One of the conditions of the soft loans is that the countries should ensure that Chinese contractors would undertake the projects. These projects include construction of roads, dams, airports, and railway lines. These projects facilitate the movement of the natural resources of these countries to China (Shinn and Eisenman 153). In addition, the projects provide China with exploitation and drilling rights.
Africa has a population of slightly more than 1 billion people. This provides China with a large market for its products. China uses a low-cost approach to venture into the African market. The country offers various products at very low prices. This increases the competitiveness of products from China.
Since African countries are low-income countries, cheap manufactured goods from China are in high demand in these countries. The economies of most African countries are developing very fast. Therefore, in the future, Africa countries would provide a large market for various high-end products from china.
Africa exports minerals and raw materials to China. On the other hand, it imports various finished goods from the country. African countries can manufacture some of the products that they import from China. Therefore, importation of finished products from China limits the development of the production capabilities of these countries.
In addition, exporting raw materials and minerals does not add value to the products. This practice makes Africa lose billions of dollars annually. In countries where China undertakes large infrastructural projects, it imports labor and equipment from China. In addition, it does not transfer skills to the local communities. Therefore, the relationship between Africa and China only benefits China. It hinders the development of most African countries.
Chinas government has a policy of not interfering with the local politics of African countries with which it has trade relations. This may be detrimental to the development of the countries. Chinas government may provide loans to dictators in various African countries (Chan, Cheung and Ku 34). In addition, failure to interfere with local politics may make soft loans that the country provides various African countries be beneficial to a few elite politicians.
China has the largest market of ivory. In places where China is undertaking various projects, poaching is usually rampant. In fact, police in various African countries have apprehended Chinese citizens in various airports trying to smuggle ivory and other game products (Gooch 141). Poaching poses a major threat to tourism, which is one of the major economic activities of most African countries.
Spanish Conquest of Latin America
The arrival of Christopher Columbus in America in 1492 marked the beginning of the Spanish conquest of the Americas. Columbus undertook several voyages in search of new lands. Latin America was rich in gold and silver. Therefore, the Spanish conquered the land in an effort to acquire the precious minerals (Saunders 107).
In addition, Latin America was a source of slaves. After returning to Spain from various voyages, Columbus usually carried slaves. He usually sold the slaves in Spain. Latin America had rich agricultural land. The Spanish created slave establishments. They forced the slaves to work on the agricultural land with little or no pay. Several natives refused to work in the farms. They created rebellions that led to guerilla warfare.
One of the major characteristics of European colonization is Christianity. The Spanish strived to convert the natives of Latin America to Christianity. Several Spaniards claimed that they went to Latin America to preach to the natives. The natives usually welcomed people who came to preach in their lands.
The Aztec empire was one of the major empires in Latin America. Spaniards who went to preach to the Aztecs conspired to bring down the empire while pretending to spread the Gospel (Farhadian 154). The effect of the early Spaniards who conquered Latin America is visible up to date. Christianity is the major religion in Latin America.
Differences and Similarities between Spanish and Chinese Colonialism
The search for mineral was the major driving force that made both countries venture into new lands. The Spanish desired to acquire the gold and silver treasures that were in Latin America. On the other hand, the Chinese want oil, minerals, and other raw materials that are abundant in Africa.
The Spanish used force to conquer Latin America. Their weapons were more efficient that the weapons of the natives. Therefore, they conquered them easily. However, the Chinese did not use force to venture into Africa. China uses various means to entice African countries. It gives soft loans to these countries. In addition, it does not interfere with the local politics of these countries. This makes the countries prefer to deal with China instead of Western countries, which usually interfere with the local politics of African countries.
Religion played a major part in the Spanish conquest of Latin America. Spaniards converted Latin Americans to Christianity. On the other hand, China did not use religion to venture into Africa. This has reduced the resistance that China faces in various African countries.
Conclusion
Colonialism has shaped various cultures. Colonialism shaped the Latin American culture. Currently, China is striving to influence various African countries. Time will tell whether China will have a negative or positive impact on these countries.
Works Cited
Chan, Kwok Bun, Tak-Sing Cheung, Agnes S. M. Ku. Chinese capitalisms, Leiden: BRILL, 2007. Print.
Farhadian, Charles E. Introducing world Christianity, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Print.
Rotberg, Robert I. China into Africa: Trade, aid, and influence, Baltimore, MD: Brookings Institution Press, 2009. Print.
Saunders, Nicholas J. The peoples of the Caribbean: An encyclopedia of Caribbean archeology and traditional culture, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Print.
Shinn, David H. and Joshua Eisenman. China and Africa: A century of engagement, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. Print
Decolonization affected the world in many different ways because the process was very long and global. Firstly, we have to say about the direct impact of decolonization on the colonized territories. The partition of the British Indian Empire into independent India and Pakistan provoked a gigantic population swap, with hundreds of thousands of people on both sides dying of starvation. The territorial disputes between the two splinters of British India remain unresolved to this day. In India, the chaos that followed independence was only halted when a Hindu fanatic nearly killed the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi. Today, however, the outcome of British colonial rule in India does not look so unambiguous. From the British, India inherited its parliamentary system, making it the largest democracy in the world . Moreover, thanks in no small part to the mass familiarity of Indians with the language of the colonizers, English, India today has become the worlds center of offshore programming.
Secondly, decolonization has also had a substantial impact on the economic component of the formerly colonized territories. This impact can be seen both positively and negatively in different territories. For instance, Pakistan, a neighboring country to India, can boast of neither a sustainable democracy nor a developed economy. Although, there is the successful Singapore, which has almost completely recovered from colonization and has developed a stable economic system. On the other hand, there is also Zimbabwe, which is currently experiencing an economic disaster. For more than ten years now, Zimbabwe has been going through one economic crisis after another. Therefore, the question of whether colonialism has benefited or harmed the economy of the colonized is unlikely to have a simple and definitive answer, as each case is different.
Finally, it is worth talking about the impact of decolonization on the current political system of the once colonized territories. It can be assumed that the strategy chosen by the metropolis determines the current development of these countries. Where climatic and epidemiological conditions were favorable, Europeans established settlements and stable political institutions, as in Australia or New Zealand. Where the death rate was high, Europeans tended to avoid settling these regions were only of interest to them as a source of resources. Accordingly, a repressive system of government was created, and political institutions were not developed. In addition, an economy focused on the export of resources provided a basis for the formation of corrupt regimes.
Talking about the impact of IT progress is worth noting that information technology has made our lives much easier. After all, it took so much time and effort to calculate economic processes, as many factors affecting the economy were involved. Today, all calculations are performed using computers. In doing so, the results are accurate, and the calculations are made in a matter of seconds. Programs have been created to help bankers and economists. The list could go on ad infinitum, as information technology has penetrated almost all areas of human life. Another area that has been impacted by information technology in education. Teachers at universities and other educational institutions are increasingly practicing the downloading of lectures onto electronic carriers and the practice of the independent study of topics. It is also worth noting the importance of distance learning. People with disabilities now have a chance to get an education.
There is the idea that the evolution of our world is cyclic. Having created some approach or explored a perspective on a certain phenomenon, society recognized its importance and great impact on its further evolution. However, in the course of its development, these notions become forgotten, and new ones appeared. Yet, the great practical use, importance, or cultural significance of a notion precondition the undying interest and existence of a certain group of admirers who want to revive this approach and make it topical again. This tendency is peculiar to all spheres of human activity. Art and design are not an exception. For instance, the way Colonial Gardens were organized became popular again. The movement aimed at the restoration of its unique features was called Colonial Revival garden.
Colonial period
In general, Colonial Gardens could be taken as an integral part of the American Society of the 1600s ( Colonial Revival in America par. 5). Being the main resource base for the most powerful European states, America attracted the attention of noble people who recognized the existence of numerous opportunities for evolution. That is why they created their residences there. Trying to underline their status, aristocrats used beautiful architectural styles and approaches to decorating to create the unique image of their dwellings and gardens. These tendencies contributed to the creation of a unique Colonial Gardens style that became one of the main distinctive features of the American landscapes. It combined the usage of rectilinear beds, pathways through the garden, low hedges to enclose it, and other elements of a decor ( Colonial Revival garden par. 5).
Colonial Revival garden
Thus, the contribution of the given style to the creation of a recognizable image of the American countryside and its impact on the cultural heritage preconditioned the stable interest to this approach. Besides, the Centennial International Exhibition of 1876 that was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania gave rise to a new round of interest to the colonial garden. The movement was peculiar mainly to the eastern United States where colonial heritage was still strong, and people had the need for the restoration of these approaches. It is difficult to outline a single person who could be considered responsible for the reanimation of these tendencies as there was a group of people who wanted to use the patterns peculiar to the past.
Peculiarities
However, being reanimated, it also obtained several new features that changed it in the way it could satisfy the altered needs and demands. Colonial Revival Gardens do not just replicate the landscape and style of actual colonial gardens ( Colonial Gardens par. 3). Yet, they could be considered a kind of their romanticized version that is created to appeal to peoples feelings of nostalgia and belonging to the American culture. However, Colonial Revival gardens still give great attention to direct lines and symmetry. Additionally, there are numerous plants that are typical of the colonial area. They are used to create the atmosphere and emphasize the feeling of the past times that were significant for a state and people.
Conclusion
Altogether, the shift of priorities towards the adherence to the past practices and the renewal of the interest to colonial gardens became an important phenomenon that is known as Colonial Revival Gardens. It tends to satisfy peoples needs for the exploration of the traditional images, the satisfaction of the feeling of nostalgia combined with the adherence to new tendencies and practices. For this reason, its popularity remains high, and people still like this very style.
India is a country of contrasts where European architecture is intricately intertwined with the local styles. It is especially interesting to explore the impact of the British Empire on Indian colonial architecture as the latter one has long been under the impact of the first. In this connection, the research question of the project is to examine the Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture that was established during the British colonization under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901).
Rationale and background of the topic
At the end of the XIX century, people thought that a new era of progress and prosperity governed by the great empires of the world is coming. Each of the most powerful countries began the so-called golden age with the invention of distinct architectural styles and the corresponding greatness of the historical moment1. The British Empire was so great that it had to invent different architectural styles in its different colonial parts. In India, it came up with a style that reproduced the main features of Mughal architecture and went down in annals under the name of the Indo-Saracenic architecture. Several buildings related to this style can still be found in the major cities of India and neighboring Pakistan and Bangladesh. The Indo-Saracenic style was intended to please the local population, both Hindus and Mohammedans, at the same time convincing the two that the British Empire is great2. At this point, different architects were interpreting the heritage of their medieval colleagues to create a new style. Such architects as Bhai Ganga Ram, Bhai Ram Singh, an Englishman Samuel Jacob who worked in Jaipur, Indore, and Bikaner were among the best representatives of the Indo-Saracenic architecture.
A brief overview of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture
This eclectic style integrates the elements of Western medieval Gothic, Islamic, and Hindu architectural styles. The Indo-Saracenic style appeared in the period of strengthening positions of Great Britain in India and resulted from attempts of British architects to create a style aimed to demonstrate the power of the British Empire in the late XIX century3. This style has been part of the British concept of traditional India which was based on the idea that enlightened colonialists are more aware of the cultural identity of the colony4. The style combines smooth arches borrowed from Indian temples with angular and tending upwards of European Gothic. There are plenty of detail, smooth transitions from the dome to the sharp peaks, and ease of unobtrusive designs.
Research focus
In this paper, I will focus on the following three buildings: Madras High Court set of buildings in Chennai, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai, and North Block of the Secretariat Building in New Delhi. It seems especially important to explore the mentioned style of architecture located in different cities. It would promote the comprehensiveness of the research and allow making relevant conclusions. After reading scholarly sources that would be identified later, I consider enlightening the following points: the characteristics of the chosen architecture, the most prominent architects related to it, the attitudes of Indians towards the style, and its connection to the concept of the global architecture. Furthermore, I would look through numerous illustrations related to the topic to create a deep understanding of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture. Thus, analyzing both the reading material and illustrations, I will answer the identified questions and create a well-organized paper that, in turn, would contribute to my increased awareness of Indian architectural style as well as its connection to the global architecture.
Annotated Bibliography
Gupta, Narayani. Of giants and jewelers: The monumental and the miniature in Indias historic landscapes. Thesis Eleven 105 (2011):35-43.
This source focuses on architecture as an Indian heritage offering a new perception of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture instead of regarding it as imperial and hybrid style. It is essential to use the article to consider the chosen Indian architecture in the global context that would contribute to my research by offering several examples and clarifications concerning the topic. Such a clear and detailed representation of materials allows learning the information effectively, hence, I would like to use this source in my research.
Jarzombek, Mark, and Vikramaditya Prakash. A Global History of Architecture. 2nd. New York: Wiley, 2011.
The authors reveal the most important characteristics of the chosen style supporting their views with the evidence. The information presented in the source seems interesting and significant to use in the project due to its clear presentation. I would like to use this source to identify the notion of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture and to analyze its effects on the local population to ensure the project with the qualitative data.
Sen, Siddhartha. Between Dominance, Dependence, Negotiation, and Compromise: European Architecture and Urban Planning Practices in Colonial India. Journal of Planning History 9 (2010): 203231.
The source discusses the impact of Europe on the establishment of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture focusing on various analytical and theoretical frameworks. This source is necessary to create a strong argument that would reflect the core of the style while the analysis of the data that was made by the author can be proved as there is evidence of it being taken from reliable sources. A number of vivid illustrations also contribute to the usefulness of the source.
Sengupta, Indra. A Conservation Code for the Colony: John Marshalls Conservation Manual and Monument Preservation between India and Europe. Archaeologizing Heritage 5 (2013): 21-37.
The article by Sengupta provides insights into the rules of preservation of local buildings. In particular, the author claims that Indo-Saracenic buildings were designed in order to create an illusion of British rule in India. In this regard, the article is beneficial to study the origins and the purpose of the Indo-Saracenic style.
Footnotes
Narayani Gupta, Of giants and jewelers: The monumental and the miniature in Indias historic landscapes, Thesis Eleven 105 (2011): 36.
Siddhartha Sen, Between Dominance, Dependence, Negotiation, and Compromise: European Architecture and Urban Planning Practices in Colonial India, Journal of Planning History 9 (2010): 215.
Indra Sengupta, A Conservation Code for the Colony: John Marshalls Conservation Manual and Monument Preservation between India and Europe, Archaeologizing Heritage 5 (2013): 25.
Mark Jarzombek and Prakash Vikramaditya, A Global History of Architecture, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 2011), 38.
The Blackfoot indigenous people comprise the Kainai, Piikani, and Siksika communities. The traditional residency of the Blackfoot people was in Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada and in the northern parts of Montana in the United States. This indigenous group of people refers to themselves as Niitsitapi, meaning the real people, or Siksikaitsitapi, meaning Blackfoot-speaking real people (OShea et al., 2021). The Black nation was initially nomad hunters and fishermen who operated from the great plains of Alberta, in Canada, to the Yellowstone River, Montana, United States of America. In 2016, the census showed that 22,490 people were identified to have Blackfoot ancestry (OShea et al., 2021). The census report showed that 5,565 people still speak the Blackfoot language and makeup about 98.7% of the total number of people in Alberta.
Pre-colonial Life
The Blackfoot nation lived freely on their lands before the 18th century. They participated in nomadic hunting and sheltered in camps known as the tipis. The social units comprised families with about 10 to 30 shelters, making about 80 to 240 individuals. Each unit was referred to as a band and was headed by a respected leader. The people were organized in communal life, sharing buffalo hunts prepared by the women in the bands (Stevenson et al., 2018). Most hunting was done during the summer and stored for winter, where hunting was minimal. The Blackfoot people believed in a superior being known as Old Man who created all life forms. They participated in celebration activities within the band, and members were allowed to move from one band to another.
Colonial History
The first encounter with the European traders was in the 18th century when they traded horses. Traders from Cree and Assiniboine also supplied them with firearms during the same period. The Blackfoot nation fought with American traders until 1870, which caused the death of about 220 Piikani people. The population of the Blackfoot nation comprised about 20,000 people in 1833 and dropped significantly to about 6,350 after the smallpox pandemic (Stevenson et al., 2018). In 1855 and 1877, the Blackfoot confederacy signed a treaty with the US government and the Canadian government (Stevenson et al., 2018). The Piikani people settled in Montana, while the Kainai and Siksika settled in Alberta, Canada.
Current Situation
Communities of the Blackfoot nation have retained much of their traditional cultures and ways of life. The communities have emphasized education, healing and wellness programs, and essential aspects of their daily lives. Nowadays, the majority of the indigenous communities participate in farming, own ranches, and are business people (OShea et al., 2021). The majority of the people in the indigenous communities face unemployment due to the limited resources in their rural areas. Consequently, the lack of employment opportunities has resulted in the rural-urban migration of people. Additionally, the leadership of the community allowed the extraction of natural gas and other resources over the years.
In the political scene, the people are represented by elected chiefs and council members. Over the years, members of the confederation have achieved victories by being elected into the federal and provincial governments (OShea et al., 2018). This information was obtained from the Red Crow Community College in Alberta, which was opened in 1989. The School had a cultural center that allowed people to learn about the Siksika Blackfoot nation.
Reflection
The knowledge about the Blackfoot has given me a profound understanding of the indigenous community in my area. I have been able to gather new information from internet sources as well as at the cultural center. The Blackfoot community is mainly divided into three central communities, and most of the settlers are in the area around Alberta. What interested me the most was learning about the traditional practices and cultures of the Blackfoot nation. I was surprised to learn that the previous main economic activity was nomadic hunting. The communities valued their festivals and celebrations back then, and they still do that up to date.
Being a nurse, there was a deep interest in knowing the history of medical practices of the Blackfoot people. I was surprised to learn that the communities had a medicine man referred to as Ni-namp-skan. The communities used medicine pipes which were stems that were thought to heal diseases. The medicine man offered prayers, and those who would be in favor of their god would be healed. Disease conditions were believed to be caused by evil spirits, and those healed were considered favored.
Colonization of the Blackfoot indigenous people led to the trading of various products where they acquired horses and firearms. During that period, there was an outbreak of smallpox that caused the death of more than half of the Blackfoot population. Colonization led to treaties where the communities were influenced to sell vast land to the US and the Canadian governments. Colonization led to industrialization that impacted a change in the traditional way of life. To my surprise, colonization had more negative than positive impacts, including erosion of their beautiful culture.
Conclusion
The knowledge of the Blackfoot people has given me an insight into the historical background of my community and some of their cultural practices. I aim to improve patient experiences by being culturally competent while executing my nursing duties. Cultural competence encourages nurses and other healthcare professionals to acknowledge and accept differences in the behavior and culture of their colleagues and patients (Nair & Adetayo, 2019). Additionally, competence ensures care is not provided based on cultural identity. As a nurse, I have learned to appreciate other peoples cultures and always seek their approval before providing nursing care.
